2.

0 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

9 HOURS
Retold by, Amran Md Said

2.0 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
Structures and functions: cell membrane and organelles Microscopic structures of plant and animal cells Cells transport Cells are grouped into tissues

2.1

2.2

2.3

2.4

2.5

1st Hour Lecture

Learning Outcomes : 2.1 Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells :
a. state the cell theory

b.

Describe and compare the structures of prokaryotic and eukaryortic cells

2.2 Microscopic structures of plant and animal cells :

a. Illustrate the detailed structures of typical plant and animal cells. b. Compare plant and animal cells

Introduction
1665 Robert Hooke using an improved compound microscope, examine cork and used the term cell to describe its basic units

Observation by Robert Hooke

Cork tissue Cork microscope

Cell Theory
1838 & 1839 Matthias Schleiden (a botanist) and Theodor Schwann (a zoologist) proposed the cell theory
Stating that the basic unit structure and function in living organism is the cell

Other important discovery

1855 Rudolf Virchow postulate that all cells arise from pre-existing cells by cell division

Cell as the smallest independent unit of life and form the basis of living organism
All living organism are made of one or more cells
A cell is always surrounded by a cell surface membrane Contains a solution of protein and other substances in water. This solution is called cytoplasm Within the cytoplasm there are many structure called organelles

Four ideas of cell theory

1. The cell is the basic units of structure in living things 2. The cell is derived from other cell by cell division 3. The cell contains heredity material 4. The cell is the functioning unit of life

Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

Prokaryotic Means before nucleus Cells without nucleus Unicellular
All bacteria and cyanobacteria

Eukaryotic Means true nucleus

Cells with nucleus Unicellular and multicellular E g. plants, algae, fungi and animals

Cell size

Prokaryotic cell

a) Bacteria

b) Cyanobacteria

What is Prokaryotic cell?

Definition : A prokaryotic cell is a type of cell without a membrane-bound nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles An organism composed of a prokaryotic cell is called a prokaryote

Structure of Prokaryotic cell e g. bacteria

Capsule mesosome

Structure of bacteria
Structures always present
1) Cell wall Rigid; strengthening material is peptidoglycan A partially permeable, contain proteins and phospholipids

2) Plasma membrane

3) Cytoplasm An aqueous substance, contain ribosome, DNA and stored granules of various substances

Structure of bacteria
Structures always present
4) DNA Circular molecule, not associated with protein, forming an area called the nucleoid

5) Ribosome 70S ribosomes, smaller than 80S eukaryote ribosomes, site of protein synthesis

Structure of bacteria
Structures sometimes present
1) Flagellum For locomotion, very simple structure ( not in 9+2 ), one or more may be present One to several hundred for attachment to other cells or surfaces, involved in sexual reproduction

2) Pili

pili

Structures sometimes present

3) Mesosome

Infolding of the cell surface membrane, there are enzymes engaged in the synthesis of ATP molecules

4) Capsule

For additional protection

Small circle of DNA

plasmid

5) Plasmid

Eukaryotic cell

What is Eukaryotic cell?

Definition : A type of cell that has a membrane-bound nucleus, membrane-bound organelles and DNA is associated with histone protein An organism composed of a eukaryotic cell is called eukaryote.

Structure of eukaryotic cell

1) Plasma membrane A partially permeable, contains proteins and phospholipids

2) Cell wall

Rigid; strengthening material is cellulose (in plant) and chitin (in fungi)

3) Cytoplasm An aqueous substance, contains a variety of organelles and stored granules of various substances

Cont. Structure of eukaryotic

4) DNA Inside the nucleus ,linear strand molecule and combined with histone protein

5) Cilia and For locomotion, flagella complex structure with 9+2 arrangement of microtubules

DNA wound around a cluster of histone molecules

Linker DNA

Nucleosome (11nm diameter)

Flagellum

Cilia

The differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes

Prokaryote Cell size is small (diameter 0.5-10 m) Cell division is not by mitosis, mostly binary fission DNA is circular, freely in cytoplasm, naked DNA without histone protein Eukaryote Cell size is bigger (diameter 10-100 m) Cell division is by mitosis, meiosis or both DNA is linear and contain in nucleus DNA is associates with histone protein

Prokaryote Organelles present are few , none with envelope

Eukaryote Organelles present are many , with envelope except ribosome

Cell wall is Cell wall is composed of composed of murein cellulose in plant cell walls or peptidoglycan and chitin in fungal walls

Prokaryote

Eukaryote

Type of flagella is fine, Type of flagella is simple and only consists complex, with 9+2 of one microtubule arrangement of microtubules
Respiration is occurs in mesosomes of bacteria or cytoplasmic membranes of cyanobacteria Respiration is occurs in mitochondria

Prokaryote Photosynthesis is occur not in chloroplasts, but takes place on membranes which show no stacking

Eukaryote Photosynthesis is occur in chloroplast containing membranes which are usually stack into lamellae or grana
No eukaryote can fix nitrogen

