/o

v/o (i

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

Bench Work

in

Wood

A COURSE OF

STUDY AND PRACTICE

FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES.

W.

F.

M. GOSS,

Professor of Practical Mechanics, Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana.

^
oi^c

BOSTON:
PUBLLSIIED BY GINN & COMPANY

1888.

Entered according

to

Act of Congress,
F.

in the

year 1887, by

W.
in

M. GOSS.

the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.

Typography by

J. S.

Cushing

&

Co., Boston.

Presswork by GiNN &

Co., Boston.

^--

'^/t^o>1

PREFACE.

To
tial

avoid

confusion,

tlie

subject

herein
I.

treated

is

con-

sidered in three divisions.

Part

contains the essenfor

facts

concerning

common bench
in order.
ability to

tools

wood

it

describes their action, explains their adjustments, and shows

how
of

they

may be kept
by which

Part

II.

presents a course
tools

practice
;

use

the

may be

ac-

quired

and Part

III. discusses

such forms and adaptations

of joints as will meet the requirements of ordinary construction.

I.

It

is

not expected that the student will complete Part

before entering
before

upon Part

II.,

or that he will finish Part

II.

commencing
together.

Part III.

He

will find

greater profit

in

using

them

For example, a shop exercise involv-

ing the chisel (Part II.) should be accompanied or preceded

by a study of the

chisel (Part I.)

again, the various forms

of mortise and tenon joints (Part III.) will be better under-

stood and more easily remembered,

if

considered during the

time when types of such joints are under construction in the

shops (Part II.).

In the writer's experience with classes of

students, one hour has

five
I.
is

been given

to class-room

work

for every

hours given to shop work.

III.

By

this

apportionment, Parts
II.

and
in

can be mastered

in the

class-room while Part

progress in the shops.

for carrying

The equipment necessary

out the course

of

PREFACE.
practice given in Part
first

II.

is

much

less

expensive than
trestles,
:

may

at

appear.

Besides a bench, a pair of

and a bench-

hook, the following-named tools are needed

I I I 1

2-ft.

Rule.

I
I I

24-inch Ripping-Saw, 6 teeth.

lo-inch Back-Saw.

Framing-Square. 7-inch Try-Square.

8-inch Bevel. 8-inch Marking-Gauges.

8-inch Drawing-Knife.

I I
I

Fore-Plane.
Jack-Plane.

2
I
I I

Chalk-Line, with Chalk.

Lead-Pencil.
Scriber.

Smooth-Plane.
Set Auger-Bits, \" to
i6ths.

i"

by

Firmer-Chisels,
I", A", f",

each, |", i",

I
I
I

Bit-Brace.

i",

and

J".

Brad-Awl.
Carpenter's
Mallet.

Gouges,
i".
I

each, |", I", |", and

Hammer.

22-inch
teeth.

Cross-cutting-Saw, 8

I
I

Nail-Set.
Oilstone.

pair 8-inch Dividers.

pair
I

Hand-Scraper.
doz.
(Jiiill

-inch Matching- Planes.

Bits, assorted

from \"

j\-inch Beading-Plane.
i-inch Beading-Plane.
I

down.
Miter-Box.
Grindstone.

Plow.

if provision

is

to

be

made

for

more than one

student, the

items printed in small type need not be duplicated.

of these will suffice for

One

set

any number

less

than

thirty.

The

writer

is

indebted to Mr. M. Golden, of the School

of Mechanics and Engineering, Purdue University, for the execution of

many

of the drawings and for valuable suggestions.

W.
Purdue University,
Lafayette, Ind.

F.

M. G.

CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTION.
I.

INTERPRETATION
2. 3.

OF
PAGES

MECHANICAL DRAWINGS. Mechanical Drawings Defined. Plans. Elevations.

4.

Method

of showing Parts Obscured from Sight.

5.

Sections.
6.

Section Lines.

Cross-hatching.

Incomplete Sections.
Dimensions.

Bro1-6

ken Drawings.

7.

Scale.

8.

Dimension Lines,

PART
9.

I.

BENCH

11.

TOOLS.

Bench.
13.

10.

Bench-Stop.

Vise.

12.

Bench-Hook.
y-9

Trestles

Measuring and Lining Appliances.

14.

Early Standards of Length.

United States Standard of Length.

24.

18. Rules.

19.

Framing-Square.
22.

15.

English Standard Yard.

1

16.
Scale.

7.

The Troughton

20.

Board-measure Table.

21.

Brace-measure Table.

Try-Square.

"Miter-Square."

viders.

23. Bevel.

25.

Try-and-" Miter " Square.

26. Di-

27. Scribing with Dividers.

and Rule.

the Bevel at

28. Combining Square Combining Square and Bevel. 30. Setting an Angle of 60 Degrees. 31. Setting the Bevel at
29.

any Given Angle.

32.

Marking-Gauge.
35.

34.

Panel-Gauge.
Scriber.

33.

Cutting-Gauge.

37.

Mortise-Gauge.
Chalk-Line.
.

36.

38.

Pencil

9- 20

VI

CONTENTS.

Chisels and Chisel-like Tools.

39.

42. Gouges.

41. Corner-Chisels. 44. Drawing-Knife. 45. Action of Cutting Wedges. 46. Angle of Cutting Wedge in 20-26 Chisel and Gouge. 47. Grinding. 48. Whetting
Firmer-Chisels.

43.

40.

Framing-Chisels.

Chisel Handles.

Saws.
49.
Efficiency.

50.

Form.

51.

Set.

52. Size

of Teeth.

Ripping-Saw and Cross-Cutting-Saw Defined. Ripping-Saws. 55. Teeth of Cross-Cutting-Saws.

53.

54.

Teeth of
56.

Back-

Saw.

57.

Compass-Saw

26-36

Appliances for Filing and Setting Saws.

58. Files.

59.

Sets for

Bending the Tooth.

60.

Sets for

Swedging
36-38

the Tooth.

61.

Clamps

Saw
62 Top-Jointing.

Filing and Setting.

63.

Setting.

64.

Filing.

65.

Side-Jointing, 39-41

Planes and Plane-like Tools.

66. 68. Plane-Iron. 67. Length of Stock. Angle of Cutting Wedge. 69. Outline of Cutting Edge. 70. 71. Action of Smooth-Plane Use of Different Bench Planes.

Description of Planes.

and Fore- Plane Compared. Mouth. 74. Adjusting the

72.

The Cap.

Iron.

Iron Planes.

75. Jointing a Plane.

77.

Planes of

Wood and

Iron Combined.

Circular-Planes.

Rabbeting- Planes.

82.

79.

Block-Planes.

80.

Spokeshaves.

73.

Narrowness of
76.
78.

81.

Matching-Planes.

Rounds.

83.

Hollows and

84.

Beading- Planes.
87.

tion Planes.

85.

Plows.

86.

Combina-

.Scrapers

41-52

Boring Tools.
88.

Augers.
Bits.

91.

94.

90. Sharpening Augers and Auger 92. Expansive Small Bit-Braces. 95. Angular Bit-Stock. 96. Automatic
89. Auger-Bits.

Center-Bits.

Bits.

93.

Bits.

Boring Tool

53-59

CONTENTS.

Vll

Miscellaneous Tools.
97. Winding-Sticks,

Driver.
103.

Hand Screw-Driver. 99. Brace Screw102. Mallet. Hammer. loi. Hatchet. Sand-Paper. Iron 105. Wooden Miter-Box. 104.

98.

100.

Miter-Box.

106.

Clamps.

107.

Grindstone.

108.

Use of

Water on a Grindstone.
Truing Devices
for Oilstones.

109.

Truing a Grindstone.

10.

for Grindstones.

115.

113.

in.

Oilstones.

112. Oil

Form

of Oilstones.

114.

Oilstone Slips.
.

Truing an Oilstone

59-69

PART
116.

II.

BENCH
117.
i.

WORK.

Good Lines
Jointed Face.

a Necessity.

Location of Points.

118.

119.

Working-Face
No.

71-73

EXERCISE
120. Material.

Measuring

and

Lining.

121.

Spacing:

Pencil and Rule.

Pencil,

and Framing-Square.

ing: Pencil, and Try-Square.

126.

123. 125.

122. Lining: Chalk-Lining. 124. LinLining: Pencil and Bevel.

"Gauging" Lines:
and Rule.
for Exercise

Pencil and Rule.

Scriber

127.

Spacing:

128.

Lining:

Scriber,

129. Lining:

Scriber and Bevel.

130.

and Try-Square.

Gauge-Lining.

131.
73-79

Lining

No. 3 No.
2.

EXERCISE
132. Chiseling

Chiseling

and Gouging.

by Hand.

133.

Chiseling by Use of Mallet.

134.
80-83

Gouging

EXERCISE
135.

No.

3.

Handling the Saw. 136. Guiding the Saw. ing the Angle of the Cut. 138. Rip-Sawing.

Sawing.

137. Correct139. Cross-

cutting

83-86

EXERCISE
140.

No.

4.

Planing.
Plane Clogs.

Handling the Plane.

ing.

143.

141.

Why

142.

Joint-

Planing to a Square.

144.

Method

of Performing

Vlll

CONTENTS.

Similar

Operations.

145.

Smooth

Surfaces.

PAGES
'

146.

Sand86-91

Papering

EXERCISE
147. Jointing to Width.

No.

5.-Box.
to

150.

148.
Marks.

Sawing

Length.

Hammer
Nails.

151.

.Setting

Nails.

149. NaiUng. 152. WithFinishing

drawing
the Box.

153. Fastening the 154. Planing End Grain

EXERCISE
No.
6.

Box Bottom.

91-96

Bench-Hook.

155. Lining

and Sawing.

156.

Using the Auger-Bit

....
159.

96-98

EXERCISE
157. Lining.

No.

7.

Halved
Fit.

Splice.
Cut.

158.

Value of Working-Face

Illustrated.

ting the Joint.

160.

Sawing a

161.

Toeing Nails

99-102

EXERCISE
162. Lining.

No.

8.

Splayed

Splice.

163. Cutting

and Finishing the Joint

....

103, 104

EXERCISE
164. Lining.
167.

No. 9

Simple

Mortise-and-Tenon Joint.

165. Cutting the Mortise.

166.

Cutting the Tenon.

Making

a Pin.

168.
10.

Drawboring

104-110

EXERCISE
169. Lining

No.

Keyed
Key
11.

Mortise-and-Tenon Joint.
1

and Cutting.

170.
No.
172.

10, ill

EXERCISE
171. Lining

and Cutting.

Plain Gluing.
12.

Dovetail.
Short

173.

Method of
112, 113

Lining and Cutting the Joint

EXERCISE
174. Lining

No.

Lap

Dovetail.
114, 115

and Cutting

CONTENTS.

IX
PAGES

EXERCISE
175. Lining

No.

13.

Blind

Dovetail.
of the Joint
.

and Cutting.

176.
No.

A
14.

Modified

Form

11 5- 11

EXERCISE
177. Panel

Frame

and Panel.
Stile

Door Described.

and

Rail.

181.

179.

178.

Maicing the Joint between

Cutting Chamfers.

180.

Keying the

Joint.

Finishing the Panel.

Fastening Panel to Frame.

182. Inserting Screws.

183.
No.
15.

Using the Brad-Awl

117-121

EXERCISE
184.

Making
Beading.

Joint between Stile

187.

Frame and Panel 185. Plowing. 186. and

Rail.

Forming the Panel

121-124

PART

III.

ELEMENTS
TIMBER.

OF WOOD CON-

STRUCTION.

188.

Timber

Defined.

Shrinkage.

192.

Shrinkage on

193. Cross-section.
Swelling.

189.

Felling.

190.

Seasoning.

191.
124-129

Warping.

194.

Eftect of

195. Effect

of

Shrinkage on

Length

CARPENTRY.
196.

Work

of Carpenter and Joiner Compared.

sional, Tensional,

and Cross-Strain Defined.

197. 198.
T09.
.

CompresEffect

of

Cross-Strain.

Neutral Axis.
its

Relation between the Depth of a

Timber nnd

Resistance to Cross-Str-iin.

Rankine's

Principles concerning joints and lastenings

...

130-132

CONTENTS.
PAGES

Joints Connecting Timbers in the Direction of their Length.

200.

Lapped
203.

Joint.

201.

Fished Joint.

202.

Scarfed Joints.

Scarfed Joint for Resisting Compression.

204.

Scarfed

Joint for Resisting Tension.

205.

Scarfed Joint for Resisting

206. Compression. 207.

Cross-Strain.

