3.

1 Gender Roles in Christianity Gender roles in Christianity can vary considerably today, as they have during the last two millennia.[1] This is especially true with regards to marriage and ministry. Certain Christian traditions ascribe different roles to men and women in certain aspects of church life - as for example in the Catholic and Orthodox churches, where men may serve as priests and women may serve as nuns or sisters, and where women may hold senior positions such as abbess, but not bishop, patriarch or pope. While various conservative Protestant denominations also hold that only men can be ordained as clergy, ordination of women is becoming increasingly common in some Protestant churches. [2]Women have led denominations such as the Salvation Army. Both men and women are recalled as saints within the various Christian traditions: among the women recalled as saints, there have been contemporaries of Jesus, subsequent theologians, abbesses, mystics, doctors of the church, founders of religious orders, military leaders, monarchs and martyrs, evidencing the variety of roles played by women within the life of Christianity. According to the Gospels, Jesus instructed his followers to address God as "Father". Within Catholicism and Orthodoxy, a particular place of veneration is reserved for Mary, the Mother of Jesus, which has kept a model of maternal virtue central to their vision of Christianity. Marian devotion is however, generally not a feature of Protestantism. Christianity emerged from patriarchal societies that placed men in positions of authority in marriage, society and government, but, in various respects, Christ and early Christianity were more inclusive of women. According to the New Testament, Christ appointed only male apostles, but women were active from the beginning as followers of Christ. As devotion to Mary rose in popularity in Catholic Europe through the Middle Ages, so did the warrior code of chivalry which encompassed notions of courtly love and ideals of behavior between warrior males and courtly females. From early centuries, women were not ordained to the priesthood but Christianity developed a monastic tradition which included the institution of the convent, through which women, as religious sisters and nuns, played an important role in church life and have continued through history to be active - particularly in the establishment of schools, hospitals, nursing homes and monastic settlements. Today, gender roles in Christianity are a matter of debate among theologians and secular thinkers alike. Christianity developed as a sect of Judaism in the First Century AD. It therefore inherited the depictions of women already existing within the Hebrew Bible (known to Christians as The Old Testament) and through history, the women of these Jewish texts have been important in the development of Christian theology, art and attitudes to women.[3] In the book of Genesis, Adam and Eve were said to be the first man and the first woman. Adam was created first, and Eve from Adam's rib. Some commentators have suggested that Eve being God's second Creation indicated female inferiority, but in calling Eve "flesh of my flesh" others say a relationship of equality is implied. In a later episode, Eve persuades Adam to join her in eating from forbidden tree of knowledge of good and evil - angering God, who casts them out of the Garden of Eden.[4] These accounts were drawn upon by Christian theologians in the development of the doctrine of Original Sin. Elsewhere, earthy depictions are given of the bearers of the children of Abraham, the Father of Judaism. His Egyptian slave girl Hagar bore Ishmael, while his wife Sarah bore Isaac. Hagar and Ishmael were banished, but with God's promise that Ishmael's descendants would found a great nation (the Arabs). Isaac's descendants meanwhile were to become the Israelites. Others appearing in the texts include Rebekah, the wife of Isaac, who tricked Issac into blessing her second son as heir; Delilah, who brought down the mighty warrior Samson; the Queen of Sheba who was overwhelmed by the splendour of King Soloman's court; and the cursed Jezebel, who conspired with her husband to have an innocent man killed and was in turn killed for her crime. [5] Some women were praised in the books of Ruth and Esther. The book of Ruth is about a young Moabite woman's loyalty to her Jewish mother-in-law and her willingness to move to Israel and become a part of their culture. The story ends with her praise and blessing as she is married to an Israelite and subsequently King David comes from her lineage. In the Book of Esther, a young woman named Esther of Jewish lineage is praised for her bravery as the queen of Persia