Few prokaryote can fix nitrogen

Prokaryote Centrioles absent Ribosomes 70s Capsule present in some prokaryotic cells

Eukaryote Centrioles present in animal cells Ribosomes 80s Capsule absent

Example
Prokaryotes Bacteria and cyanobacteria
Eukaryotes Algae, fungi, protozoa, plants and animals

2.2 Microscopic structure of plant and animal cells

Learning Outcomes :

a) Illustrate the detailed structure of typical plant and animal cells b) Compare plant and animal cells

Microscopes
Light microscope Electron microscope

Plant cell under light microscope

E g. Onion cell

Animal cell under light microscope

E g . Cheek cells

Plant cell under electron microscope

Animal cell under electron microscope

STRUCTURE OF TYPICAL PLANT CELL

Structure of typical plant cell

1) Cell wall Composed of cellulose, provides structural support, fully permeable Surrounds the cytoplasm, controls the entry and exit of dissolved substance

2) Cell membrane

Structure of typical plant cell

3) Cytoplasm Cytoplasm pressed firmly against the cell wall by a large fluid-filled vacuole Contain water, dissolved substance such as amino acid and sugars, support the various organelles

Structure of typical plant cell

4) Vacuole Large, contain sap cell, water necessary to provide turgor pressure Bounded by a specialized membrane called tonoplast 5) Nucleus Contains the genetic material and controlling the activities

Structure of typical plant cell

6) Chloroplast Contain the pigment chlorophyll and enzyme for photosynthesis
Storage form of carbohydrate

7) Starch granules

Structure of typical plant cell

8) Plasmodesmata Cytoplasmic connections between cells

STRUCTURE OF TYPICAL ANIMAL CELL

STRUCTURE OF TYPICAL ANIMAL CELL

1) Cell membrane Surrounds the cytoplasm, responsible for separating the cell contents from its surroundings Often denser, with many more organelles and dissolved substances

2) Cytoplasm

STRUCTURE OF TYPICAL ANIMAL CELL

3) Vesicle Small , can be involved with digestion (e.g. in phagocytosis) or with excretion Controlling the activities and characteristics of the cell

4) Nucleus

5) Glycogen Storage form of granules carbohydrates

Difference between plant and animal cells

Animal Cells Have only cell surface membrane No plasmodesmata and pits No chloroplast Have small, temporary vesicles No tonoplast Plant Cells The cell surface membrane is surrounded by rigid cellulose cell wall Plasmodesmata and pits present in cell wall Chloroplast present in photosynthetic cells Large, permanent central vacuole filled with cell sap Tonoplast envelopes the vacuole

Difference between plant and animal cells

Animal Cells Plant Cells

Centrioles present

No centrioles

Contain glycogen granules

Some cells are flagellated or ciliated

Contain starch granules

Flagellated cells are found only in lower level plants (male gamete cells) No lysosome

Lysosomes present

2.3 Stucture and functions : cell membrane and organelles

2nd and 3rd Hour Lecture

Learning Outcomes : 2.3 Stucture and funtions : cell membrane and organelles
a. b. Describe the structure of the plasma membrane and the functions of each of its components. Describe the functions of the plasma membrane

c.

Describe the structure and functions of the following organelles:

Nucleus, mitocondria, rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, golgi body, ribosome, lysosome,chloroplast, centriole

Structure & function

Organelles
Nucleus ER- smooth, rough

Not organelles
Cell wall (plant) Cell membrane

Cytoplasm
Golgi body Mitochondrion Vacuole Centriole Cytoskeleton Lysosome Ribosome Chloroplast

Membrance Plasma

Structure of the plasma membrane

MEMBRANE STRUCTURE
The plasma membrane separates the living cell from its nonliving surroundings. This membrane :
Is about 8 nm thick Surround the cell and controls traffic into and out of the cell Is selectively permeable, allowing some substances to cross more easily than others.

The phospholipids and proteins in membranes create a unique physical environment, described by the fluid mosaic model.
A MEMBRANE is a fluid structure with proteins embedded or attached to a double layer of phospholipids.

Singer and Nicolson Fluid Mosaic Model

1972 S.Jonathan Singer and Garth Nicolson proposed the Fluid Mosaic Model The model envisions a membrance as a mosaic of protein discontinuously embedded in, or at least attached to, a fluid phospholipids bilayer

PHOSPHOLIPIDS
Phospholipids and most other membrane constituents are amphipathic molecules. Amphipathic molecules have both hydrophobic regions and hydrophilic regions.

Hydrophobic tails

Hydrophilic heads

Protein
Envision the membrance as a mosaic of protein floating in and fluid phospholipids bilayer. They have 2 type of protein a) integral protein b) peripheral protein

Continue.. Protein are individually embedded in the phospholipid bilayer, rather than forming a solid coat spread upon the surface. Integral proteins (Intrinsic proteins), pass straight through the membrane and have both an intracellular and extracellular portion. Peripheral proteins (Extrinsic proteins), are fixed in one half of the bilayer or appendages loosely bound to the surface of membrane.

MEMBRANE STRUCTURE

Continue..