Scarfed Joint for Resisting Tension and

Scarfed Joint for Resisting Tension and

Cross-Strain

I33-I35

Joints Connecting Timbers at Right Angles.

208. Halving.

209.
Joints.

Notching.

210.

Cogging.

211.

Mortise-

Tenon Joining a Vertical Mortise and Tenon Joining to a Horizontal Timber. 213. 214. Mortise and Tenon a Horizontal to a Vertical Timber. 136-139 Joining One Horizontal Timber to Another. Tusk Tenon
and-Tenon
Mortise and

212.

Miscellaneous Joints.
215. Oblique Mortise
Joint.

and Tenon.

216.

Bridle-Joint.

217.

Tie-

218.

Chase-Mortise

139-141

JOINERY.
219. Joinery Described 141, 142

Beads and Moldings.

220. Beads.

Chamfer.
226.

221. Use of Beads. 222. Chamfer. 223. Stop 224. Moldings Described. 225. Round Nose. 227. Joints Some Typical Forms of Moldings.
Fillet.

in Joinery Defined

142-145

Heading- Joints, or Joints Uniting Pieces their Length.

228.

in

the Direction of

Square Heading-Joint.

Splayed Heading- Joint

145

CONTENTS.

XI
PAGES

Joints Uniting Pieces in the Direction of their Width.

229. Their
Joint.
Office.

230.
Joint.

Butt-joint.

Filleted

Joint.

Rabbeted

Matched

ing.

233.

231. Glued Butt-joint. 232. CleatSide Cleats. 234. End Cleats. ^235. Relieving
145-14S

Cleats from Strain

Joints Uniting Pieces at Right Angles.

236.
Butt-joint.
Joints.

237.
Joints.

Miter-Joint.

238.

Strengthening of MiterProportions of Mortise-

239.

Dovetail-Joints.

and-Tenon
at

Haunching.
an Angle

243.
in the

241.
Work.

240.

Single and Double Tenons.

Four Tenons.

245.

244.

242.

Mortises and Tenons

Modifications of Mortise-and-

Tenon

Joints

148-152

P.\NEL1NG.
246. Panel.

247.

Frame.

248.

Joints

between

Panel

and
152-155

Frame

FASTENINGS.
249. Pins.

250.
257.

Wedges.

253.
Brads.

Dowels.

251. Blind-Wedging. 252. Keys. 254. Nails. 255. Size of Nails. 256. Tacks. 258. Screws. 259. Glue 155-161
. .

INTRODUCTION.

INTERPRETATION OF MECHANICAL DRAWINGS.

I.

Most of

the iUustrations presented with

the

following

chapters are in the form of Mechanical

novice, these

Drawings.

To

the

may appear
him

confusing

but careful attention to

some of
their

the principles underlying their conreadily to interpret

Fig. 1

struction will enable

meaning.
mechanical drawing, as distinguished from
the characteristics of an object at a

a perspective drawing, or picture, instead of

giving
all

glance, presents

them

in detail, giving in in

one
another set of
trig. 2.

view one

set

of elements,

another view

elements, and so on, until the form of the object

is

accurately defined.
Fig.
is
i
i

For example.

is

a perspective view

of an object which

represented mechanically
it

by

Fig. 2.

By

Fig.

will at
is

once be seen
In

that the object represented

Fig. 2 there
is first

a cylinder.

presented a />/an, showing

cylindrical
;

that the object

is

and, secondly,

an elevation, showing the height of the cylinder.

From
solid

the combination of these two views, the

may be

as easily

imagined as from Fig.

it is

i,

and the knowledge obtained of

definite.

much more
that

A
is

perspective view of an object

is

which

ELEVATION.
3,

had by looking from some one

point, as

A, Fig.

while a

view represented by a mechanical drawing supposes the ob-

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.
number of
3
points,

server to be looking from an infinite

and

always
2.

in parallel lines, as

indicated by A, Fig. 4.
i^^'s-

represents

Plan of any object it as it would

standing on
it

appear

if,

its

natural base,

were looked
as

down upon
Fig. 5.

vertically,

indicated by the arrows A,

If the

object,
its

as a rectangular block,

has no fixed

base, any one of

faces

may be

taken as such.

TTiK.

<

< '

< <

in

<

3.

An
if,

Elevation of any object represents

standing on
its

it

as

it

would
a

appear

natural base,

it

were looked upon

horizontal direction, as indicated by

arrows B, Fig.

5.
is

The

elevation

always

at

right

angles to the plan.

There may be

several elevations of the

same

object,

each differing from the others as the

point of observation changes.

For

example, the plan and elevation of the object represented by Fig.

Fig.
7,

6,

are usually
as

made

as

shown by
Fig. 8 or

but they

may be made

shown by

Fig. 9.

INTRODUCTION.
These angular views, indeed, cannot be avoided when the form is so compHcated that its faces are neither parFig. 8
allel,

they represent

nor at right angles to each

Fig.

other.

lo

is

a perspective
is

view of an object which

evident that
in

repre-

sented mechanically by Fig. ii.

It is
is

if

one face of
elevation,

shown

the
will

two one
will

faces of
face of

B B

appear

if

is

shown, two of

appear.

In the representation of simple

objects, the plan
is

in

some

cases

omitted, and two elevations employed.

elevation,

These may be designated as side elevaticn and end which terms signify an elevation of a side and an
lO
elevation

JTi-.

of an end.
if

For
the

example,
surface

we consider

the base of Fig. 6,

side

elevation
to

would be

equivalent
Fig.
7,

the elevation

and the end elevation

to

would become equivalent

the plan of the
4.

same

figure.

Sight.

Method The

of

showing Parts obscured from

which
is

outline of details,

in

any

view of an object are

hidden,

frequently

shown by dotted
block
if

lines.

Thus, in Fig. 12, the

associated with the dotted

general outline of the plan and elevation shows a rectangular

;

the circle in the plan

it is

is

lines in the elevation,

not

difficult to

imagine a round hole

If the hole

extending through the center of the block.

trates to only half the

pene-

depth of the block, dotted

if

lines will

be

placed as shown by Fig. 13;

the hole

is

larger at the top

BENCH WORK
will

IN

WOOD.
;

than at the bottom, the drawing

if

smaller at the top, as

shown by

Fig. 15.

appear as shown by Fig. 14 In Fig. 16 dotted

Fig. 15

Kis- ^3

PLAN.

INTRODUCTION.
Cross-hatching
parallel lines
is

a term applied to the uniformly spaced

to indicate the cut surface
TTis. 1-8

which are employed

See Fig. i8.

of a section.

Different pieces of material appearing in the

same section are

cross-hatched

at

different

angles, as in Fig. 19, which represents a cross-

section of a lead-pencil

and

different kinds of

material are frequently indicated by cross-hatch-

ing in different colors.

'''"" *

"'

"" "

Incomplete sections show only the cut surface, to the

exclusion of
all

other portions of the object.

It

is

common

to place such sections

letters.

on the section

lines,

and omit the

See Fig. 20.

single view of a symmetrical object

may be made

partly

in section,

and
21.

partly in elevation,

as in the

drawing of the

goblet. Fig.
6.

Broken Drawings.

To

economize

Fig. 21

space in representations of simple objects, a

portion

of the drawing
omitted.

Ki^.

so

is

sometimes
given

In such cases, that which

is

indicates

the

character of the omitted

and the dimen-^- portion, sion figures show exits

tent.

An example

is
ELEVATION.i SECTION

given in Fig. 22.

7.

"to which every dimension agrees exactly with the similar dimension of the object it represents. A drawing to scale is one in which every dimension
either "full-sized" or
in

Scale.

Drawings are

made
is

scale."

full-sized

drawing

one

bears the

same
it

fractional relation to the similar

dimension of

the object

represents.

AVhen a drav/ing

is

^^\)^ the size of

BENCH WORK
the object,
it is

IN

WOOD.
^ inch
to the foot, or,

said to be

on a

scale of
j

as frequently written, i in,

ft.
i

if

^th the

size, as 2 in.

i ft.,

and so on.
size."

The

scale 6 in.

ft.

is

often expressed as "half

8.

Dimensions.

The various dimensions of an object repreexpress feet

followed by
feet,

sented are shown on the drawing by appropriate figures, which

l^iji.

23

when
as

when followed by and inches ". Thus 2' should be read

',

two

and 2"

as

two inches.

12'

yf"

is

the

same

as twelve feet

and seven and threerepre-

quarters inches.

The
sented
;

figures always

show the dimensions of the thing

is

they do not agree with the dimensions of the drawing

latter
full-sized.

except when the

Fig, 23.

See dimension figures in

Dimension

lines.

Dimension

figures are always placed on, or

near, lines along

which they apply.

In drawings these lines are

dotted, black, as in Fig. 23.

usually in color (red), but

may be
is

When
at

convenient, they are placed within the outline of the

;

drawing

but

if

the drawing

small or crowded, they are placed

parts they limit

one

side,

and are connected with the

by perbetween

pendicular, colored or dotted lines.

Two

arrow-heads, one on

each side of the dimension

figure, locate the points

which
line,

it

applies.

Several dimensions
its

may be

given on the same

each being limited by

own

arrow-heads.

PART
oi^c

BENCH TOOLS.
g.
Its

Bench.

simple form of bench

is

shown by

Fig. 24.

length

A may vary

from
Its

6'

upwards, according to the length

of work to be done.
the character of the

height

heavy

work

high

B should

also

be regulated by
to use

for light

work, and low for

is
it.

as well as

by the height of the person who

Carpenters' benches are usually about 33" high, while those of

cabinet and pattern makers are from 2" to 4" higher.

Scale, 1^
'ri'+k-.-.?.

N jI

END ELEVATION.

SIDE ELEVATION.

The
plane.
injury.

surface of the bench, particularly of the thick plank that

it,

forms the outer edge of

should be perfectly

flat

a
it

true

When
It

in use,

care must be taken to protect

from

should never be scarred by the chisel or cut by the

saw.
10.
it is

If oiled

and shellaced,
is

it is

likely to

be better kept.

The Bench-Stop a
being planed.
It

intended to hold the work while

a piece of

may be simply

wood about
;

2"

2",

projecting through a mortise in the top of the bench

8
but
it is

BENCH WORK
far better to

IN

WOOD.
fitting,

have some form of iron

Fift-.

35

which are suppHed by the trade.

acteristics of all of

many of The char-

them are

well illustrated

by the one shown

in Fig. 25.

The frame
its

is

let

into the

bench even with

sur-

face.

The hook

is

held in position at

any height above the bench by the action

of the screw B.

C may

be fastened even

with the surface of the bench, or

entirely.

removed

II.

The Vise

(/,

Fig. 24,
in use.

is

of a form that, for general pur-

poses has long been

should be

To

hold the work well, the jaw

as nearly as possible parallel to the

acts.

face g, against

which

it

If

it

is

not parallel, the space between should

^.

be

less

tom

an

at the top

than at the botin-

arrangement which
better grip

sures a

much

upon the
are

work than the opposite conditions.

Adjustments
for

parallelism

made by changing
one hole
to

the pin c from

another.

There are

various mechanical appliances for

preserving automatically the parallelism of this vise, but

none are

in

common

use.

Iron vises can

just

be had which are adapted to the same uses as the one

described; they maintain their parallelism, and are easier and

more perfect in action. An iron bench vise, such

useful for small work, and,

as
if

is

shown by
is

Fig. 26,

is

extremely

expense

not to be considered,
it

should supplement the vise

d, in

which case
for the

may be

located

on the bench

at
e,

H.
in the

The

holes,

bench are

reception of a plug,

which may be used

while the other end

to support
is

one end of a long piece of work

held by the vise.

BENCH TOOLS.
12.

Bench-Hook, Fig.
Fig.

178,

applied

to

the

shown by

167,

provides

stop to prevent

bench as work from

shding across the bench. The flat faces which rest on the bench and receive the work, should be true planes and parallel.

length of from

14" to

16"

is

convenient, though

bench-workers fretiuently have several of different lengths.

13.

Trestles, or "horses," are used in various v/ays to sup-

port

material,

and

also
fz

pj^,

^^

to take the place of the

bench when large pieces

of material
are
to

be

operated upon.
venient

A
is

con-

form
27.

shown

by Fig.

Measuring and Lining Appliances.

14.

Early Standards of Length.

units of measure,
it

To

meet the

earliest

need of

was natural

to

adopt the means

nearest at hand, and

common

consent, no doubt, brought into

nail,

use the pace, the forearm, or cubit, the foot, the hand, the
etc.

These were

certainly convenient enough, for wherever he

his units of

might go, every individual carried

attempts were
English

measure with him.

