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Original Paper ___________________________________________________________ Forma, 21, 518, 2006

HyplanePolyhedral Models of Hyperbolic Plane
Kazushi AHARA
Department of Mathematics School of Science and Technology, Meiji University,
1-1-1 Higashi-mita, Tama-ku, Kawasaki-shi, Kanagawa 214-8571, Japan
E-mail address: ahara@math.meiji.ac.jp
(Received January 31, 2005; Accepted August 18, 2005)
Keywords: Polyhedral Model, Hyperbolic Plane, Irregular Tiling
Abstract. In this article we introduce a new category of polyhedra, called Hyplane.
Hyplane is a polyhedral analogue of the hyperbolic plane in R
3
. This consists of faces of
the same triangles, and looks like a horse saddle shape everywhere.
1. Introduction
In this article, we introduce a new category of polyhedra and we call them Hyplane.
One of the most remarkable distinctive features of hyplane is that all faces are congruent
triangles and that it is an analogue of hyperbolic plane in R
3
. See Fig. 1. This is an example
of hyplane. We know that this polyhedron has a horse saddle shape locally. All faces of this
fragmented polyhedron are congruent to each other.
If we consider an immersion of the hyperbolic plane into R
3
, it looks like a horse saddle
locally. Such surfaces are called a K = 1 surface (or a negative constant Gauss curvature
surface) and researchers of differential geometry and integrable systems are much interested
in them. (About the definition of hyperbolic plane, see WEEKS (2001). Also see GRAY
(1998), GPS PROJECT (1998), and INOGUCHI et al. (2005)) Here we remark that K = 1
surfaces are different from hyperboloid, which is a surface of revolution obtained by
rotating a hyperbola. Hyplane is a polyhedral analogue of K = 1 surface in R
3
.
The first hint of hyplane was in an exercise of a textbook of WEEKS (2001). The
exercise is: Using many copies of the regular triangle, make a polyhedron such that there
are just seven faces for each vertex. After various consideration we have new type of
polyhedra such that faces are isosceles triangles with 63, 63, 54 degrees. Later we call it
a (6,6,7)-hyplane. In 2000, the author developed a software named Hyplane (AHARA, 1999)
where we could see this new polyhedron on a screen. Around 2002, the author originated
mathematical definition of hyplane. Now it is known that hyplane is determined from a set
of three positive integers, that hyplane is correspondent with a tiling of hyperbolic
triangles, and that hyplane has subdivisional version (AHARA, 2004).
6 K. AHARA
2. Definition of Hyplane
In this section we give the definition of hyplane. Let (a, b, c) be a triad of positive
integers with the following two conditions (C1), (C2):
C1 ( ) + + <
1 1 1 1
2 a b c
.
(C2) If a is odd then b = c. If b is odd then c = a. If c is odd then a = b.
We remark that there are infinite numbers of such triad. Let ABC be defined by