Hydrophilic portion of both proteins and phospholipids are maximally exposed to water resulting in a stable membrane structure. Hydrophobic portion of proteins and phospholipids are in nonaqueous environment inside the bilayer.

The functions of proteins on plasma membrane

1.Transport 2.Enzymatic activity 3.Signal transduction 4.Cell-cell recognition 5.Intercellular joining 6.Attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix (ECM)

1. TRANSPORT
(a) A protein that spans the membrane may provide a hydrophilic channel across the membrane that is selective for a particular solute.

1. TRANSPORT (cont..)
(b) Some transport proteins hydrolyze ATP as an energy source to actively pump substances across the membrane.

2. ENZYMATIC ACTIVITY
A protein built into the membrane may be an enzyme with its active site exposed to substances in the adjacent solution.

2. ENZYMATIC ACTIVITY (cont..)

In some cases, several enzymes in a membrane are ordered as a team that carries out sequential steps in a metabolic pathway.

3. SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION
A membrane protein may have a binding site with a specific shape of a chemical messenger. E.g. Hormone
Hormone or external message

 The external messenger (signal) may cause a conformational change in the protein that relays the message to the inside of the cell.

3. SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION (cont..)

Hormone or external message

4. INTERCELLULAR JOINING
Membrane proteins of adjacent cell may be hooked together in various kind of junction.

5. CELL-CELL RECOGNITION
Serves as identification tags that are specifically recognized by other cells.

6. ATTACHMENT TO THE CYTOSKELETON & EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX (ECM)

Protein adhere to ECM can coordinate extracellular and intracellular change.

ATTACHMENT TO THE CYTOSKELETON & EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX (ECM)

Bonded microfilaments or other element of cytoskeleton to the protein membrane. Helps to maintain cell shape and stabilizes the location of certain protein membrane.

Role of membrane carbohydrates in cell-cell recognition

Carbohydrate side chains are found only on the outer surface of the plasma membrane, which form : -glycoprotein when it combined with protein. -glycolipid when it combined with lipid.

Functions of glycolipid & glycoprotein: Cell recognition/ cell marker Eg: The four human blood type (A,B,AB,O) reflect variation in the carbohydrates on the surface of RBC. Receptor sites for chemical signal. Eg: Hormones

Cell-cell recognition
A cells ability to distinguish one type of neighboring cell from another, is crucial to the functioning of an organism. Basis for rejection of foreign cells by the immune system. The way cells recognize other cells is by binding to surface molecules, often carbohydrates on the plasma membrane.

The Fluidity of Membranes

1. Phospholipids - can move within the bilayer either by lateral movement or flip-flop (rare)

Lateral movement (~107 times per second)

(a) Movement of phospholipids

Flip-flop (~ once per month)

 2. The type of hydrocarbon tails in phospholipids affects the fluidity of the plasma membrane
Fluid Viscous

Unsaturated hydrocarbon tails with kinks

Saturated hydroCarbon tails

(b) Membrane fluidity

Figure 7.5 B

The membrane remains fluid to a lower temperature if it is rich in phospholipids with unsaturated hydrocarbon tails Because of kinks in the tails where double bonds are located, unsaturated hydrocarbons do not pack together as closely as saturated hydrocarbons, and this makes the membrane more fluid
Fluid Viscous

Unsaturated hydrocarbon tails with kinks

(b) Membrane fluidity

Saturated hydroCarbon tails

 3. The steroid cholesterol

Has different effects on membrane fluidity at different temperatures

Cholesterol
Cholesterol within the animal cell membrane

 At 37 C of human (relatively warm temperatures),

0

cholesterol makes the membrane less fluid by restraining the movement of phospholipids Cholesterol also hinders close packaging of phospholipids where it lowers the temperature required for the membrane to solidify

Cholesterol Cholesterol within the animal cell membrane

Membrane must be fluid to work properly The functions of cholesterol: a. Cholesterol can be thought as a temperature
buffer for the membrane fluidity, resisting changes in membrane fluidity that can be caused by changes in temperature

b. Give mechanical stability

Functions of the plasma membrane

Membrane define boundaries and serve as permeability barriers Membranes are sites of specific functions Provide for and regulate transport processes Contain the receptors needed to detect external signals Provide mechanisms for cell to cell contact, communication and adhesion

Membrane define boundaries and serve as permeability barriers

Separate the contents of cells from their external environments. As a selective barrier that allows sufficient passage of oxygen, nutrients and wastes products.

Membranes are sites of specific functions

The localization of specific functions is exemplified by many enzymes that are present in or on membranes of organelles To compartmentalise the organelles within a cell to allow specialized metabolic process to occur.

Provide for and regulate transport processes

Substances into and out of cells and their organelles

(c Contain the receptors needed to

detect external signals
The external messenger (signal) may cause a conformational change in the protein that relays the message to the inside of the cell.
Hormone or external message

Provide mechanisms for cell to cell contact, communication and adhesion

Membrane mediate cell-to-cell communication Communication between adjacent cells