Variations in their length, however, were inevitable, and

many
old
to

made
the

to

reduce them to a standard.

of which
date,

An

statute,

substance

has
enacts

descended
" that

American arithmetics of modern

barleycorns, round and dry,
a foot, three feet a yard, etc.
that this

three

make an
;

inch, twelve inches

to

make
to.

and there seems

be no doubt

mode

of obtaining a standard was actually resorted

But setting aside the objection due

individual grains,

taken,

unless

to the varying size of the

it is

so difficult to

of a grain of barley

the average of a large number be know how much of the sharp end must be removed to make it round,' that
'

lO
the definition
is

BENCH WORK
not of

IN

WOOD.
Nevertheless, in spite
this,

much

value.

of numerous attempts at legislation on the subject,

to the year 1824,

down
re-

was the only process by which the standard

if lost,

yard of

this
^

country [England] could,

be legally

covered."

Previous to the institution of a national standard of lengtli

in

Great Britain, influential

men and prominent

societies pro-

vided themselves with so-called standards, which were accepted

and used

in different localities.

By comparison with many of

was made, and
its

these, the present standard of length

length

defined by law as the British standard yard.

fifty

From

this,

about

copies have been made.

Two

of these copies were in 1855

in the
:

sent to the United States,

and have since been

of the Coast Survey.

15.

They

are described as follows

keeping

"

Each standard of length

is

a solid bar 38 inches long

and

inch square, in transverse section.

One inch from each

is

extremity a cylindrical well, one-half inch in diameter,

one-half inch below the surface.

sunk
wells,

At the bottom of the

in each bar, is a gold pin about o.i inch in diameter, upon which are drawn three transversal and two longitudinal lines. The wells are protected by metal caps. The length of one

English yard at a specified temperature

tance from the middle transversal line
in

is

defined by the disto the

one well
-

middle

transversal line in the other, using the parts of those lines

which

are

midway between

the longitudinal lines."

16.

The United States Standard

of Length.

" The stand-

ard yard of Great Britain was lawful in the colonies before

T776.
is

By

the Constitution of the United States the Congress

charged with fixing the standard of weights and measures,

but no such enactment has ever been

made by

Congress, and

Shelley's

*'

Workshop Appliances."

"*

Report of the United States Coast Survey, 1877, Appendix No.

12.

BENCH TOOLS.
therefore that yard which was standard in

I I

England previous

to

1776 remains the standard yard of the United States to

day."
17.
silver
^

this

scale,

"The Troughton Scale is made for the survey

a bronze bar with an inlaid

of the coast of the United

States

by Troughton, of London.
a

The bar

is

nearly 86 inches

long, 2^ inches wide,

silver,
little

and one-half inch

thick.

thin strip of
its

flush

more than o.i inch wide, is with the brass, midway the width of
one near each end.

inlaid with

surface

the bar.

It

extends

the whole length of the bar, save where

perforations,

it is

interrupted by two

Two

parallel lines
silver.

about o.i

inch apart are ruled longitudinally on the

The space

between them

is

divided transversely into tenths of inches.

the graduations
is

"The

zero

mark of
bar.

about 3.2 inches from

it is

one end of the

Immediately over

engraved an eagle,

surmounted by the motto,

stars.

Plurihiis

Uuiiiii,

and thirteen

Below the 38 to 42-inch divisions is engraved 'Troughton, London, 18 14.' The bar is also perforated by a hole above
it,
'

the scale and near the 40-inch division, and by one below

between the words

Troughton
scale,

'

and

'

London.'

"The

yard of 36 inches, comprised between the 27th and

63d inch of the Troughton

comparison to be equal

which was found by Hassler's

36 inches of the
scale,
is

to the average

the actual standard yard of the LTnited States, having been

adopted by the Treasury Department

as such in

1832, on the

recommendation of Mr. Hassler.-""

18.

Rules are measuring

strips,

and are
size
is

usually

made

of boxwood.

Their

expressed by their length in inches or as a " 6-inch rule," a " 2-foot rule."

feet,

For convenience, they are made

^

to fold,

Hassler was the

Report of the United States Coast Survey, 1877, Appendix No. 12. first superintendent of the United States Coast Survey.

12

BENCH WORK
is

IN

WOOD.

and one

said to be

" four-fold " when

six pieces.

made

"two-fold" when made of two pieces, of four, and "six-fold" when made of
rule.

Fig. 28

shows a four-fold

To
by a
ing

preserve the rule from wear, the better class are

"bound"

strip of brass

which covers each edge

others are " half-

bound,"

hav-

only one

17^
Eig.

edge covered;

and

still

others

SD

are " unbound," having no edge protection.

Carpenters' rules are usually graduated to eighths

of inches on one side, and to sixteenths on the other. Besides the regular graduations, other numbers are
frequently represented
;

but their purpose

is

so varied

that their interpretation cannot be given here.

19.

The Framing-Square,
is

Fig.

29, as

its

name

implies,

intended primarily for use in framing, and

to belong to the builder rather than to
;

would seem

the bench-worker
it

but

its

range of usefulness makes

valuable to any worker in wood.

All but the very cheapest are of steel,

nickel-plated.

The

nickel prevents rust,

and many are and gives

figures of the

clearness to the lines

and

figures.

The

graduations along the several edges, begin at the angle

and extend
these, there
at the

to the
is

ends of the

legs.

In addition to

on one side a

line of figures

beginning

end of the long leg and extending

table,

to the angle.
is

On

the reverse side, represented by Fig. 29, there

on the long leg a board-measure

short leg a brace-measure table.

and on the

20.

The Board-measure Table.

in

Lumber
lies in its

is

sold

by the

square foot, and the value of the table

giving the area

its

of a board, or of any surface,

feet

square

feet,

when

length in

and

its

breadth in inches are known.

Bench tools.
The
figures that

13
i,

belong to the outside graduations,

2, 3,

and so on up to 24, are employed to represent the width of the board to be measured, and all the lengths included in the table are given in a column under the figure 1 2 belonging to the outside graduations.

On

this

square,

Fig.

29, they are

14, 10,

and 8. To find the surface of any board, first look in the column under 12 for a number representing its length, and having found it, run the finger along in the same line until it

comes under
sponds

that figure of the outside graduations that corre-

to the board's width.

The

figure nearest the finger in

feet.

this fine represents the

Example
10'

i.

How many
line,

area of the board in

square feet are there in a board

long and 7" wide?

12 of the outside graduations, in Fig. 29, the 10
is

Under
in the

second
7

and the

figure

in

this

line

most nearly

under

of the outside graduations,

feet.
is

is 6,

which represents the

area required, in

ExaDtple
is 8'

2.

What
is i,

the surface of a board whose length

and whose width

in
;

21"?
of the outside graduations, will be
reciuired.
12, forming, as
it

As
for 8

Example

look under 12 of the outside graduations

2
1

in this line,

under

found the 14 which represents the area

The reason
will will
is,

that the

column under
is is

does,

a part of the body of the table,

taken to represent the length,

that

be clear when
contain as

it

remembered
it

any board 12" wide

;

many

surface feet as

contains linear feet

that

a board 12" wide and 14' long

will

have an area of 14 square

correspond to the usual
representing the

feet.

The

figures

given under
is

12

length to which lumber

8, 10, 14, 16,

cut,

and on most squares they are

figure

and 18; and, since the

area differs from the figure representing the length only be-

cause the width varies,

of the column under
1

2,

we must go to the right or when the width is greater

the

left

or less

than 12.

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.

Fig,

30

BENCH TOOLS.
as will be seen

15
is

by

Fig. 32.
;

The blade

adjustable to any

angle with
set.

the

beam

the

thumb-screw

fastens

it

when
in

The
inches.

size

of a bevel

is

expressed by the length of

its

beam

24.

"Miter-Squares" derive
to serve.
is

their

name from
tended
struction

the purpose they are in-

"miter"

in con-

one-half of a right angle,

In the or an angle of 45 degrees. " miter-square " the blade, as in the

try-square,
at
is

permanently

set,

but

an angle of 45 degrees, as shown

Fig. II.

by

The
venient

bevel, while neither so

conoften
'

nor

so

accurate,

is

made
25.

to answer the purpose of the

miter-square.
"

A
is

Combination Try-and-" Miter

Square

shown by

Fig.

34.

This, while
as
is

perfect square,

try-

trans-

formed
the

into a

"mi-

ter-square "
face

when
the

of
is

beam
ing-face (iig) of the material.
26. Dividers are

AB

placed

against

the

work-

much used
is

in spacing
circles.

and

in laying off circles

and arcs of

The form shown by Fig. 35 dividers." The two points

arc

known

as

"arc and set-screw

are held at any desired distance

from each other by the action of the set-screw

upon the

B.

In setting, the

final

adjustment

may be made more

i6
delicate

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.
in opposi-

by use of the thumb-nut C, which, acting

tion to the spring

D, shortens

the arc

B or allows

the spring to

lengthen

it,

as

may be

required.

27

Scribing with Dividers

Example

The
it

four legs

of a table are of unequal length, and prevent

even.
First,

from standing

Scribe the legs to length.

by means of blocks or wedges under the shorter

legs,

make

the top of the table to stand parallel to

some plane
even the
either of

surif

Fig.

36

face, as a
it is

bench

top, or

floor

in

good condition,

which
Set

may be

designated as F, Fig. 36.

the dividers equal to or greater than the

height of the thickest blocking, so that

while one point, a, touches the leg, the

other, b, will rest
dividers,
ca,

upon

F in

the

same

vertical line.
line

Move

the

keeping b on F, and producing by a a

if

on the

leg, as

which,

the dividers are properly handled, will be parallel

to the surf'ice

F.

Without changing the dividers, mark

leg,

at least

two adjoining faces on each

It
is

and cut the and the

legs to line.

e\ ident

that lines thus scribed will all be at

an equal

distance from the surface

j^i_

table top, having

parallel
to

been
F,
it

3^

made
follows

that

the

lines

scribed the

are

parallel

to

top,

or

that

the

length of the four legs,

as defined
is

by the

lines,

the same.

Example

2.

It is

required to

fit

the end of a board

to

the outline abed oi A, Fig. 37.

Place the board in the position

.v.

shown, and set the dividers at a distance equal to

With

one point

at

a and the other at

e, let

them be moved

together,

one following the outline abed which the other produces on B,

BENCH TOOLS.
as shown.
angles, as

17
will
fit.

Cut
if

to line,

and the board

the
is

When

sharp

at /, enter into

outline, greater accuracy will

be attained
base line
hi.

the point

located by measuring from the

28.

Combining Measuring Appliances.

rule and framingshown by Hg. 38.

To

find the hypot-

enuse of a right-angled triangle when the other two sides are

known, use the

square,
as
in

Suppose
ab

= 5I-",
;

Fig. 30 the length and the length ac find the length be,

= 9^"

to

apply one end of the rule to

the 9^"

square,

mark on one leg of the and bring its edge to / coincide with the 5-^" mark on the other leg, as shown by Fig.
it

38.

The reading
sufficiently

of the rule

where
be.

coincides with the 5^" mark, or io|", will be the length

thus

The length many purposes.

found

will

be

accurate
is

for
feet,

If the

distance to be measured

in

imagine every inch on the sc^uare to be equal to a

read the result
in
feet.

foot,

and

If the proportions of the triangle are very large, the figure

may be drawn

at full size

on the shop

floor,

and the extent of

each part determined by direct measurement.

29.

Setting the Bevel.

To
Fig.

set the bevel at a miter (an angle

30

of 45), place the

beam
will

against

one leg of the square and adjust

the blade so that
it

agree with

equal distances on both legs, as

4" and 4", Fig. 39.

the

Any

distance

may be

taken, but

it

must be

same on both

legs.

BENCH WORK
The
bevel

IN

WOOD.

may be

carpenter frequently describes an angle to which the set, as " i in 2 " or " i in 4," by which is meant

that while the

beam

corresponds to the
the other; or to the

1"

shown by Fig. 39, the blade mark on one leg, and the 2" mark on i" mark on one leg, and the 4" mark on
is

applied, as

the other. 30.

Fig.

To

set the
.J

Bevel at an Angle of 60 Degrees.

has a jointed edge a
;

In
'

40 the board

from

this,

square the
radius.

^. ,^ Fig. -to

line dc.