+ +

+ +

+ +
( ) A
bc
bc ca ab
B
ca
bc ca ab
C
ab
bc ca ab

, , . 1
Under this assumption, (a, b, c)-hyplane is a polyhedron with the following three
conditions (H1), (H2), and (H3):
(H1) All faces are congruent to ABC.
(H2) Any two of faces side by side are mapped to each other by a rotation of the side.
(H3) There are a faces meeting together at each vertex corresponding to A. In the
same way, there are b faces at vertex B, and there c faces at vertex C.
The simplest example is (7,7,7) hyplane. From the above formula (1), ABC is the
regular triangle. From the condition (H3), there are seven faces at each vertex. This is just
the same as in the exercise of Weeks Textbook.
The polyhedron in Fig. 1 is an example of (6,6,7) hyplane. From the above formula (1),
we have A = B = 7/20 = 63, and C = 3/10 = 54. For each vertex, there are 6 of 63
or 7 of 54. In general, from the formula (1) we have the following:
Fig. 1. An example of hyplane.
HyplanePolyhedral Models of Hyperbolic Plane 7
(H4) The angle sum at each vertex is constant.
This is one of the important features of hyplane.
3. Omusubi-type and Chimaki-type
There are many configurations of hyplane. So it is an interesting problem to find out
hyplanes with certain symmetry. In case (6,6,7) and (7,7,7) hyplane, we can construct
Omusubi-type hyplanes and Chimaki-type hyplanes. Omusubi is a Japanese rice ball
covered by nori (laver). Chimaki is a Chinese rice cake covered by bamboo leaves.
Omusubi-type (7,7,7) hyplane is given by the following developing figure (see Fig. 2).
In Fig. 2, if we paste edges a together and paste edges b together then we have a
polyhedron like as in Fig. 3. This configuration has 120-degree-rotational symmetry. There
are three boundaries and each boundary has four edges. See Fig. 4 left. This is a figure near
a boundary. Along a boundary, there are vertices with three faces and vertices with four
faces alternately. So we can paste two Omusubi hyplanes together as in Fig. 4. We can
extend (7,7,7) hyplane in this way. In Fig. 5, we can see an example of the construction of
Omusubi hyplanes.
This polyhedron is immersed in R
3
(that is, it may intersect itself in a process of
extension), not embedded. But we can extend this polyhedron boundlessly and it follows
that it is a complete polyhedron with infinite numbers of faces. Also we may consider this
polyhedron as a covering space of a closed surface of genus 2 (or more).
Next, we introduce Chimaki-type (7,7,7) hyplane. Figure 6 gives a developing figure
and a unit polyhedron is seen as in Fig. 7.
a
a
b
b
Fig. 2. (7,7,7) omusubi hyplane (developing figure).
8 K. AHARA
Fig. 3. (7,7,7) omusubi hyplane (an unit).
Fig. 4. How to paste omusubi hyplane.
Fig. 5. (7,7,7) omusubi hyplane (construction).
HyplanePolyhedral Models of Hyperbolic Plane 9
We call this configuration Chimaki type hyplane. It has four boundaries and it has
tetrahedral symmetry. Also in this case, we can paste two Chimaki type hyplane along their
boundary and extend infinitely. See Fig. 8.
Next we introduce Omusubi and Chimaki type (6,6,7) hyplane. In (6,6,7) case,
Omusubi type is defined by a configuration with 120 degree rotational symmetry and with
Fig. 6. (7,7,7) chimaki hyplane (developing figure).
Fig. 7. (7,7,7) chimaki hyplane (an unit).
10 K. AHARA
three boundaries. Chimaki type is defined by a configuration with tetrahedral symmetry
and with four boundaries. See Fig. 9.
Here we show a developing figure of Omusubi (resp. Chimaki) type (6,6,7) hyplane.
See Fig. 10. These are not strict developing figures but their topological figure. In these
figures, shaded angles are 54 degrees.
Fig. 8. (7,7,7) chimaki hyplane (construction).
Fig. 9. (6,6,7) hyplanes (construction).
HyplanePolyhedral Models of Hyperbolic Plane 11
In (6,6,7) case, we cannot extend this configuration as in case (7,7,7). But mathematical
proof of it has not been known. One considerable reason is as follows: If we consider a K
= 1 surface with the same symmetry, it must has a singular point (for example, a cusp
point) on it. Indeed, the intersection point of the surface and a rotational axis must be
singular. This fact is shown from the definition of the Gauss curvature and symmetric
action on the tangent spaces. In (7,7,7) case, the shape is so simple that we can extend
infinitely. In Omusubi (resp. Chimaki) (6,6,7) case, there are two (resp. four) vertices on
a rotational axis. If we remove 1-neighborhood of such vertices, then we may make an
infinite polyhedron. (Of course it is not complete.)
4. Geometry of Hyplane
Hyplane is a polyhedral analogue of the hyperbolic plane in R
3
. Therefore we can
observe geometry on hyplane. It is well known that the inner angle sum of a hyperbolic
triangle is less than . This is Gausss theorem on the hyperbolic plane. We have Gausss
theorem on hyplane. Indeed, if a triangle on hyplane surrounds at least one vertex, then the
inner angle sum is less than . We show this theorem easily using a concept discrete
curvature. For each vertex v, discrete curvature is defined by
K v a
a
( )
j
(
,
\
,
(

