c) Maintaining the concentration of blood. d) Maintaining the body temperature. 5.

Water is lost through breathing, in the form of urine and through perspiring (we may die if we lose as much as 20% of the water in our blood.) Food Tests Aim (a) To test for starch Method Add a few drops of iodine solution Observation Yellow -> dark blue

(b) To test for glucose

Pour the glucose solution into a test tube and add the same amount of benedicts solution. Heat the misture in a beaker of boiling water Pour a little albumen solution into a test tube and a few drops of millions reagent. Heat the mixture in a beaker of boiling water Place a drop of oil or fat on a piece of filter paper and dry over a flame

Blue -> brick red precipitate

(c) To test for protein

White -> brick red precipitate

(d) To test for fat

Greasy spot left

2.2 Importance of A Balanced Diet

2.2.1 A Balanced Diet 1. A balanced diet contains 7 classes of food in the right amount. 2. A balanced diet: - Provides energy for work and movement, and maintains the body temperature - Provides building materials needed to grow new cells and tissues. - Enables the repair of damaged tissues. - Is important in maintaining body functions. - Helps fight diseases 3. A balanced diet is determined by: (a) Age - A child requires more carbohydrate and protein ( more energy and body-building materials.) (b) Sex - Males need more energy than females. - Males have less fatty tissues. Therefore, heat loss is faster in males. (c) Body size - Bigger body = more energy needed (d) Physical activity and occupation - Athletes need more protein for building muscles and instant energy (e) State of health - Ill person needs more energy to overcome infections, maintaining the body temperature and repairing damaged cells and tissues. - Pregnant woman needs more iron and calcium ( blood and bones) - Diabetes should reduce sugar and fat intake. - High blood pressure should avoid food that is salty and fatty (f) Climate 4. Babies = More protein, calcium and phosphorus ( most nutrients are from mothers milk) 5. Children = calcium + phosphorus ( teeth and bones), minerals + vitamins ( prevent disease) 6. Adults = Protein ( repair tissues), carbohydrates 7. 1 calorie = 4.2 joules

Insufficient carbohydrates

Insufficient protein Insufficient fibre Too much salt Too much fat

-Will not be energetic -tired -weak -kwashiorkor -constipation -cancer of intestines -high blood pressure -heart disease -obesity

Human Digestive System

1. Digestion is the process of breaking down large and complex food substances into smaller, simpler molecules. These molecules are soluble and can be absorbed by body cells. 2. Digestive system consists of alimentary canal (gut), salivary glands, liver, gall bladder and pancreas.

3. There are two types of digestion: (a) Physical digestion = breaking down of large pieces of food into smaller pieces using teeth and churning actions of the alimentary canal (b) Chemical digestions = breaking down of complex food molecules into small soluble molecules by digestive enzymes 4. Enzymes are proteins that speed up the biochemical reactions in cells. 5. End products of digestion: (a) carbohydrates -> glucose (b) proteins -> amino acids (c) fats -> fatty acids and glycerol Mouth chew and grinds food using the teeth digests cooked starch. The amylase enzymes in the saliva change cooked starch to maltose. The salivary glands secrete saliva which contains an enzyme called amylase. Amylase digests starch and convert it to maltose (a type of sugar) bolus-shaped food is moved from the mouth to the stomach along the oesophagus by wave-like muscular contractions called peristalsis. holds food, secretes gastric juices which begin the digestion of protein secretes acids contains hydrochloric acid which kill the bacteria in food. receives bile from the liver and pancreatic juice from the pancreas. Digestion and absorption of food.

Oesophagus

Stomach

Duodenum

small intestine large intestine Rectum Anus

secretes intestinal juice which completes the digestion of protein, carbohydrates and fat. Absorbs end products of digestion into the blood absorption of most of the remaining water and minerals. stores faeces removes faeces through defecation