With any '

;

use

the dividers to strike

the arc be

with the same

radius, strike

from

l>

the arc

Place the

beam

of the

bevel against the workingface a,

it

move

the blade

till

coincides with the points

and

side of the

and the bevel is set at an angle of 60 degrees with one beam, and 1 20 degrees with the other.
set the

31-

To

Bevel at any given Angle.

is

If

an attempt

Fig. 41

made

to set the bevel dilines

rectly
will

from

on paper,

it

be found

difficult to

de-

termine when the tool agrees

with the parts of the drawing.
It
is

better,

therefore,

to

transfer such

an angle

to a

board, from the working-edge of which the bevel

set.

may be
angle

Thus,

if it is

required to

set

the bevel at the

abc, Fig. 41, a

board as A,
:

should be lined as follows

from the working-edge gauge the

line a'b'

with the dividers,

BENCH TOOLS.
at

19
^'

any convenient radius, describe from

the arc

e^d'

with the

same

radius describe from b the arc ed ; set the dividers so that

fall

with one point on e the other will

on/, and lay

off this dis-

tance on e\f locating /'

,

connect

b^

and /'

the angle '^'r'

parallel to

will

be equal to abc.

As

a'b^ is

by construction

the

working-edge of the board, the angle between the working-

edge and
cide with 32.

b'c' is ecjual

to the angle abc.

If,

then, with the

is

beam

of the bevel on the working-edge, the blade

b'c' ,

made

to coin-

the bevel will be set at the angle abc.

Marking-Gauges.

Fig.

42 shows the usual form of a

"spur,"
e,

marking-gauge.
to a
will

The

steel point, or
it

should be
-43

filed

narrow edge, so that

1^-ifr.

make a sharp line. The graduations along length of the beam B,

it

the
are

not to be depended on unless

is is

known

that

the
^^"'"'^^'^

zero line
the spur.
is

exactly opposite
the zero
it

When

mark and
is

the spur

do not agree,

as

frequently the case,

necessary in setting the gauge to

to the spur
c.

measure from the head

when

set, is

pre-

vented from moving on B, by the screw C.

33.

Mortise-Gauge, shown by Fig. 43, has two spurs, a

being fastened to the beam, and b to a brass slide which works

in a

groove in the beam.

The
dis-

spur b

may be
c.

set at

any

tance from a by the action of

the screw

The gauge may,

same
time.
for use in

therefore, be set to line both

sides of a mortise at the

34.

Panel-Gauges, Fig. 44, are

making

lines at a

considerable distance from the working-edge.

20

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.

The length of the head A is sufficiently increased to receive good support from the working-edge, which guides it.

35.

Cutting-Gauges, having a long, thin blade in the place

of the usual spur, are in form similar to that shown by Fig. 42.

They
36.

are useful in cutting strips of thin material.

Chalk-Lines are very seldom used

in

bench work, but

is

are often convenient in applying such

work

to larger structures.

The cord used

strength.

in lining should

be as small as
is

consistent with
easily seen than

On

most surfaces blue chalk

more

white.

37.

The

Scriber, as

known

to the trade, takes a variety of

forms, from that of an awl to that of a peculiar short-bladed

knife.

well-kept pocket
for

knife of convenient size will

be

found a good substitute

any of them.

38.
soft,

The Pencil used

in lining

on board surfaces should be

and kept well-pointed by frequent sharpening.

Chisels and Chisel-like Tools.

39.
fitted

Firmer-Chisels have blades wholly of

steel.

They

are

with light handles and are intended for hand use only.

40.
steel.

Framing-Chisels have heavy iron blades overlaid with The handles are stout and are protected at the end by
This chisel
its
is

ferrules.

used

in

heavy mortising and framing,

mallet.

and

is

driven to

work by the

BENCH TOOLS.
Compare
Fig. 45,

21

which shows a firmer-chisel, with Fig. 46,

which shows a framintr-chisei.

mr

The

size

of chisels

is

indicated by the width of the cutting

i:^" to

edge, and varies from ^" to i" by sixteenths, and from

2" by fourths.
41.

Corner-Chisel

is

shown by

Fig. 47.

Its

two cutting

edges are

at right angles to

each other, and

this

form renders

it

useful in

making
Its
is

inside angles, as, for example, the corners of

is

a mortise.

handle

like that

of a framing-chisel.

The

size

of a corner-chisel
42.

indicated by the length of one cutting edge.

that,

Gouges have blades

throughout their length, are

curved in section, as shown by Fig. 48.

When

the bevel forming

the cutting edge

is

on the concave

gouges "

when on

side, they are called "inside the convex side, " outside gouges." For
is

general purposes the outside gouge

most convenient, and the

of a gouge
indicated

carpenter, with his limited facilities for the care of tools, can

more

easily

keep

it

in order.

The

size

is

by the length of a

straight line extending

from one extremity of

the cutting edge to the other.

22
43.

BENCH WORK
Handles

IN

WOOD.
similar tools, are of

for chisels, gouges,

;

and

two

general classes, light and heavy

cipally for
chisel

the former are intended prin-

hand use, and are shown in connection with the firmerand gouge the latter, which are re-enforced at the end
;

by a

ferrule that they

may

withstand blows from the mallet, are

illustrated in
chisel.

connection with the framing-chisel and the corner-

or socket-fitted, as

Handles may be shank-litted, like the one shown oy Fig. 48, shown by Fig. 47. The better class of tools

have socket-fitted handles.

44.

The Drawing-Knife, shown by

chisel,

Fig. 49,

is

in reality

wide

though

it

is

tjuite

different

from a chisel in form.

The handles
ting edge,

are so attached as to stand in advance of the cutis

which
is

drawn

into the work, instead of being

pushed
is

into

it,

as

the case with a chisel.

The
to

drawing-knife

very

effective

on narrow surfaces that are

be considerably reduced.

The

size is indicated

by the length of the cutting edge.

45.
is

The Action
first,

of Cutting
less acute.

Wedges.

Every
it
;

cutting tool

a wedge more or
:

In action

has two operations

to perform

cutting the fibers of the

in order that the tool

widening the cut

material,

wood and, secondly, may penetrate into the

to

and thus allow the cutting edge

the cut, the fibers of the
split), or the fiber

go on with

its

work.

To widen
wood

wood must be pressed

apart (the
rial

ends crushed, or the mate-

on one side of the wedge must be bent, thus forming a

BENCH TOOLS.
shaving.
It is

23

evident that a unit of force tending to drive the

will,

edge forward
result in the

under

like

conditions of material, always

same amount of

incision.

But much

less force is
is

required to carry the tool forward

entering the material, than
able depth, and, hence,
it is

when

the cutting edge

just

when

it

has advanced to a consider-

fair to

assume that

this difference is

due
to

solely to the resistance that the material offers in

opening
tool

make way

for the tool, this resistance increasing as the

The resistance offered to a tool by a bending shaving, therefore, may be many times greater than that offered to the cutting edge by the wood fibers. An obtuse-angled wedge will cut as easily as a more acutegoes deeper.

angled one, but the more obtuse the angle

is,

the

more abrupt
latter factor

must be the turning of the shaving

is

and since the

more important, as regards the absorption of force, it follows that the more acute the cutting edge is, the more easily
the
will

it

accomplish

its

work.

46.

Angle

of Cutting

Wedge

in Chisel

and Gouge.
it

The
as

acuteness of the angle cannot be defined in degrees since,

being limited only by the strength of the

the duty required of
it

steel,

must vary

varies.

For example, a more acute

hard wood
;

angle

may be used

in soft than in

again, a chisel

handled as shown by Figs. 147 and 148, is not so severely strained as when used in the manner illustrated by Fig. 149.
If the

maximum

degree of delicacy were insisted on under

every condition of use, the cutting edge would need to vary

with every turn of the chisel, and almost with every shaving
cuts.
all
it

This would be impracticable, and

to

these requirements
:

a single

wood workers reduce principle which may be

fairly

expressed as follows

let

the cutting edge be as acute as the

metal

will allow

without breaking,
is

when

used.

little

experience with a given tool

the readiest

means of finding
Carriage makers,

the angle suited to a given class of work.

24

BENCH WORK
in

IN

WOOD.
in the

who work almost wholly

would
style blunt chisels.

hard woods, are

habit of

using what pattern makers,

who work

principally in soft woods,

47. Grinding.

A new

chisel, or

one that has become conchisel

siderably dull, must be ground.

With the handle of the

Fig,

SO

in the right

hand, and the fingers of the

its

left

hand

resting

on

the blade near

Fig. 50, as

cutting edge, apply the chisel to the stone,

a,

shown by the dotted outline

until
full

and then

raise the

right

hand

the proper angle

outline
Ik

is

reached, a position indiis

cated by the

See that there

a good supply of
the tool gradually

water, and, as the grinding progresses,

move

from one side of the stone

to the other.
is

Assuming
by a and
arrow
is

that the stone

in

fairly

good

order,

the

tool

should be applied relative to

/>,

its

motion, in the manner shown

in

Fig. 50, the

is

motion being

the direction of the

d.

If the stone

not round or does not run true, there

danger that the cutting edge may dig into it, to the injury of both stone and tool. Under such conditions, it will be best for
the operator to

move round

to the other side,

c.

and hold the

is

tool

in the position indicated by

The
:

first

position

preferable,

chiefly because of two reasons

first,
is

the tool

may be

held

more
thin

steadily

and, secondly, there

less

tendency toward the

production of a " wire edge."

by grinding,

it

springs slightly
still

As the extreme edge becomes away from the stone, and

from the edge to become
In the
farther
effort to

allows the chisel at points

thin, thus resulting in

farther

an extremely delicate edge which must be

removed before the tool can be made sharp. remove thij wire edge, it frequently breaks off

back than

BENCH TOOLS.
is

2$
prolonged.

desired,

and the process of whetting

l>,

is

With the
tendency

chisel held at r (instead of

the proper position) the direc-

tion of the

motion

relative to the tool aggravates this

of the light edge to spring away from the stone.

The

grinding process

is

reaches the cutting edge

complete when the ground surface

condition readily determined by
If
it is

holding the tool to the

light.

still

dull, there will

this line

be a

bright line along the cutting edge.

When

has disap-

peared, the tool

is

as sharp as
in,

it

can be made by grinding,

which,

if

persisted

will

only result in a wire edge.

is

The

action of the grindstone, however,

too severe to produce a

good cutting edge, and whetted (107 -no).

48.
chisel,

the chisel, after being ground, must be

To whet
apply
it

the
to

the oilstone A, Fig.

51, in the position

shown by the dotted outline /^, and as it is moved back

and
forth along the length
it

of the stone, as indicated

l)y

the
is,

arrows, gradually bring

to the position
is

shown

l)y //.

That
until

the angle between

cutting edge c

it

and the stone

to

be increased
;

the

comes
oil

in contact with the stone

this

])()silion

can be recognized by the sensation imi)arted to the hand, and

the behavior of the
first

with which the stone

that

is

lubricated.

At

thought,
a/',

it

may seem

the bevel

Fig. 52,

which was
but

<v

r^iix.

'r:

produced by the grinding, should

be maintained in whetting
to
;

do

this

would require so much

as af,
is

time that one corresponding very

nearly to
a/>,
is

taken.
giv-

Great care

necessary on the part of one unskilled to avoid

26

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.
;

ing the tool a rocking motion

p,. j_3

on the oilstone
in,

if this is

indulged

the edge will appear rounded, as

Fig. 53,
if it

^/

shown by
sharper
indicated

and

than

will be no had the form

by the

dotted
if

outline

a/>c.

When

sufficiently whetted, the

cutting edge,

held to

the light, will

show a
it

dull, grayish

hue.

If a bright line appears

along the edge,

is

not yet sharp.

flat

The whetting
a, Fig. 54.

turns a light
is

wire edge over on the

face,

an exaggeration of which

shown by

This can-

not always be seen, but detected by the finger

;

may be
it

is

re-

moved by
blade with
stone, as

a single stroke of the

the
flat

face

on the

shown by

a',

Fig. 51.

It

is

necessary, however, that

every precaution be taken to prevent the production of a bevel

indicated by the dotted line
c,

Fig.

54,

and opposite

that

already existing.

To guard

against

this,

the chisel should be

applied to the stone in the manner illustrated by the outline a,

Fig. 51

(111-H5).

must be whetted often enough to keep the edge in good condition it is dull whenever it fails to cut well. When, by frequent whetting, the whetted surface becomes so broad as
tool
;

to require considerable time in the production of the edge,

it

should be reground, and the process just described repeated.

This method of sharpening the chisel

to the gouge, drawing-knife,

will, in

general, apply

and

all

similar tools.

Saws.
49.

The
it

force
if

efficiency of any saw is measured by the amount of absorbs in making a given cut or " kerf." For example,

one saw severs a 4" x 4" timber with half the force required by another, it is evident that the second saw is only one-half
as efficient as the
first.

