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slip angle α
cornering stiffness V
aligning torque
pneumatic trail Inner pressure
peak lateral force Performance
temperature
coefficient Service
wet/dry
braking force conditions
coefficient
Tyre
size characteristics carcass
Dimension ply-type
aspect ratio
Construction compound
belt
Aging
wear after normal use
wear-in
0 5 10 15 (deg)
Relation:Tyre Characteristics Driver-
Vehicle Handling is not straightforward
Many different tyre parameters
There is a lot between tyre characteristics and
vehicle performance…
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Relation:Tyre Characteristics Driver-
Vehicle Handling is not straightforward
Many different tyre parameters
There is a lot between tyre characteristics and
vehicle handling…
Vehicle handling performance needs to be
‘translated’ into tyre characteristics
What is good driver-vehicle handling?
– Subjective (depends on person, brand of vehicle, etc. )
– Depends on drivers mental workload and control effort
How to judge driver-vehicle handling?
different assessment methods
Assessment Methods to judge
(Driver-)Vehicle Handling (1)
e t es t ing
Re al li f
Objective vehicle tests
– Driver = steering machine
– characteristic data (e.g., response times, overshoot,
bandwidth,..)
Subjective rating
– Controllability, steerability, etc.
– Questions, statements: agree/disagree
Closed loop achievement
– Driver must perform task as best as he can
– Circuit, (double) lane change on max. speed, elk-test, slalom
on max. speed, etc.
Assessment Methods to judge
(Driver-)Vehicle Handling (2)
e t es t ing
Re al li f
Workload measures
– Driver performs a certain task (manoeuvre, sec. task)
– Steering Reversal Rate, High Frequency Area, Time to Line
Crossing
Combined primary and secondary task performance
– Driver performs primary and secondary task (improve task)
– Performance on primary and/or secondary task
Restriction of driver input
– limited vision (glasses), driver decides for opening/closing
– task performance and frequency of opening/closing
Physiological output
– Muscle tension, blood pressure, heart rate variability
Assessment Methods to judge
(Driver-)Vehicle Handling (3)
t es t in g
Virtual
= Simulating vehicle behaviour according to
the procedures as prescribed in test
protocols driver
models
– open loop: vehicle + tyres
– closed loop: vehicle + tyres + driver
Advantage: optimisation of vehicle + tyres
behaviour before the vehicle is built
Used by vehicle manufacturers and by
automotive suppliers
Driver Modelling
In objective tests: driver = “steering machine”
In subjective test: driver = “black box”
steering
road control
conditions vehicle
driver
required throttle
trajectory brake
vibrations, noise,…
Open-loop system
Closed-loop system
Human behaviour and driving tasks
SRK-model for human behaviour
(Rasmussen)
steering
road control
conditions vehicle
driver
required throttle
trajectory brake
vibrations, noise,…
also?
deviation from path, in orientation,
following time, distance,..
modelled with
linear differential equations
Model the Human Controller
Describing functions (= approximate
transfer functions) of human performance
using “control language”
Can you model human performance by
linear models? non-linear
– Thresholds
– Detect and remember patterns
– Learn and adapt
Yes, with a quasi-linear model and with
– Stationary tracking task by highly trained
controllers
– Unpredictable input
Quasi-Linear Model of the Human Controller
boredom, loss of
situation awareness overloaded
and reduced alertness
YH
neuromuscular
lag
Simulation study
Will the driver adapt his parameters for
different tyres?
Path tracking
th
pa
Simulation study models
Optimisation of driver controller gains
Based on minimisation of cost function:
= steer speed
=d(steer angle)/dt
Parameters:
– Preview time = 1.5s
– Weight = 1 Current defined path
200
– V = 25m/s
– Path:
y
100
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
x
Different tyre characteristics:
cornering stiffness
Simulation with two virtual drivers
Driver controller gains are optimised
(based on cost function) for reference tyre
characteristic (= reference driver gains)
10
0.6
5
0.4
steer speed(deg/s)
lateral current error (m)
0.2
0
-5
-0.2
-10
-0.4
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Cornering time(s)
stiffness 80%
-0.6 Cornering stiffness 90%
Cornering stiffness 100% (reference)
Cornering stiffness 110%
Cornering stiffness 120%
-0.8
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
time(s)
Errors adaptive driver
lateral current error versus time steer speed versus time
0.8
10
0.6
5
0.4
steer speed(deg/s)
lateral current error (m)
0.2
0
-5
-0.2
-10
-0.4
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Cornering time(s)
stiffness 80%
-0.6 Cornering stiffness 90%
Cornering stiffness 100% (reference)
Cornering stiffness 110%
Cornering stiffness 120%
-0.8
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
time(s)
Results non adaptive driver
Human controller gains versus
different tyre characterisitics Cost function for different tyre characteristics
140% Preview path error 350%
sqr(current path error)
gain (%)
130% weight*sqr(steer workload)
Preview orientation 300%
error gain (%)
120%
250%
110%
200%
0.044 100%
0.66
J
150%
90%
80% 100%
70% 50%
60%
0%
80% 90% 100% 110% 120% 80% 90% 100% 110% 120%
Cornering stiffness Cornering stiffness
Results adaptive driver
Human controller gains versus
different tyre characterisitics Cost function for different tyre characteristics
Preview path error
140% 350%
gain (%) sqr(current path error)
Preview orientation
130% error gain (%) weight*sqr(steer workload)
300%
120%
250%
110%
0.044 100%
200%
0.66
J
90% 150%
80% 100%
70%
50%
60%
80% 90% 100% 110% 120% 0%
Cornering stiffness 80% 90% 100% 110% 120%
Cornering stiffness
Objectives experiments
More Understanding on Subjective Evaluation
1. Correlation between objective criteria and
subjective evaluation
2. Experimental derived workload measures
(control effort, mental workload)
3. Evaluation of driver model parameters
accounting for subjective evaluation
Also
– New test vehicle
– Testing of driver measurements
Experiments
Same tests are performed with different
tyres
– keeping driver, vehicle and environment as
constant as possible differences related
to the tyres
– keeping tyres, vehicle and environment as
constant as possible differences related
to the driver
Experiments: Set Up
Test vehicle + measurements
– Vehicle dynamics (x,y,z: velocities,
accelerations, angles, angl.vel.,)
– Steering wheel (steering angle,
steering angle velocity, moment)
Measured
Yaw overshoot
Predictability
Yaw delay
Steering angle
Grip
Controllability
Overall judgment
Comment
Test week impression
Results Overall Judgement
Influence Tyres on Evaluation Aspects
– +
Yaw delay Steering precision
Stability while
cornering (no throttle
change)
Grip
Steering angle
Correlation Objective Measurements
with Subjective Evaluation
FC = ∫ (ε ) .dt + wδ .∫ δ .dt
2
() 2