who saved many from being killed by her pleas to the king.[6] Beyond generally accepted social standards which are continually shifting, Christianity sets a moral standard, regarding attitudes toward and treatment of women, as was personally exemplified by Jesus.[7] Jesus always showed the greatest esteem and the greatest respect for woman, for every woman, and in particular He was sensitive to female suffering. Going beyond the social and religious barriers of the time, Jesus reestablished woman in her full dignity as a human person before God and before men ... Christs way of acting, the Gospel of his words and deeds, is a consistent protest against whatever offends the dignity of women. John Paul II, "Thoughts on Women Address to Italian Maids," April 1979[8] The New Testament of the Bible refers to a number of women in Jesus' inner circle notably his Mother Mary (for whom the Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodoxy hold a special place of veneration) and St. Mary Magdalene who discovered the empty tomb of Christ. But the Church says that Christ appointed only male Apostles (from the Greek apostello "to send forth").[9] According to the New Testament, Christ saved a woman accused of adultery from an angry mob seeking to punish her, by saying: "He that is without sin among you, let him first cast a stone at her". Among the most famous accounts of Jesus directly dealing with an issue of morality and women is provided by the story Jesus and the woman taken in adultery, from verses 7:53-8:11 of the Gospel of John. The passage describes a confrontation between Jesus and the scribes and Pharisees over whether a woman, caught in an act of adultery, ought to be stoned. Jesus shames the crowd into dispersing, and averts the execution with the famous words: "He that is without sin among you, let him first cast a stone at her". According to the passage, "they which heard it, being convicted by their own conscience, went out one by one, beginning at the eldest, even unto the last", leaving Jesus to turn to the woman and say "go, and sin no more". This passage has been immensely influential in Christian philosophy. Another revealing story contained in the Gospels as to Jesus' own attitude to women is found in the story of Jesus at the house of Martha and Mary. In this story the woman Mary sits at Jesus' feet as he preaches, while her sister toils in the kitchen preparing a meal. When Martha complains to Mary that she should instead be helping in the kitchen, Jesus says that in fact, "Mary has chosen what is better" (Luke 10:38-42, New International Version). From the beginning of the early Christian church, starting with Jesus, women were important members of the movement. The examples of the manner of Jesus reveal his attitudes toward women and show repeatedly how he liberated and affirmed women. Both complementarians and egalitarians see Jesus as treating women with compassion, grace and dignity.[10] The gospels of the New Testament, especially Luke, often mention Jesus speaking to or helping women publicly and openly, contrary to the social norms of the time. He reached out to the marginalized in his society and thus, his appeal was great. Martha's sister Mary sat at Jesus' feet being taught, a privilege reserved for men in Judaism. Jesus had female followers who were his sponsors, [Luke 8:1-3] and he stopped to express concern for the women of Jerusalem on his way to be crucified, [Luke 23:26-31] while Mary Magdalene is recorded to be the first person to have the privilege of seeing Jesus after resurrection, having been charged by Jesus to tell others of what she had seen even though the testimony of a woman was at that time not considered valid. [Mark 16:9] As time went on and the disciples continued to spread Jesus' message by word of mouth, groups of Christians organized within the homes of believers. [11] Those who could offer their home for meetings were considered important within the movement and assumed leadership roles. The historian Geoffrey Blainey wrote that women were more influential during the period of Jesus' brief ministry than they were in the next thousand years of Christianity. Blainey, points to Gospel accounts of Jesus imparting important teachings to women, as with the Samaritan woman at the well, and Mary of Bethany, who rubbed his hair in precious ointment; of Jesus curing sick women and publicly expressing admiration for a poor widow who donated some copper coins to the Temple in Jerusalem, his stepping to the aid of the woman accused of adultery, and to the presence of Mary Magdalene at Jesus' side as he was crucified. Blainey concludes: "as the standing of women was not high in Palestine, Jesus' kindnesses towards