Almost every element that enters

into

BENCH TOOLS.
saw construction has
Chief among them
recjuire the
is

2^
efficiency of the
tool.

its

effect

on the

the

thickness of the blade, which, of

course, determines the width of the kerf ; for a wide kerf will

removal of more material than a narrow one, and

the force absorbed in each case must bear

some

relation to the

amount of material removed. In recognition of this fact, the people of some eastern countries use saws designed to cut when drawn towards the operator, a method of handling that
allows great thinness of blade

too great
B
*^'-

to stand the thrust

by
is

which our saws are driven into the work.

that the Chinese saw, for example,

But the

result

Fig. 5-5

which

is

accomplishes

represented by Fig. 55, its work with re-

markable ease.

The shape

of such a saw, however, and the

force to
it,

awkward manner of applying

probably more than

delicacy, although in

neutralize the advantage gained from

its

the abstract^ the thinner the blade the better the saw.
50.
but,

The form

of our

own saws

is

not the result of chance,

on the contrary, has been developed after a careful study of the conditions under which they are required to work. Other things being equal, pushing a saw gives better results
it.

than pulling
to

Under

a thrusting force,

it

is

found necessary
to resist

make

the blade sufficiently thick

and strong

bend-

ing tendencies, but with no surplus material to

sary weight.

add unnecesis

In view of these facts the outline of the blade

tapered, as

shown by

Fig. 56.

The blade

is

thicker also at the

it

handle than at the point.

ITig.

To

assist in giving

clearance in

56

the kerf,

it

is

tapered from the teeth to the back.

is

This

differ-

ence in thickness

accomplished

in the process of

manufacture,

28

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.

by grinding the rough blade

perfections
left

after it has been hardened. Imby the hardening or the grinding process, may

be detected

in the finished

saw by bending the blade,

thick in spots, or

as

shown

by Fig.
will

57.

If

it

is

uniformly ground and hardened, the curve

;

be regular as shown

if it is

if it

varies in

hardness, the curve will be uneven, as indicated by the dotted

hne.
51.
Set.

The thinning of the blade

most
one

back from the cutting

from

edge

will not, in

cases, prevent the sides of the kerf

pressing against the saw.

are bent

one

To meet

this difficulty, the

to

side, the next to the other side

saw teeth
so as to

make
blade.

the width of the kerf greater than the thickness of the

The amount

of such bending, or " set," as well as

its

uniformity, can readily be seen by holding the saw to the light

with the back of the blade next the eye

it

will

then appear as

Fig.

58

shown by

Fig. 58.

In very hard material the sides of

the kerf are
left

scarcely any set

is

required

sometimes even none.

fibers spring

smooth and even, and But if the

away from the
is
is

material

is

soft

and spongy, the

advancing teeth, and then come back again on the blade after
the teeth have passed
;

hence, a large amount of set

required.
sufficient

For most purposes

at the

bench, however, the set

when

it

can be

easily

and

clearly seen.

52. Size of

Saw

Teeth.
it

For

proper action, each tooth

should begin to cut when

ting until
it

enters the work,

and continue

cut-

leaves the kerf, and, since the space in front of

it,

each tooth must contain the material removed by

city of the

the capa-

space must be increased in those saws which are

required to work through a considerable depth of material.

two-handed cross-cutting-saw

for logs, therefore, has the teeth

widely placed, thus making the intervals large.

In panel-saws, such as are used at the bench, except in spe-

BENCH
cial cases,

TOOr.S.

29

the space

is

of the same size and form with the

tooth.

When

the spaces are large, the teeth must be large,

and, since the size of the spaces has a direct relation to the

amount of
is

material removed,

it

may be

said that the size of

the teeth depends on the size of the material in which the saw
to work.

The
in

size

of saw teeth

is

expressed by the number contained

an inch.
to

Thus

" 6 teeth "

is

means

that the distance from

one point
53.
is

another

".

Ripping-Saws and Cross-cutting-Saws.

is

A ripping-saw
wood, as on the
_j^
-

one that
rt'/^.

used

in cutting with the grain of the

line
is

Fig. 59.

Across-cutting-saw

j^.^^,

intended for use at right angles to

the grain, as indicated by cd, Fig.

59.

^^e^
''

__^-

^j^

^^^.^

An

oblique kerf, such

ef.

as

is

shown by

Fig.

59,

may

in soft

wood be
by the
knot

cut with the ripping-saw, which will

work

faster

than

the cross-cutting, but the

latter.
it

work

will

be more smoothly done

large knot in the course of the ripping-saw

may make
is

best to substitute the cross- cutting-saw until the

passed through, after which the ripping-saw

may be

used again.

cross-cutting-saw for the bench should have

Sec.

B.

ELEVATION.

a 22" or 24" blade with 7^ or 8 teeth to the inch; a ripping-saw should have a 24 " or 26" blade, with 6 or 6^ teeth.

30
54.

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.

elevation,
for

The Teeth of Ripping-Saws. Fig. 60 shows a plan, and section of three teeth as they are usually made The following paragraphs present a consida ripping-saw.

eration of the action of an individual tooth.

All

wood

is

fibrous,

and any

tool

which

is

to

produce a cut

along the length of the

at

fibers, as the

saw kerf

ab. Fig. 59, must,

each period of action, take something from the ends of such

fibers as

may lie

in the path of the

proposed opening.
as

In

fulfilis

ling this condition, the action of a ripping-saw's tooth

not

unlike the action of a chisel

when used
its

shown by

Fig. 149.

Each tooth
which
takes
it

in its turn

removes

share from the fiber ends over

passes, just as the chisel at every

slice

change of position
cutting edge of

its

and lengthens the

is

cut.

The

a saw tooth, however,

that of a chisel,

and

as

bounded, by a more obtuse angle than Thus, if one a cutting tool is inferior.
is

of the three teeth shown by Fig. 60

the position
it

applied to a saw kerf in

it

would occupy

as part of a complete saw,

its

will

appear as represented by Fig. 61,

motion being
It is

in the direc-

tion of the arrow.

defective as a cut-

__

ting
lii^*^

tool,
'^i^,

because

of the

position of the
tooth.

^^

^
/
;

,-,

V'Y:

^^^
this

^
is

the

advancing face of the

is

This defect

more
as

clearly

illustrated

by

Fig. 62

shows how a chisel would look

in

if its

edge were

made

to

cut
fact

the
that

same manner

that of a

saw tooth.
has

But the

a great discrepancy exists between the

chisel,

form of the saw tooth and that of the

for

it

been demonstrated that a

chisel,

to

give

good

results,

must

BENCH TOOLS.
be
at least
it

as

acute

as

is

indicated by the dotted line a

would seem that the former might be improved by bringing it more nearly to the outline of the latter. Sup-

and

pose

this

be attempted, and that the face of the tooth

cd,

in-

dicated by the line

Fig.

60,

be changed to

cl>'.

Such

a change must result either in removing material from the

tooth,

and thereby weakening

it,

or in changing the line cd

if

to a position cd'.

In other words,
it

the tooth
will

is

not weak-

ened, the space between

Again,
^//'
is

and the next

still

be

reduced.

if

to

make

the advancing face

is

more
it

acute, the line

is,

accepted, and the tooth

will

not

made

smaller (that

weakened), there

and the next tooth. Having no spaces, there can be no teeth, and consequently the attempted change is impossible. It will thus be
it

be no space between

seen that the angle of the advancing face of the ripping-saw

tooth cannot, unless
is is

weakened, be much more acute than

shown by

Fig.

60 and Fig. 61.

The form
the outline

of the tooth

may be

wholly changed, however, to

shown by
in

Fig. 63,

and some advantage may thus

;

be gained
while

respect of the cutting angle

for

but such a tooth,

size,
is

suitable

machine-saws of considerable
as a possible

too

complicated for small saws.

Nothing remains, then,

angle
Fig. 60.
If

means of improving the

is

cutting edge of the saw tooth, except a modification of the

f>cd,
it

could be shown that there

is

an excess
its

of strength in the tooth, above what

needed

to

perform
i>'^cd,

work, the angle might be changed to

d'c(f,

or even to

and

the value of the tooth as a cutting tool be increased.

over,
it

More-

does not
it

change, for

is

seem unreasonable to attempt such a evident that the cutting wedge of the chisel
at first
/n-d,
is

(which we have regarded as the typical cutting tool), while

much more

acute than the angle

yet strong

enough

to

be entirely satisfactory.

A more

carefiil

comparison of the saw and

chisel,

however,

32

BENCH WORK
:

IN

WOOD.

discloses the following facts

first,

a saw tooth must be softer

set

than a chisel in order that

softer,
is

it

may be
its

and
;

filed,

and being

therefore weaker in
is

substance

secondly, the width

of the saw tooth

chisel

less

than half the width of the narrowest

respect also,
it

made, and,
and,

in

this

is

at

a disadvanattenat

tage
tion

thirdly,

in

using
its

chisel

the

operator's
if

is it
;

given entirely to
is

one cutting edge, and

any
re-

time

likely to receive too

much
little

strain,

it

is

at

once

lieved

while

each saw tooth, on the contrary, forms but a

attention

small part of a tool that receives

and much

vig-

orous handling while

it

is

being driven through straight grain,

crooked grain, or hard knots, as the case may be.

consideration of these points,
it

From

seems clear that the cutting-

angle of a saw tooth must be less acute than that of a chisel.

But the degree of acuteness can be determined only by use.

Fig. 60 shows the form

which years of experience have proved

the most practicable for general work, and while

some bench-

workers do
to dch\ as

file

their saws " under,"

producing a tooth similar

similar to dcf.

many more go to the other extreme and use a tooth The typical form given is easily kept in order,
in that condition, will cut freely

and,

when

and

well.

55.
is

The Teeth

of

Cross-cutting-Saws.

If a

ripping-saw
material will

used directly across the grain, the

Kij?. G-i

fibers of the

^^ torn from each

other without being

properly cut
the

hence

necessity for a
will " cross-

saw that
cut."

Fig.

64 shows

by

its

three views a

representative

form

of tooth for this saw.

It will

be seen by the figure that the tooth terminates in a

trian-

P.ENCH TOOLS.
gular point

33
a
is

and

also, that while the point

is

formed on one
;

side of the blade, the next, a',

formed on the opposite side

thus throughout

its

length, the points of any two adjacent teeth

being on opposite sides of the blade.

This arrangement makes

the end view of the blade show two parallel lines of points, and

between them a triangular depression, which, when exaggerated by the "set," will appear as shown by
section

AB,

Fig. 64.
a',

In action, the points a and

Fig. 65,

score the work, and the friction between

the teeth and the cut fibers breaks up the latter, and they are carried off by
the saw.

Assuming

that

it

is

a matter of convenience to have these

teeth, as well as those of the ripping-saw, equal to the space

between any two of them, there are three questions which may First, what shall be considered concerning their proportions.
be the inclination of the advancing edge or " face " of the
tooth, as represented

64? shows the similarity

Fig.
grain,

Holly, in his

compared with the line bd. work on "The Art of Saw-Filing," of action between the advancing edge ab
by the
line al)
little

and the edge of a pocket knife when made to cut across the and asserts that a knife with its cutting edge perpendicular to the surface upon which it acts (a position equivalent to
to carry

bd)
it

will

make

a rougher cut,

and require more force

forward at a given depth, than

in a position similar to that of the line ab.

when it is inclined The result obtained

from such an experiment cannot be regarded as conclusive,

because of the great difference in the character of the cutting

edges compared.

But,

if

it

is

found that the knife with

satisfactorily at

its

keen cutting edge behaves more

to the work,
it

an inclination

seems reasonable

to

conclude that the rougher

edge of a saw tooth

inclined.

will give the best results

when much more

consideration of these points justifies the belief

34

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.
is,

that an angle of 60 degrees with the work, that

with a Une

passing through the points a

practice goes to

'

and

a, is

none too

great,

and

all

show

that teeth so

formed not only do very

face of

smooth work, but cut with ease and rapidity. Secondly, what shall be the angle of the advancing
the tooth, as represented by lines
e'e

Since this

and ef, Sec. F, Fig. 64? angle forms the cutting wedge of the tooth, it should
is

be

as acute as

consistent with strength.

Greater strength
in soft,
it

being required for action in hard

wood than

follows
it is

that this angle should be varied with the material in which

used.

For general work

iaj,

it

may correspond
Fig.

to the angle e'e/.

Thirdly, what shall be the acuteness of the point as indicated

by the angle

Sec.