6. Flow of food particles in the alimentary canal: Mouth -> Oesophagus -> Stomach -> Small intestine -> Large intestine -> Rectum -> Anus 7 a. mouth i. Digestion begins in the mouth. ii. The teeth chew and grind food into smaller particles. iii. the salivary glands secrete glands secrete saliva which contains an enzyme called amylase. iv. Amylase digests starch and converts it to maltose, a type of sugar. v. The wave-like contractions of the oesophagus muscles are known as peristalsis b. stomach i. in the stomach, food is mixed with gastric juices. Gastric glands in the stomach wall. ii. Gastric juices contains hydrochloric acid and enzymes (rennin and pepsin) . iii. The functions of hydrochloric acid include: a. Hydrochloric acid stops the action of the enzymes in saliva. b. It also kills bacteria in food. iv. Enzymes in the gastric juices start the digestion of protein. Example: a. pepsin digests protein into peptones. Protein -> pepsin -> peptones b. Rennin coagulates milk in the stomach to help in the enzymic action of pepsin. Liquid milk proteins -> rennin -> solid milk proteins v. Partially digested food is then released into the duodenum. c. small intestine i. The duodenum is the first parts of the small intestine. ii. The duodenum receives bile and pancreatic juice. (bile is stored in the gall bladder) iii. The function of bile: a. Emulsifications of fat i.e. breaking up large fatty globules into small droplets for enzymic action. b. Preparation of an alkaline medium for enzymic action. iv. The pancreatic amylase digests starch into maltose. v. The protease digests protein/peptones into amino acids. vi. The lipase digests fat into fatty acid and glycerol. vii. The small intestine (ileum) produces enzymes which digest maltose into glucose (simple sugar) viii. Digestion is completed in the small intestine. ix. The digested food is then ready to be absorbed through the thin walls of the small intestine into the bloodstream.

Absorption of the products of digestion

1. Absorption is the process when the end products of digestion enters the bloodstream through the small intestinal walls 2. The inner surface of the small intestine (6 metres long) covered with millions of small projections about 1mm long. These projections are called villi 3. Food that has been digested into its most simple form is absorbed by the villi on the small intestinal walls into the bloodstream. 4. The efficiency of absorption of digested food at the small intestine can be increased by: a. more villus to increase surface area b. villus with very thin walls 5. Each villus has a network of a blood capillaries and a lacteal. 6. Glucose, amino acids, minerals and water-solube vitamins are absorbed into the blood capillaries. 7. Fatty acids, glycerol and fat-soluble vitamins (vitamin A, D, E and K) are absorbed into the lacteal.

Reabsorption of Water and Defecation

1. Undigested food passes into the large intestine from the small intestine. 2. Undigested food: water + undigested matter )(fibre, cellulose, mucus) 3.Water is reabsorbed together with dissolved minerals and vitamins. ( in the large intestine) 4. Materials left behind = faeces ( mostly fibre) 5. Faeces is stored in the rectum temporally before it is removed through the anus by defecation. 6. Fibre helps smoothening the movement of food along the alimentary banal. Lack of fibre = constipation

Healthy eating Habits

i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. Eating balanced diet Eating a variety of food Eating in moderation Eating at regular times Eating nutritious food Reduce the intake of salt, sugar and fat

BIODIVERSITY
1. Biodiversity is the variety of different kinds of living organisms. 2. The place where organisms live is habitat 3. Classification is the scientific method of organizing living organisms into groups.

Classification of animals
1. Animals can be classified into two big groups: a. Animals with backbones. (vertebrates) b. Animals without backbones. (invertebrates)

Invertebrates
1. Invertebrates are animals which do not have backbones. 2. Generally, invertebrates can be classified into two groups, that is (a) with jointed legs - Have segmented bodies - Have hard skin ( exoskeleton ) - Have differing number of legs (b) without jointed legs - Worm-like & non-worm-like - Some Worm-like have segmented bodies ( earth worm, leeches) - Some Non-worm-like have shells

Classification of Plants Flowering Plants:

Non-flowering Plants

Importance of Biodiversity
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Sources of food Source of material Source of medicine Clean water Air to breathe

INTERPENDENCE AMONG LIVING ORGANISM AND ENVIRONMENT

Species Habitat Population Community Ecosystem A species is a group of organisms that have the same shape and structure, and capable of breeding among themselves Habitats is a natural living place where a particular species lives and grows A population is a collection of organisms of the same species inhabiting in a habitat A community consists of several types of animal and plant populations that interact with one another in a same environment An ecosystem is made up of all communities that interact with one another and with their habitats and the materials such as air, water and mineral salts. ( made up of living and non-living components.)

Type of interaction Prey-Predator

Characteristic (i) The eaten is the prey, the one who eats is the predator (ii) Predator: - Carnivore - Stereoscopic vision (iii) Prey - Monocular vision - Lives in groups - Good hearing (i) Two or more organisms, population, or species that need the same resources (ii) The stronger one will win (iii) Competition occurs to restrict the population of a certain organisms in order to maintain a balanced ecosystem (iv) Two Types: - Intraspecies competition - Interspecies competition (i) Mutualism ( +, + ) - Both organisms benefit

Examples Lion zebra Frogs grasshoppers Owls mice

Competition

Bitter gourd competes for sunlight Two male tigers fight to mate with a tigress

Symbiosis

Hermit crab Sea anemone Lichen ( algae produce

food, fungus provide shelter) Sea anemone clown fish (ii) Parasitism ( +,- ) - Parasite benefits, host suffers - Parasite lives inside or outside the host Ticks, fleaces, lice skin or mammals ( blood ) Round worms, tapeworms Inestines of humans Remora fishes shark Bird nest ferns - trees