: .
:
2
angle
a
b
c a
b
c
a
b
c
a
b
c
d
e
f
gh
i
d
e
f
g
h
i
Omusubi Chimaki
Fig. 10. (6,6,7) hyplanes (developing figures).
12 K. AHARA
And we have the following discrete Gausss theorem.
Theorem Suppose that a triangle on a hyplane surrounds a contractible area A. Then
internal angle sum ( ) + ( )

K v
v A
.
Here v is a vertex included in the area A.
In hyplane case, the discrete curvature K(v) is constant and
K v
abc
bc ca ab
( )
+ +
< 2 0

.
It follows that for any triangle on a hyplane the angle sum is less than .
Other geometrical problem on hyplane is whether there exists an immersed compact
hyplane. This is a hyplane version of Hilberts theorem. Hilbert shows that there does not
exist an immersed complete K = 1 surface in R
3
. We know that there are complete but not
compact configurations in (7,7,7) case. So the remaining problem is whether there exists
an immersed compact hyplane. For example, the following is the simplest open problem:
Problem (existence of regular 28 faced polyhedron)
Using 28 regular triangles, construct a closed (7,7,7)-hyplane. The whole figure is
homeomorphic to a closed surface of genus 2.
We get the number 28 of faces from calculation of the Euler number. We know an
example of developing figure of the regular 28 faced polyhedron. That is the developing
figure of Chimaki (7,7,7) hyplane in Fig. 6.
Fig. 11. Polydron.
HyplanePolyhedral Models of Hyperbolic Plane 13
Fig. 12. Subdivision of a triangle.
To investigate this open problem, a toy Polydron is very useful. This toy consists of
faces of regular polygons and we can construct them up easily. See Fig. 11.
5. Subdivision
Hyplane is an analogue of K = 1 surface in R
3
, but it is a polyhedron after all. If we
want to make smoother configuration, we need to consider subdivision of hyplane.
Subdivision is a configuration such that we divide each face into some small pieces. There
are two standard ways to divide a triangle into small triangles. See Fig. 12. Here we adopt
the right one and consider a subdivision of (6,6,7) hyplane.
There is no unique way to make a subdivision. Here is one way but it is not the only
one. First we divide an isosceles triangle into 4 parts. See Fig. 13. Vertices D, E, F are
added. Recalling the condition (H4), we know that the angle sum at D, E, F are more than
2, so the angle AFB,BDC, CEA are greater than . There are three mathematical
demands to determine the shape of subdivision.
(D1) The angle sum of each vertex is constant.
(D2) There are 7 faces together at A, there are 6 faces together at B, C.
(D3) The figure is symmetrical with respect to a vertical line.
A
B C D
E
F

Fig. 13. Subdivision of (6,6,7) hyplane (calculation).

14 K. AHARA
These demands do not determine the shapes of all triangles. So we add one more
condition that AEF and DEF are congruent to each other. And we make a series of
equations for Fig. 13.
Then we have
7 4 2 6 4 2
2



+ +
+
+ +

.
It is easy to solve these equations and we get

24 83
59 166
25 83
28 83
30 83
/
/
/
/
/ .
In this case, the discrete curvature K(v) is
K v ( ) 2 7
2
83