AB,

64?
to

This, also,
cut.
It

is

determined

by the character of the material

obtuse, as iak, for hard

be

should be more

wood than
is

for soft

wood, not only beif

cause additional strength

acute, the scoring will be

required, but also because,

easily that the

too
be-

done so
will

fibers

tween the scores

to pass

will

not break out, and the saw, being unable

down
Kiir.

into

new work,

slide

along on the

old.

66

Fi

BENCH TOOLS.
cutting-saw, except that
the

35
is

Hne of the advancing face

bkl, Fig. 64, to

brought forward as indicated by

efficiency
grain.

increase their

when used with the They are, however,

usually
to

as

much finer, there being many as sixteen

the

inch.

This saw cuts slowly as

in very delicate

compared with a panel-saw, but may be used

work.
It is

used to cut

in

any direction
by the
file

relative to the grain

of the wood.

The bur

left

after sharpening, forms

a sufficient

set.

The blade A,

Fig. d^,

is
it

in itself too thin to withstand the

thrust necessary to drive

into the work,

and

is

strengthened

by an iron "back," B.
the distance C.

This, being thicker than the blade, will

not allow the saw to penetrate beyond a depth represented by

For

this

reason the blade

is

uniform in width

instead of tapering.

57.

The Compass-Saw, shown by

lines. Its

Fig. 69,

is

intended for

sawing in curved Vis-

blade

is

extremely thick, and the

teeth are given an enor-

GO

mous amount of
sections
Fig. 69.
Sec.

set.

See

AB
is

and

CD,
is

If the curve in to

AB

which

it

be used

(.Enlarged)

very small, only a short

portion

of

the

blade's

length next the point can

be used.
of longer radius, a greater length of blade
action.

With a curve
into

may be brought
i^^i^r.

ro

Its

teeth are of the form

shown by

Fig.

^.^

70,

having the square face of the ripping-

saw, and the point of the cross-cutting-saw.

36

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.

They

are thus adapted for use in any direction relative to the

grain of the wood.

Appliances for Saw Filing and Seti'ing.

58.

Fig. 71.

"Triangular Saw File"' is of the form shown by A " shm " saw file is represented by Fig. 72 it is
;

Fig.

n
Fig. rs

n-ic..

ra

REGULAR.

two

inches

longer than a "regular" saw

file
is

of the

same

cross-section.

"

double ender
all

"

Fig. 73,

and a cross-section of

saw

files,

shown by on an en-

larged scale, by Fig. 74.

59.

Saw

Sets.

Fig. 75
is

shows a simple form of

set.

The

tooth to be bent

placed on the surface A, with

Frequently called " three-square saw

file."

BENCH TOOLS.
the

37

adjacent teeth in contact with B,

is

Thus placed,

the

blade

allowed to

rest

on the screw C.
from
a

blow

hammer on

D
The
the

bends or "sets" the tooth,

and a spring returns

the position shown. ^

D to

amount of
by the
screw
C,

set

is

regulated

position

of

and

is

greater,
If

the lower
is

C is

fixed.

raised to coincide with

the dotted line

AE,
set.

the

tooth

will

not be

B,

B
is

can be adjusted to the depth

the tooth to which the set

60.

to take effect.

Swedge
and,
;

Sets for Ripping-Saws, illustrated by Fig. 76,

are in general use

on

large

saws

occasionally,

on

small ones
ing, they

generally speak-

do not concern the

bench-worker.

The

set

is

Z>

is

not well

shown

in the engraving.
is

Since

it

must

act

on only one

tooth at a time, the end A'

wedge-shaped.

38

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOIX

using one opening the center of the tooth

at

driven against the edge of the tooth, as shown by Fig. 77 ; by is forced back, as

completing the work, as

perfect in
its

and by use of the other opening the points are spread, at G. A tooth thus set is more
action than

when

bent, since

it

cuts the

full

width

of the kerf.
61.

Saw Clamps

are convenient for holding the saw during

Fig.

rs

the filing process.

Carpenters frequently

make
78.

for
It

themselves
consists of

clamps similar

to that represented

by Fig.

two pieces of hard wood joined face to face by two screws

(one near each end), by means of which the clamp
p"ig.

may be
fast-

TO

fastened rigidly to the blade of

the saw.
It

may then be
vise

ened
filed.

in

the

or

held
is

on

the knee while the saw

being
is

A much

better device

the saw clamp

shown by

Fig.

79, which, while fastened to the

bench, so holds the saw that

it

may be
workman
light.

turned
thus

in almost

any
the

direction,

enabling

to obtain a favorable

BENCH TOOLS.

39

To
62.
!t

File and Set a Saw.

Top- Jointing^.
file

With

the saw

clamped teeth up,

joint

by running a
This
is

along the tops of the teeth, as shown by

to bring all the teeth to the

Fig. 80.

done

same

height,

and
line

also to maintain the

form of the saw, which, along the

Fig.

of the teeth, should be slightly con-

so

vex.
facet

The

jointing should leave a small

tooth,

on each

which

will

be rec-

tangular in a ripping-saw
in a cross-cutting-saw.

and

triangular
PI

one end, bend outward every second tooth, then turn the saw and bend the remaining teeth
63.
Setting^.

Beginning

AN.

at

toward the opposite side of the blade.

ping-saw,
if

In the case of the rip-

the swedge set

is

used, the setting should be

done

before jointing.
64.

Filing.

It is

of great importance that the saw be

filing.

properly supported during the operation of

An
is
it

unusual

amount of noise shows

or that the
file is

that the blade

is

not properly clamped,

;

not being properly handled

is

it

also a sure

indication that the filing

that the
file is

not going on as
If the
file

fast as

might, and
the pres-

being injured.

is

new,

let

sure be very light.

Carry

it

across the work with a slow, steady

movement.
be done
filing

Never take

short,

quick strokes, as but

suffer

little

will

in this

way, and the

file will

beyond

repair.

In

a ripping-saw, the

movement should be

^^^ ^^

exactly perpendicular to the plane of the blade,

as indicated

by plan, Fig. 81, and the outline

in the
is

of the teeth maintained by an even contact, as

shown by the elevation

if

same

figure.

But
file
^^'''

the form of the teeth

to

be changed, the

must be turned either

In
filing

in the

direction indicated

by the arrow, Fig. 81, or

in the opposite direction.

file

a cross-cutting-saw, the angle between the

and

40

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.

the blade must be varied in accordance with the following considerations

:

first,

the outline of the

teeth

may be

preserved

or changed in the
the ripping-saw
{eUf,
;

manner

just described in

connection with

secondly, the angle of the advancing face

Ing. 64)

is

determined by the inclination of the

to the blade, as

file

shown
82

by the
point

plan.

Fig.

thirdly, the angle of the

Fig.

83

{iaj, Fig. 64) is determined by the incli-

nation of the
blade, as

file

to the

shown by the
of the
teeth

end
SIDE ELEVATION.

elevation. Fig. 82.

The form
END ELEVATION.
j^^^^j^^^

^^^^

dCCided

upon from principles already given, it may be produced without difficulty by attending to the foregoing directions.
In
filing

any of the teeth herein discussed, the

file

should
h,

always be in gentle contact with the face of one tooth, as

Fig. 81, while

most of the cutting

is

done on the back of the

is

next one a, which, as usually considered,

the tooth that

its set,

is

being

filed.

This tooth should be one which, by

bends

away from the operator.

he
files

Beginning

at

one end of the blade,

is

every second tooth until the opposite end

is

reached,

when

the blade

turned, and the remaining teeth

filed

from

the other side.

No

saw, even though the teeth are not bent, should be filed
file

wholly from one side, for the

and, since this increases the

turns a slight edge, or bur

set, it

should be evenly distributed

on both sides of the blade. The filing on each tooth should continue produced by the jointing disappears.
plished, a single stroke will

until

the facet
is

After this

accomit

make

the tooth receiving

lower

than the others.

To

avoid

this, it will

be found best to leave

BENCH TOOLS.
the teeth filed from the
first

41

side a Httle dull, for, in filing the

intermediate teeth after the saw has been turned, the advancing
faces of the others (the teeth
first filed)

are
if

somewhat reduced.
dull points are
still

After every tooth has been passed over,

to

be seen, they

may be sharpened from

dictate.

either side as their

proportions

may

Regularity in the size and form of

the teeth, and a similarity of appearance

either side of the blade, are the tests of

when viewed from good workmanship.

fil-

65. ing
is

Side-Jointing.
finished, the

Usually, when
is

the

saw

ready for use, but

is

it

will cut

more smoothly
teeth.

if it

jointed on the

sides

of the

In Fig. 83,

is

side-

jointed, the surfaces

produced agreeing with

not side-jointed.
use

the dotted fines

Side-jointing

is

may be accomplished by
or an oilstone.
It
is

of either a

file

always

necessary after a swedge set has been used.

Planes and Plane-like Tools.

66.

The

plan and the section, Fig. 84, show a smooth-plane.

The

when of wood, is usually of beech. In it is an i^ig- ^-^ opening, or " throat," b, which receives the
stock a,
iron c
;

this is

held in place by the wedge d.

is

The

lower part of the opening

;

called the

mouth

and, as shown by the figure, the shav-

ing passes into the mouth, and out through

the throat.

work,

is

The bottom of the plane, which rests upon the The iron usually stands at an angle face." called its
''

of 45 degrees with the face.

The bench-worker's
Fig. 85,

set of planes
in

comprises a smooth-plane.

which

is

about 8"

length; a jack-plane. Fig. 86,

which is from 12" to 14" in length; a fore-plane. Fig. 87, from 22" to 26" in length and a jointer, from 28" to 30" in length.
;

42

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.

Similar purposes are served by the jointer and the fore-plane,

the former being unnecessary except tor large surfaces that are
to be planed with accuracy.
IPig.

83
Fig.

8G

Fig.

ST

67.

The Length

of the Plane-Stock determines, in a measure,

the straightness of the work.

Thus, a smooth-plane,

if

used on
will,

Fig. 88

an uneven
as

surface,

shown by

Fig. 88, rise

over elevated portions and

settle in hollows, taking its

shaving without interruption, and

in the outline of the surface, while

producing no great change

jj.j_

go

fore-plane

or

jointer
will,

similarly

applied
Fig.

as

shown

by

89,

cut

only on the higher parts,

and by so doing, produce an even

surface.

The

stock of a smooth-plane

is

made

short so that, by

its

use,

a surface

may be smoothed
it.

without incurring the necessity of

straightening

The

fore-plane will
it

smooth

as well as the smooth-plane, but

not until

has

first

straightened the surface.

The
of
it,

jack-plane

is

used for cutting heavy shavings, and

its

length bears no relation to the character of the work expected

but

is

such as

will

enable the

workman

to grasp

it

easily

and

firmly.

68.

"Plane-Iron"^

for a

wooden plane
edge
is

is

of iron overlaid

in part with steel.

Its cutting

maintained in precisely

the

same way

as that of a chisel.

See 47 and 48.

The

angle

Known

also as " plane-bit."

BENCH TOOLS.
of the cutting wedge, however, for
all

43
except the jack-plane

may be more
69.
is

acute.

The

outline of the cutting edge, unlike that of the chisel,

never straight, being for the jack-plane slightly curved, as

shown by Fig. 90, and for the smooth-plane and fore-plane (also for the jointer) of the
form shown by Fig. 91.

rrip..

01

Being used for

heavy work and frequently removing shavings as thick as one-sixteenth of an inch,

the jack-plane,
straight,

if

its

cutting edge were

in

would produce

the

work

at

each stroke a rectangular channel from

which the shaving must be torn

as well as cut.

Such

a shaving would be likely to stick fast in the throat

of the plane, or, under most favorable conditions, would require a large amount of force for its removal. A shaving removed by the iron represented by Fig.
90, however,
in the
is

not rectangular in section, but thick

the

middle, tapering gradually to nothing at

is

edges.

This form of iron

best adapted to the removal of a large

it

amount of material
plane.

at a stroke, but

leaves a succession of

grooves upon the work which must be smoothed off by another

70.

The form

of the cutting iron in the smooth-plane and

the fore-plane, as

shown by
its

Fig. 91,

is

straight throughout the

greater portion of

width, and slightly rounded at the corners.

The

objections urged against the use of such an iron as this in

the jack-plane,

do not apply

to

its

use in the smooth-plane or

fulfil
its

the fore-plane, because the jack-plane, to

;

office,

must

remove a heavy shaving the smooth-plane or the fore-plane, unless the surface upon which it acts is very much narrower
than the width of the plane,
is

required to remove a shaving

whose thickness

rarely exceeds that of a sheet of paper.