(iii) Commensalism ( +,0 ) - The commensal benefits, the host got nothing

Biological Control
1. Biological control is a method in which a predator, which is a natural enemy to a certain pest ( biological control agents), is used to control the population of that pest in an area. 2. Biological control has many advantages as compared to using pesticides. a. does not pollute the environment b. does not kill other pests because natural enemies are used c. is cheap and safe to use. 3. The predator-prey interaction is applied in biological control

Food Webs

1. Producers are all green plants that make food through photosynthesis. 2. Consumers are animals that eat plants or other animals. 3. Decomposers are organisms that decompose dead organisms (animals or plants) and change them into simple substances. Examples of decomposers are bacteria and fungi. 4. A food chain is an energy link showing how energy in food is passed from plants (producers) to animals (consumers).

Photosynthesis
1. Photosynthesis is a process that occurs in green plants, in which food is made from water and carbon dioxide in the presence of chlorophyll and sunlight.

2. Equation for photosynthesis:

3. The glucose produced is brought to other parts of the plant to be (a) oxidised through the process of respiration to provide energy. (b) stored as starch, if in excess.

Aim: To test the presence of starch in leafs Observation: The leaf becomes dark blue when tested with iodine solution. Discussion: 1. The leaf pieces are boiled in water to kill the cells and break the cell walls. 2. The leaf pieces are boiled in alcohol to remove chlorophyll. 3. The leaf pieces are soaked in hot water to soften them. 4. Plants store food in the form of starch in leaves. Conclusion: Starch is a product of photosynthesis. It can be tested with iodine solution.

Observation: A leaf is plucked for starch test. A: dark blue ( starch ) B: no change ( no starch ) Conclusion: Carbon dioxide is needed in photosynthesis

Observation: A leaf is plucked for starch test A: dark blue (starch) B: no change ( no starch ) C: dark blue ( starch ) Conclusion: Sunlight is needed for photosynthesis

Test with iodine

Observation: White area ( no change, no starch ) Green area ( turns dark blue, starch ) Conclusion: Chlorophyll is needed for photosynthesis The importance and role of photosynthesis are : (a) supplies food to animals (b) removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (c) enables green plants to make theor own food (d) regulates and maintains carbon dioxide content in the atmosphere (e) increase oxygen content in the atmosphere; this gas is used by organisms for respiration as well as in the processes of combustion, rusting and decomposition

WATER AND SOLUTIONS

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER 1. Water is a colourless, odourless and tasteless liquid. 2. Water exists in three states, which are solid (ice), liquid (water) and gas (steam).

3. Impurities in water can affect the freezing and boiling point of water 4. The relationship between the freezing and boiling points of water and the Kinetic Theory (a) When water is cooled, the particles lose kinetic energy (heat is released). The particles move more slowly. (b)At freezing point, liquid particles cannot move freely anymore. (c)Liquid particles are pulled together by strong forces of attraction between particles. (d)This is why solid particles cannot move freely. A liquid changes into a solid at freezing point.

Water evaporation 1. Water evaporation is a process in which liquid is slowly lost from surface of the liquid in the form of water vapour into atmosphere. 2. Evaporation occurs at any temperature and at any time. 3. When water evaporates, its changes into gas called water vapour. 4. The amount of water vapour in the air is called its humidity. 5. The rate of water evaporation is influenced by a few factors and can be explained using the Kinetic Theory . 6. The factors that affect the rate of evaporation of water are: a. surface area b. temperature

c. humidity d. air movement

Solvent, solute and solution

1. A dilute solution is a solution that has very little solute. 2. A concentrated solution is a solution that has a lot of solute. 3. A saturated solution is a solution that has the maximum amount of solute. A saturated solution cannot dissolve any additional solute that is added to it. 4. A suspension is a liquid that has small particles in it. The small particles are known as suspended substances. 5. The suspended substances do not dissolve in water. 6. . The solubility is the maximum amount of a solute which can dissolve in a given amount of solvent at a fixed temperature. 7. A few factors affecting solubility of a solute are: a. The nature of the solvent. b. The nature of the solute. c. The temperature. 8. Water is the universal solvent. 9. A non-aqueous solvent or organic solvent is used to dissolve substances that are insoluble in water. Acids and Alkalis Acids 1. Acids can be divided into two groups organic acids and inorganic acids (mineral acids). 2. Acids exist in three states which are: a. solid for examples, tartaric acid b. liquid for examples, ethanoic acid (acetic acid) 3. Acids have the following properties:

a. Taste sour b. Are corrosive c. Change blue litmus paper to red d. Have pH values of less than 7 e. React with carbonates to release carbon dioxide and form salt and water. 4.Acid is a chemical substance that releases hydrogen ion when dissolved in water Alkali 1. Alkali is a substance that releases hydroxide ion when dissolved in water 2.Alkalis have the following properties: 1. taste bitter 2. feel slippery like soap when touched with the fingers 3. are corrosive 4. change red litmus paper to blue 5. have pH values of more than 7 6. react with ammonium salts to release ammonia when heated. 7. react with acids to form salt and water (neutralisation process)

orange

purple

(green)