them were not always approved by those who strictly upheld tradition.[12] According to Blainey, women were probably the majority of Christians in the first century after Christ. The First Century Apostle Paul emphasized a faith open to all in his Letter to the Galatians:[13] "There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free, there is neither male nor female, for you are all one in Jesus Christ". The letters of St. Pauldated to the middle of the 1st century ADand his casual greetings to acquaintances offer information about Jewish and Gentile women who were prominent in early Christianity. His letters provide clues about the kind of activities in which women engaged more generally.[14] He commends with great affection to the Roman community Phoebe, a servant of the church at Cenchreae, for she had been the patron of many, including himself.[Rom. 16:1] He greets Priscilla (Prisca), Junia, Julia, and Nereus' sister. [Rom. 16:3,7,15] When he refers to Priscilla and Aquila, Priscilla is usually listed first, suggesting to some scholars that she was the head of the family unit.[15] Paul writes that Priscilla and her husband risked their lives to save his life.[Rom 16:3-5] He praises Junia (or Junias) as "prominent among the apostles" (NRSV) or "well known to the apostles" (ESV), who had been imprisoned for their labor. Some theologians understand the name to be that of a woman, suggesting that Paul[16] recognised female apostles in the Church.[Rom 16:7] Mary and Persis are commended for their hard work.[Rom. 16:6,12] Euodia and Syntyche are called his fellow-workers in the gospel.[Phil. 4:2-3] Some theologians believe that these biblical reports provide evidence of women leaders active in the earliest work of spreading the Christian message,[17] while others reject that understanding.[16] The evidence also indicates that these women "ministered" in supporting roles of the church much as the women who followed Christ supported his ministry. From the very beginning of the early Christian church, women were important members of the movement, although some complain that much of the information in the New Testament on the work of women has been overlooked. Some also argue that many assumed that it had been a "man's church" because sources of information stemming from the New Testament church were written and interpreted by men. Recently, scholars have begun looking in mosaics, frescoes, and inscriptions of that period for information about women's roles in the early church.[18] The historian Geoffrey Blainey wrote that the early Christian texts refer to various women activists in the early church. One such woman was St. Priscilla, a Jewish missionary from Rome, who may have helped found the Christian community at Corinth. She traveled as a missionary with her husband and St Paul, and tutored the Jewish intellectual Apollos. Others include the four daughters of Philip the Evangelist, from Caesarea, Palestine, who were said to be prophets and to have hosted St Paul in their home. From the early patristic age, the offices of teacher and sacramental minister were reserved for men throughout most of the church in the East and West. Tertullian, the 2nd century Latin father, wrote that "It is not permitted to a woman to speak in church. Neither may she teach, baptize, offer, nor claim for herself any function proper to a man, least of all the sacerdotal office" ("On the Veiling of Virgins"). Origen (AD 185-254) stated that, Even if it is granted to a woman to show the sign of prophecy, she is nevertheless not permitted to speak in an assembly. When Miriam the prophetess spoke, she was leading a choir of women ... For [as Paul declares] "I do not permit a woman to teach," and even less "to tell a man what to do."[19] Christian historian Philip Schaff records early church fathers of the 3rd and 4th centuries as teaching regarding 1 Cor. 14:34-35: From the early patristic age, the offices of teacher and sacramental minister

were reserved for men throughout most of the church in the East and West.[20] Tertullian, second century Latin prelate, wrote that "It is not permitted to a woman to speak in church. Neither may she teach, baptize, offer, nor claim for herself any function proper to a man, least of all the sacerdotal office." "On the Veiling of Virgins" In early centuries, the Eastern church allowed women to participate to a limited extent in ecclesiastical office by ordaining deaconesses. Women commemorated as saints from the early centuries of Christianity include several martyrs who suffered under the Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire, such as Agnes of Rome, Saint Cecilia, Agatha of Sicily and Blandina. In late Antiquity, Saint Helena was a Christian and consort of Emperor Constantius, and the mother of Emperor Constantine I. As such her role in history is of great significance as her son Constantine legalized Christianity across the Roman Empire, and became a convert himself - ending centuries of mistreatment of Christians and altering the course of world history. Similarly, Saint Monica was a pious Christian and mother of Saint Augustine of Hippo, who after a wayward youth, converted to Christianity and became one of the most influential Christian Theologians of all history. In the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Church, the priesthood and the ministries dependent upon it such as Bishop, Patriarch and Pope, were restricted to men. The first Council of Orange (441) forbade the ordination of women to the diaconate.