The

44

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.
is
b)'^

groove caused by the removal of so delicate a shaving,

ficiently

suf-

blended with the general surface of the work,

iron.
is

the

rounded corners of the

71. If a rough board

to

be made smooth, or

if

a consider-

amount of material is to be removed to bring a piece of wood to size, most of the surplus stock should be taken off by
able
the jack-plane, after which the smooth-plane should be used to

give the surface desired.

If the finished surface

is

to

be straight

as well as smooth, the fore-plane should follow the jack-plane.

It is

never necessary to follow the jack-plane with both the

smooth-plane and the fore-plane.

72.

The Cap.

A
02

supplementary
^,

iron, or
I^ig-

"cap," shown by
is

Kig.

92,

fastened
Its

to

most plane-irons.
is

use

well

illustrated

by the
iron
will

two sections. Figs. 93 and

94.

The

single

the grain of the

wood

is

favorable,

do smooth work as shown at a.

as long as

When

the

grain

becomes

obstinate, as at d, the shaving,

it

the iron, acquires a leverage which causes

to split in

by running up on advance

BENCH TOOLS.
of the cutting edge, below the reach of which
a surface extremely rough.
it

45
breaks, leaving
is

The
its

office of the
it is

cap

to break

the shaving as soon as possible after

cut, Fig. 94,

and thus

prevent a gain of leverage on

part.

distance at which the cap is set from the edge of the must vary with the thickness of the shaving taken. For a smooth-plane or a fore-plane, a thirty-second of an inch is freiron,

The

quently not too close, while for a jack-plane an eighth of an

inch

may

not be too great a distance.

cutting iron

and cap together are frequently spoken of

as

a " double iron."

73.
in the

Narrowness

of

Mouth

in a plane
If,

is

the chief element

production of smooth surfaces.

in Fig. 94, that porc,

tion of the stock in advance of the iron,

ing, the shaving,

marked
it

were want-

having nothing to hold

down, would rarely

be broken, notwithstanding the presence of the cap.

wide
whatis,

mouth would produce a

similar effect.

This being
the

true,

ever other conditions there

may

be, the wider

mouth

the less frequently the shaving will be broken and, in obstinate

grain, the rougher will

be the work.

46
74.

BENCH WORK
To Adjust the Iron.

IN

WOOD.

To

set the iron deeper, so that

it

a heavier cut

may be
e,

taken, strike

a Hght blow, as indicated

is

by the arrow

Fig. 84.

If a hghter cut

required, strike the

stock as indicated by the arrow /.

right position, a Hght

When

the iron

is

in the

blow

will tighten

the wedge.

To remove
is

the iron

and wedge, turn the plane over so that the face

uppermost, grasp the iron and wedge with the right hand, hold
the back end of the plane between the
left,

and

strike the stock at

thumb and finger of the upon the surface of the bench.

it is

single

blow

is

usually sufficient.
resting

Never

strike the plane while

is

support that
everything
the knee.
;

firm.

It
is

should be held

on the bench or any in the hand clear of

but, if this

not convenient, one end

may

rest

on

To
way
finger

set the iron in a

wooden

plane, hold the stock in such a

fore-

that, while the face rests

on the hand, the end of the

Put the iron

may extend
its
it

across the mouth.

in place,

allowing

cutting edge to rest on the forefinger, which should

Insert the wedge, push
it

keep

from projecting.

down
is
;

with

the thumb,

and by a

light

blow with the hammer drive the iron

down

until its projection

beyond the

level of the face

is

equal
a sin-

to the thickness of the shaving that the plane

to take

gle tap

on the wedge

will

then tighten the iron

in place.

The

distance that the iron projects, can easily be

sighting along the face of the plane.

determined by

The wedge must not be

so distorted

driven too hard, for a plane

as to

may be
when

by a hard-driven wedge

make

it

incapable of

doing good work.

the

The

iron will be held in place even

it

wedge

is

so loose that

may be drawn

out with the fingers.

Notwithstanding the fact that wooden plane-stocks are made

from material
will

little

affected

by atmospheric

influences,

they

warp enough, especially when nearly new, to bring the face When, from this cause, the considerably out of a true plane.
fails to

plane

do good work,

it

must be jointed.

BENCH TOOLS.
75.

47
face

and the

To Joint a Plane, fasten it front end to the right. The

as for work.

in a vise with the

up

iron should be in place, the

cutting edge well back within the mouth,

and the wedge driven

to

It is

now
Ap-

05
7^

necessary to determine whether the plane

be jointed

is

twisted or not (97).

ply two parallel strips, or "winding-sticks,"

(the longer legs of two framing-squares will

answer), one across each end of the plane,

as

indicated

by

Fig.

95.

After

making
if

sure that they are parallel, sight across one

to the other.

As the eye
is is

is

lowered,

the

one farther away

lost sight

of

all

at the

same

time, the plane

"out of wind," and

;

needs only to be straightened

but, if
is

one
ELEVATION.

end of the straight-edge

that

farther

from the eye, disappears before

corners a and

its
it

other
is

end, as in the elevation. Fig. 95,

l>,

evident that the two

diagonally opposite, are high, and

be taken from them than from the other corners.

understanding, the fore-plane or the jointer
until

more must With this

applied
a
true
is

may be
face

the

plane

is

jointed, that

is,

until

the

plane.

During the planing process, frequent

with the parallel strips, to
are

tests

must be made
corners
early stages

make

sure

that the high

being brought

down

properly.

In the

of

the work, the try-square the face

and the

may be used occasionally to keep as nearly as may be at right angles to one side, straightness of the face may be determined either

by sighting or by use of the framing-square as a straightA true face having been produced, the sharp angles edge.
between
it

and the two

sides

should be
if

changed

to

slight

chamfers, inasmuch as the sharp edges,

likely to splinter off.

not removed, are

48

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.
rubbed

few

drops

of
will

lubricating

oil

on

the

newly-

planed surface,
sticking.

prevent wear and

keep shavings from

Wooden bench
of use.

planes have had their day, and are going out

76.

Iron Bench Planes possess the general characteristics of

the
to

wooden ones, but are superior them in several respects. They

never require jointing.

are always perfectly true and, therefore,

The

cutting " iron," which, in this case,

is

not of iron at
planes,

all,

but of
is,

steel, is

much

thinner than that in

Its

wooden
which
it

and
is

therefore,

more

readily sharpened.

greater thinness
is

made

possible
It

supported.

by the thorough manner in may be set and accurately adjusted

in a very short time.

The arrangement
plane.

of parts in Bailey's iron planes

to

may be
;

understood by reference

Fig. 96,
is

which represents a jackit

The

"

wedge

"

of iron of the form shown

slot,

admits the screw

through an enlargement of a short

and
its

drops down, allowing

E to
is

take effect.
to press

By

movement
it

of the

clamp B, the wedge

screw

made

upon the
is

iron near
at

cutting edge, while the

is

clamp presses against never moved. The cutting iron

F.

The

adjusted for

depth of cut by the action of the thumb-screw D, which, when

turned in one direction, moves the iron downward, and when

motion is reversed moves it upward. Thus a single mo\'ement of B releases the wedge and iron, and a reverse movement secures them again, while furnishes a ready and positive means for adjusting the cutting edge with a degree of delicacy which it is impossible to attain in wooden planes. These planes, all having the same adjustments, are
its

made

in

every

size.

BENCH TOOLS.
77.

49

Planes of
had,

Wood and

Iron Combined

may be
a

made up
in
is

of the Bailey move-

ments mounted

a suitable frame, to which

Fig. 97 shows fastened. a Stanley combination smooth-plane.

wooden

face

78.

Circular-Plane has a thin steel face, straight

free,

when

but capable of having

or

its

ends thrust

down
to

drawn up, thus making the

face concave or convex,

and adapting it work on an outside or an inside curve. Fig. 98 shows a Bailey's adjustable cir-

cular-plane.

79,

Block-Planes are small, and are intended

grain.

for use chiefly

on end
instead

They
the

generally have a single inverted iron,

I<"ijr.

which turns the shaving on the bevel

of on
face

00

of

the

iron.

They have many different forms, from among which Fig. 99 has been selected
as

a type.

In this plane the throat

is

may be made narrow

is

or wide as

desired

the

adjustment

controlled by the

screw A.
Fis.

100

80.

Spokeshaves have the action

of planes, but are not usually classified

with them.
Fig. 100.

simple form

is

shown by
tion
it

By

the cross-secit

will

be seen that

has almost
to

no guiding surface corresponding

cction

A B.

the

face
it

(EntargcS)

of a plane.
to

This

feature

adapts
81.

work of

irregular outline.

Rabbeting-Planes have narrow stocks.

is

The
and the

cutting
iron
is

edge

set in the face of the plane obliquely,

wide enough to extend beyond the sides of the stock, as shown

50
by Fig. loi.

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.
for use in interioi

Rabbeting-planes are designed

146.

angles, as Imk, Fig.

The oblique

position of the iron

produces a shearing cut which pro-

motes smoothness

in action.

The shaving

of the rabbeting-plane
is

instead of passing through the stock

turned in such a way as

to

be

dis-

charged from

one side

an arrange-

ment common to matching-planes, beading-planes, moldingplanes, and plows (82, 83, 84, and 85).
82.

Matching-Planes are used

matching-planes,
Fig.

to

form a tongue and a

b, Fig.

groove, as shown respectively by a and

102.

Wooden

102,

are

Via. 103

sold in pairs, one plane being fitted with a

single cutting edge, to

form the groove, the

" fence "

other with a double cutting edge, to form the

tongue.
C, which
face

Both are guided by the

moves
the

in contact with the

working

of

piece

operated

upon.

The

groove and the tongue should both be carried to as great a depth

cut.

as

the

plane will

An
Its

iron matching-plane, designed to serve

the purpose of the two

wooden

ones,

is

now

in general use.
it

fence

is

pivoted to the face in such a way that

;

can be

turned end for efid

in

one position two cutters are exposed

is

103

and the plane

adjusted to form the tongue

is

when
for

its

position

reversed, the fence covers one

of the cutting edges, and puts the plane in shape

making the groove.

size

The
match.

of matching-planes

is

indicated by the

tliickness

of the material they are intended to

BENCH TOOLS.
83.

51

Hollow and Round are terms applied to such planes shown by A and B, Fig. 103. They are used, as their forms suggest, in producing hollows and in rounding projecting edges. Their size is indicated by a number, or by the width of
as are

the cutting edge.

84.

Beading-Planes are used

single or double, that

in
is,

forming beads (220), and

they

may be

form one or two

vi-^. 10-i

beads at a time.

For beading on the edge of work, For

they are provided with a fence, A, Fig. 104.

use away from the edge, they are

made

to

form three

Fig.

lOG

or

more beads
in

at the

same time, and have

as

no guide,

which case they are known

reeding- planes, Fig. 105.

The
jjlane

first

three
straight-

beads are made with the

guided by a

edge temporarily fastened

the remainder are

to the surface of the

work

formed by using those already

made
work
beading-planes,
structed on

as a guide, the plane being

at the rate of only

moved

into

new

one bead

at a time.

Other

more complicated than those described, are conthe same principle as a plow. The size of a beading-plane is indicated by the width of the bead it will form.

much

85.

Plows are used

in

making rectangular
the cut
is

slots or "

plows

"

of any width, depth, and distance from the working-edge of

the material.

The width of

ordinarily determined

by the width of
is

the iron used.

set of irons
is

sup-

plied with the tool, which

Fig.

shown by
than
the

T06.

A plow

wider

widest iron can, of course, be

made

by going over the work a second time.

The depth
a
little

of the cut

is

regulated by
is

shoe (not shown), which

raised or lowered

by the

screw A.

When

this

is

adjusted, the tool can be used until

52

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD,
in contact with the

the lower surface of the shoe

comes

face

of the work, after which the cutting ceases.

Care should be
points along the

taken that the

full

depth

is

reached at

all

length of the work.

The

distance between the groove and the

is

working-edge

is

regulated by the fence B, which

adjusted

by nuts

acting on the screws

D.

When

ready for use, the

fence should be parallel to the narrow iron face-piece E.

86.

Combination Planes whicli may be used

etc.,

in place of the

plow, beading-plane, rabbeting-plane,

are

found on the

market, and
87.

many

of

them

are serviceable tools.

Scrapers.
XPiR-.

Hand-scrapers are made of saw-plate material

loT

of about the thickness of a panel-

saw blade, and having the same degree of

hardness.

They

are usually rectangular,

and about 4" x 5", but may be of almost any size and shape. The cutting edge is most easily formed by the production of
_.5

a surface

at right angles

to

the

sides,

as indicated

by

ab, Fig. 107, thus giving

two cutting angles, ccf and

acute cutting edge
Fig. 108
is little
is

dfe.