Neutralisation 1. acid + alkali -> salt + water 2. Can be done using Titration 3. (a) Hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide -> sodium chloride + water (b) Hydrochloric acid + potassium hydroxide -> potassium chloride + water (c) Hydrochloric acid + calcium hydroxide -> Calcium chloride + water (d) Sulphuric acid + sodium hydroxide -> sodium sulphate + water (e) Nitric acid + potassium hydroxide -> potassium chloride + water Purification of water 1.(a) Boiling (b) Filtration (c) Chlorination (d) Distillation (e) Ultraviolet (f) Ozone treatment 2. Water treatment plant

AIR PRESSURE

1. Air has mass. Therefore air has weight. 2. Air has particles that are continually moving and colliding with things on Earth. These collisions produce air pressure. 3. The features of air pressure are : (a) acts in all direction (b) changes from one place to another (c) decreases the higher you go above ground level. This feature exists because at high place, the amount on air decreases.

DYNAMICS
Forces 1. Forces are push and pull acting upon an object 2.(a) Gravitational force (b) Magnetic force (c) Electrostatic force (d) Frictional force Work(J) = Force (N) X Distance (m) Power (W) = Work (J) Time (seconds)

SUPPORT AND MOVEMENT

Endoskeleton or Internal Skeleton 1. All vertebrates have internal skeleton. 2. The skeletal system/endoskeleton consists of bones and cartilages. 3. However, some fish such as sharks and rays, have an endoskeleton made of cartilage (cartilage is a strong flexible material that is also in our nose and ears). 4. Functions of an endoskeleton (a) Support body weight (b) Protect our soft internal organs (c) Maintain the animals body shape (d) Point of attachment for muscles (e) Produce blood cells (bone marrow) Land Vertebrates 1. Supported by endoskeleton: - i. axial skeleton (skull, rib cage and back bone) - ii. appendicular skeleton (pectoral girdles, upper limbs and pelvic girdles, lower limbs) 2. Big sized vertebrates need strong and bigger pectoral and pelvic girdles 3. Smaller land vertebrates have strong but smaller bones or hollow bones (birds) to move faster

Aquatic Vertebrates 1. Have smaller and lighter endoskeletons. 2. Most of their body weight is supported by buoyancy of water 3. Their pelvic girdles are very small or non-existent Exoskeleton/External Skeleton 1. Hard bodied invertebrates = exoskeleton ( made up of calcium carbonate) 2. Covering of some insects is cuticles ( made up of chitin, waterproof to prevent water loss ) 3. Function of exoskeleton: (a) Maintain the rigidity and body shape (b) Surface for muscle attachment (c) Allow the movement through relaxation and contraction of muscles (d) Prevent water loss Hydrostatic Skeleton 1. Consists of fluid filled cavities which is surrounded by muscular wall. 2. Contraction of the muscular wall creates a fluid pressure that force the fluid in any direction resulting in movement. 3. Found in soft bodied invertebrates/aquatic invertebrates Support System in Land Plants ( Terrestrials Plants ) 1. Plants = woody plants, non-woody plants. 2. Woody plants = supported by woody tissues, formed in rings of the stem or trunk. 3. Non-woody plants (herbaceous plants) - Supported by turgidity ( the water in the plant cell press against the cell walls, making the cell firm and rigid ) or turgor pressure of the plant cells. 4. Additional support structures: (a) Prop roots ( maize ) (b) Stilt roots (Mangrove) (c) Buttress roots (d) Clasping roots (orchid) (e) Thorns & Prickles (f) Tendrils (g) Twining Stem Support system in Aquatic Plants 1. They are supported by buoyancy of water 2. There are air sacs in their stem, stalks or leaves ( makes them light and able to float )

STABILITY
1. Point of equilibrium (centre of gravity) = point at which the weight of an object is considered to act on. 2. Stability = ability of an object to return to their original positions after being slightly tilted or displaced. 3. Factors affecting stability: (a) Height/position of the centre of gravity (b) Weight of the object (c) Base area of the object

SIMPLE MACHINES

1. Moments of force = Force X Perpendicular distance from the pivot to the force (m) 2. Equilibrium = Load x distance = effort x distance of effort from the fulcrum