[21] As Western Europe transitioned from the Classical to Medieval Age, the male hierarchy with the Pope as its summit became a central player in European politics, however many women leaders also emerged at various levels within the Church. Mysticism flourished and monastic convents and communities of Catholic women became powerful institutions within Europe. Marian devotion blossomed, setting a model of maternal virtue at the heart of Western civilization. With the establishment of Christian monasticism, other influential roles became available to women. From the 5th century onward, Christian convents provided opportunities for some women to escape the path of marriage and child-rearing, acquire literacy and learning, and play a more active religious role. In the later Middle Ages women such as Saint Catherine of Siena and Saint Teresa of Avila, played significant roles in the development of theological ideas and discussion within the church, and were later declared Doctors of the Roman Catholic Church. The Belgian nun, St Juliana of Lige (1193-1252), proposed the Feast of Corpus Christi, celebrating the body of Christ in the Eucharist, which became a major feast throughout the Church. In the important Franciscan movement of the thirteenth century, a significant part was played by religious women like St. Clare of Assisi. Arguably the most famous female Catholic Saint of the period is St. Joan of Arc who took up a sword and achieved military victories for France, before being captured and tried as a "witch and heretic", after which she was burned at the stake. A papal inquiry later declared the trial illegal. A hero to the French, sympathy grew for Joan even in England and in 1909 she was canonized a saint.[22] The historian Geoffrey Blainey, writes that women were more prominent in the life of the Church during the Middle Ages than at any previous time in its history, with a number of church reforms initiated by women. In the 13th Century, authors began to write of a mythical female pope - Pope Joan - who managed to disguise her gender until giving birth during a procession in Rome.[23] Blainey cites the ever growing veneration of the Virgin Mary and Mary Magdalene as evidence of a high standing for female Christians at that time. The Virgin Mary, was conferred such titles as Mother of God and Queen of Heaven and, in 863, her feast day, the "Feast of Our Lady", was declared equal in importance to those of Easter and Christmas. Mary Magdalene's Feast Day was celebrated in earnest from the 8th century on and composite portraits of her were built up from Gospel references to other women Jesus met.

[1] Robert Alter, The Art of Biblical Narrative. (New york: Basic Books, 1981), 78. [2] www.wikipedia.org/wiki/women in History [Accessed 08-09-2012]. [3] Raymond E. Brown, Roles of Women in the Fourth Gospel, TS 36:688-99. Available on Line @ www.mammals.com/mam/roles of women [Accessed 05-08-2012]. [4] Regis Debray, The Old Testament Through 100 Masterpieces of Art (London: Merrill Publishers and Co., 2003), 45. [5] Ibid., 50. [6] The Bible , Book of Ruth and Book of Esther [7] Gilbert Bilezikian, Beyond Sex Roles (2nd ed.) Grand Rapids, Michigian: Baker, 1989), 38. [8] http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women [Accessed 05-12-2012]. [9] http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01626c.htm [Accessed 05-12-2012]. [10] Gilbert Bilezikian, Op Cited., 40. [11] Magret MacDonald, Reading Real Women Through Undisputed Letters of Paul in Women and Christian Origins, ed. By Ross Sheppard Kraemer and Mary Rose DAngelo (Oxford University Press, 1999), 204. [12] Geoffrey Blainey, A very Short History of the World (Pengium Books, 2004), 59. [13] Ibid., 60. [14] http://www.pbs.rg/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/first/mission.html#letters of Paul. Available on line @ www.wikipedia.org/wiki/letters of Paul [Accessed 04-12-2012]. [15]P.J Achtenmeier, HarperCollins Bible Dictionary (revised ed). (HarperCollins, 1996), 828.

[16] Daniel B. Wallace, Op Cited., 98. [17] Women Roles in the Early Church. Christiantinktank.com. Retrieved 2010-11-19. Available @ www.Google.com.ng/womens Roles in the Early Church [Accessed 09-12-2012]. [18] Barbara J. MacHaffie, Her Story: women in Christian Tradition (Fortress Press, 2006), 49. [19] Origen, Fragmenta ex commentariis in epistulami and Corinthios Available On Line @ www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origen on Women [Accessed 06-12-2012]. [20] William Weinrich, Women in the History of the Church, in John Piper and Wayne Grudem (eds), Recovering Biblical Manhood and Womanhood, cross way, (Grand Rapids: MI, 1991), 199. [21] Ibid., 200. [22]http://www.newadvent.org/catcthen/08409c.htm Available also @ www.mammals.com/mam/women in History [Accessed 10-12-2012]. [23] Geoffrey Blainey, Op Cited., 110.