.
For a (6,6,7) hyplane, K(v) = 18 = /10 and 2/83 is closer to zero. The following Fig.
14 is the precise construction of the faces.
Using this figure, we can make a Chimaki type (6,6,7) subdivisional hyplane as in Fig.
15. It looks like a tetra-pot on seashore.
Fig. 14. Subdivision of (6,6,7) hyplane (precise figure).
HyplanePolyhedral Models of Hyperbolic Plane 15
6. Irregular Tiling and Hyplane
Tiling pattern of (a, b, c) hyplane is the same as that of (2/a, 2/b, 2/c) hyperbolic
triangles. We can understand this feature naturally because a K = 1 surface is an isometric
immersion of the hyperbolic plane to R
3
. From this viewpoint, for an irregular tiling pattern
of the hyperbolic plane by triangles of the same figure, we can construct a hyplane-like
polyhedron. Here is an example. In Fig. 16, there is a hyperbolic rhombus with angles 4/
11, 6/11. We can make an irregular tiling on the hyperbolic plane. To make 2 by
summing up 4/11 and 6/11, there are two following ways:
4 /1
6 /11
:
Fig. 15. Subdivision of (6,6,7) hyplane (chimaki type).
Fig. 16. A hyperbolic rhombus.
16 K. AHARA
4
11
6
11
6
11
6
11
4
11
4
11
4
11
4
11
6
11
2

+ + + + + + + + .
This fact suggests that a tiling of this rhombus may be irregular. In Fig. 17 there is an
example of tiling. This tiling is presented first in AHARA (2004) and we have few
mathematical results.
On the other hand, we can construct a hyplane-like polyhedron from this tiling. First
we divide a rhombus into two isosceles triangles. After simple calculations we have a
triangle with angles 2/5, 3/10, 3/10, and we can make configurations by using this
triangle. In Fig. 18 we see an example. In Fig. 19, we make a subdivision of this tiling.
Fig. 17. Acyclic tiling of the hyperbolic rhombi.
Fig. 18. Acycliv hyplane of the rhombus.
HyplanePolyhedral Models of Hyperbolic Plane 17
Fig. 20. A tessellation of goldfish on hyplane.
Fig. 19. Acycliv hyplane of the rhombus(subdivisional figure).
7. Applications
Here we present three applications of hyplane.
First we consider an application to three-dimensional art. In hyplane all faces are
triangles and are congruent to each other. For example we can make a tessellation design
art on hyplane. See Fig. 20. This is a sample work by the author. On (6,6,7) subdivisional
hyplane, tessellation design of gold fishes are drawn. We see that at some vertices there are
6 caudal fins together but there are vertices where 7 caudal fins meeting together.
18 K. AHARA
Second we consider an educational toy of hyplane. There are many kinds of toys by
which we can make polyhedra easily. Polydron (POLYDRON) is a good example. So if
there are pieces of triangles with 63,63,54 degrees in Polydron, we can construct hyplane
very easily.
The author held a workshop on hyplane for junior high school students in 2003. Here
he prepared developing figures and participants made paper crafts of hyplane. This
workshop is very good as education of geometry.
Last, we consider application to architecture. Hyplane consists of triangles and it may
be good for structure of a building. But unfortunately there is no offer to use hyplane to
construct a building until now.
8. Conclusion
We present a new type of shape of polyhedron through hyplane. We know lots of
polyhedra, but most of polyhedra are based on a sphere and they arise from spherical (or
elliptic) geometry. Hyplane is the only polyhedron arising from the hyperbolic geometry
and it looks like a horse saddle everywhere. Hyplane is descended from the idea of
hyperbolic geometry whose history is long.
REFERENCES
AHARA, K. (1999) Hyplane, software, http://www.math.meiji.ac.jp/~ahara/
AHARA, K. (2004) Hyplane (Japanese column), Sugaku-Seminor, Vol. 412.
GRAY, A. (1998) Modern Differential Geometry of Curves and Surfaces with Mathematica, 2nd ed., CH/CRC
Studies Adv., CRC.
GPS PROJECT (1998) GPS Project, http://www.math.kobe-u.ac.jp/~kobayasi/GPS/GPSIndex.html
INOGUCHI, J., KOBAYASHI, S.-P. and MATSUURA, N. (2005) Differential geometry of surfaces and soliton
equations, Rikkyo Lecture Note No. 8 (in Japanese).
POLYDRON (Polydron), http://www.polydron.co.uk/
WEEKS, J. R. (2001) The Shape of Spaces, 2nd ed., Marcel Dekker Inc.