When

desired, the form

a more shown by

^"'

maybe adopted;
is

but, as a rule, there

gained by the keener cutting edge, and

required to keep
filing
it

double the labor

sharp.
If

Scrapers are sharpened by

or grinding.

smooth work
rougher edge

is

to

be done, the roughness of the

oilstone, but the

edge may be removed on an

will

cut faster and, generally, will

be more satisfactory. Fig. 100 Fig. 109 shows a scraper mounted somewhat like a plane. The scraper blade A, by

means of the two nuts B, B, may be changed

from a position inclined to the
to
face, as

shown,

one perpendicular

to the face.

BEN'CH TOOLS.

53

Boring Tools.
88.

Augers.
are

Fig.

no
Ijy

shows a double-twist spur auger,

a form generally used

carpenters.

Fiy.llO
3SSXiXSZz

They

made

in sizes varying

from

^" to 4" (in diameter), but are not

much used below

Fig. Ill,
is

i".

The spur A,
its

in the

form of a tapered
motion, draws or
score the work,

screw, which, besides centering the auger in

"feeds"

it

into the work.

The two
I<

nibs

B,

and the

lips C,

cut and remove the shavings, which are carried

ig.

Ill

to the surface Fig.

by the screw-like action of the body of the

tool.

112 shows part of a single-twist auger which, as

will

be seen, has but a single nib B, and a single cutting

lip

C.

The

cuttings are thrown into the center of the hole,

Ki^c. 11-^

and de-

livered easily
to the

by

this auger,

and, in

tliis

respect,

it

is

superior

double-twist, which crowds the cuttings to the outside

of the hole, where they are likely to

the tool and the work.

become jammed between

This characteristic of the single-twist

auger particularly adapts

it

to the boring of

deep

holes.

" Ship augers " are kind,

of

this

and have
This form of handle

handles like the one shown by Fig. 113.

54

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.

has the advantage of allowing the use of both hands, without the
interruption experienced in using the one illustrated by Fig.

no.

Augers are seldom required by the bench-worker, but are

presented here because of their relation to other boring
89.
tools.

Auger-Bits.
It is

The

auger-bit most in use

is

shown by

Fig. 114.

sold in sets of thirteen bits each, varying in

size

by sixteenths, from \"

^^*

to i".

Each

bit

is

marked
its

by a small figure on the

shank, which
size in the scale of sixteenths.

indicates
is

Thus

the figure 9

to be inter-

preted as y\".
go.

Augers and auger-bits are sharpened by

filing.
first

The
part

scoring nib B, Figs,

to

in

and 112, which

is

usually the

become dull, should be filed wholly from the inside. If filed on the outside, the diameter of the cut it makes will be The cutting lip C smaller than that of the body of the bit.
should be sharpened from the lower side, the
to preserve the original angle.
file

being inclined

With the spur

it

in

good

order,

whenever the

tool refuses to " feed,"

is

clear that the bit

needs sharpening somewhere.

91.

Center-Bits are convenient for boring holes

in delicate material,

of large

diameter

such as would be likely to spht

under the action of an auger-bit.

By

reference to Fig. 115,

it

will

be seen that the spur A,

bit

-^

=^
'
""
""

which centers the

work,
is

the

"^^IKr

^^^

:-y

triangular in section.

This form allows the bit to feed

rapidly, or very slowly, in

accordance with the degree of pres-

sure applied to

it.

The

point, or "nib,"

B cuts

the fibers about

the proposed hole,

The may

center-bit
easily

and the cutting lip C removes the material. does not work well in end grain. When dull it

be sharpened by whetting.

BENXH TOOLS.
92.

55
as to

Expansive Bits are so constructed

forms
without
in

be adjust-

able for holes of any size, within certain limits.

several
use,

There are
Fig.

one of which

is

shown by

116.

This,

the

Fi-. IIG

movable cutter C,
will

bore

hole

f " in diameter, the

screw

centering
it

and feeding
advance of
inserted as

into the work,

scoring,

and a cutting

lip

in
is

(not shown) removing the shavings.

When C

shown
is

in the figure, in addition to the action just

described, there
nib, B', scoring,

a supplementary action on the part of C,

its

its

and

cutting edge removing the chips.

cutter

is

held in place by the screw

D.

The By loosening D, C
bit,

may be moved from

or towards the center of the

or taken

out altogether, and replaced by a cutter of different length.

By

using a short cutter in the place of C, a hole of any diameter

from I" to 2" may be bored, and with the cutter shown, any hole from 2" to 3" may be bored. The range of the bit, therefore, is

from |"

to 3".

93.

Small

Bits.

Bits for boring holes less than

\"

in

diamis

eter are of

many
'

forms, but by far the most satisfactory

"quill " bit

the

''

117.

It

shown by Fig. has no delicate

split the

it

will

not

matehole,

rial

it

enters the
dull

work

rapidly,

makes a round, smooth

and when
ing.

can

easily

be sharpened by whetting or grindQuill bits as

It will not,

however, work with the grain.

small as y^g" in diameter are in

common
\ 1

use.

Gimlet-bits are illustrated by Fig.

8,

of the best forms.

bits

Most

^.

which represents one ,,

of this class are too

to render the ser-

weak

$6

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.
or broken.

vice expected of them, and soon

become bent

They

are Ukely to split the

94.

work and are not

easily sharpened.
for

Bit-Braces.

The

well-made wooden brace, which

a long time ornamented the walls of the cabinet-maker's shop,

has disappeared, and the lighter and more

convenient iron
is

brace

is

used

in its stead.

simple form of iron brace

rep-

resented by Fig. 119.

To

insert a bit, grasp the sleeve

and,

holding

it

firmly, turn the brace out

by using the other hand on

sufficiently to

B.

When

the jaws, C, are

it

opened

admit the

bit

shank, put

in place, reverse the

motion of the hand on B, and

the bit will be fastened.

Fid. 110

ratchet brace

is

shown by

Fig.

120.

Its office is to

turn

making a complete revolution, has only a forward and backward movement. As represented by the section AB, the frame c is fastened to the body of the brace of which it becomes a part, d is a spindle which terminates in the socket c, and / is a ratchet-wheel,
the bit forward while the brace
itself,

instead of

which
is

is

fastened to d.

On

each side of the ratchet-wheel there

a pawl which,

when

free to

move

in

response to the action of

a spring, engages the notches in the ratchet-wheel /.

pawls thus engaged, the brace

may be used

in precisely the

With the same

way
g,

as the

one already described.

is

But, by turning the ring

one of the pawls

disengaged, and the other acting alone

BENCH TOOLS.
will

57
is

move

the spindle

only

when
is

the brace

moving

in

one

direction, the

pawl simply slipping over the notches of the

ratchet-wheel
bit

when

the motion

reversed.

In this way, a

may be

driven to any depth although each

the brace

may be

less

than half of a complete turn.

g,

proper movement of the ring

reversed.

the motion of

movement of By a the bit may be

Kig.

120

Section

B,

(Enlarged)

The

ratchet-brace
it is

is

useful in boring holes near walls, or in

corners where

impossible to turn a
is

common
its

brace.
is,

The

size of

any brace

indicated by

" swing," that

Fig. 119.

by the diameter of the

rusting.

circle described

by B,

The

better class are nickel-plated,

and are thereby prevented from

58
95.

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.
is

"Universal, Angular, Bit-Stock," such as

is,

repre-

sented by Fig. 121,

for

many

purposes, more useful than

the ratchet-brace.

The
at

bit is inserted at

A, and a

common
of the

brace
parts

is is

apphed

C.

The mechanical arrangement

such, that,

when

the brace turns the spindle C, the part

which holds the one part

bit is also turned,

notwithstanding the

in-

clination of

to the other.'

Compared

with the ratchet-

brace, this has the advantage of producing a continuous motion

of the

bit.

By

its

use a hole

may be bored

in the corner as

easily as in the

middle of a room.

The

angle of the joint

one of 180 degrees, by an adjustment

96.

may be changed from at D.

that

shown

to

a brad-awl

A convenient substitute for Automatic Boring Tool. The drill, or bit, A is is represented by Fig. 122.

Considered as a mechanical movement,

this is

known

as

Hooke's

joint.

BENCH TOOLS.

59

held in a suitable chuck C, at the end of the bar Z>, which

runs in B.

The

drill

is

brought into contact with the work,

and pressure in the direction of the arrow, slides B down upon with the drill to revolve. The D, and this movement causes full extent of the movement having been reached, a relaxing of

pressure leaves
the

D free to return

to

its first

position, as shown,

rotary motion of A, meanwhile, being reversed.

drill

These
122,
fur-

impulses can be imparted to the

the

with great rapidity, and

work

is

quickly done.
full

The

dots below the figure,

drills

indicate the

diameter of the different

tool.

which are

nished with the

Miscellaneous Tools.
97. Winding-Sticks, or "parallel strips," are

wooden
its

strips

of any convenient length, the edges of which are straight and

parallel.

When

applied to a surface, they increase

breadth

in effect,

and by thus giving a better opportunity of compariis

son,

show whether the surface

" in wind," or twisted.

For

an

illustration of their use, see 75.

98.

Hand

Screw-Drivers are

in

form similar to that shown

by

Fig. 123.

The

part which

is

to
1

engage the screw should

24,

have parallel

sides, as

shown by

Fig.

and never be wedge-

ITio-.

123

shaped. Fig. 125.

In the latter case,

it

will

be seen that force

applied in an attempt to turn a screw, will have a tendency

toward

lifting the

screw-driver from

its

place.

set of three or four screw-drivers,

having blades varying in

6o

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.
good
fit

size to suit different-sized screws, so that a fairly

may

always be made, are indispensable to good work where screws

Fig. lJ2o

are

much

used.

99.

Brace Screw-Drivers, instead of having

handles, are provided with shanks for

wooden

use in a brace.
Fig. 126.
tion,

good form

is

The brace

gives a continuous

shown by mo-

and
be

Ki^.

IQG

the screw

may
set
its

much more

rapidly

by
There are many
cases,
is

use than with the hand screw-driver,

useless.

however, in which a brace

100.

Hammers.
is

Fig. 127
steel.

shows a carpenter's hammer.

The
comone.

head

wholly of

The

face

is

hardened so as not
nail, w^hich
is

to be injured by repeated blows

upon the

paratively soft, but the idea prevailing

among inexperienced
is

workmen,

that

the

hammer

is

indestructible,

a false

When

two bodies are brought together forcibly, as a

hammer

and a
its

nail,

the softer

body

yields,

form.

If the nail were harder than the

and a change takes place in hammer, it would not

be injured, but the hammer would show an impression of the Careless or ignorant workmen sometimes take an nail head.

BENCH TOOLS.
old
file

6l
it.

for a
is

punch or a
is

nail-set,

and use a hammer upon

is

The

file

harder than the hammer, and the result

badly scarred.

that the

face of the latter

The claw
withdrawing

makes the hammer a very

size

effective

tool

for

nails.

Hammers

vary in

from seven to twenty ounces

the
to

bench-worker usually employs one weighing from fourteen

sixteen ounces.
loi.

The Hatchet

is

a useful tool for bringing large pieces

of material to

size roughly,

and

in skillful

hands
it

it

may be

used with accuracy as well as

with the

effect.

When

is

compared

hammer,

it

will

be seen that a blade C, Fig. 128, takes

the place of the claw C, Fig. 127.

As an instrument
d, for
is

for drivnails,

ing nails

it is

clumsy, and the opening

little.

withdrawing

amounts

to but

In sharpening, the hatchet

ground on

both sides of the blade, and whetted on an oilstone.

The difference in effect between a blow hammer and one given by a mallet is so great that, although similar in many respects, the two tools are adapted to widely different uses. A blow from a hard, elastic hammer is
102.

Mallets.

given by a

sharp and decisive, and

it

its

force

is

absorbed almost as soon as

its

is

received.
local.

Comparatively speaking, therefore,

If

effect

must be
for

such a blow
its

is

received on a chisel handle,

is

example, a large part of

force

wasted in affecting the

62

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.

handle, a part only being transmitted through the handle to

the cutting edge, the only place where
it

can be of use.
is

blow from a
general in

soft,

less

elastic mallet,

on the contrary,

more

its effect.

Much

of the force remains for an instant

it

stored in the mallet, by which

ually, allowing

is

given out somewhat grad-

time for the impulse to pass beyond the point

where

it

is

received.

The

effect of

two different explosive

As compared with nitroglycerine, powder burns slowly, and, when put into a rifle barrel, gradually develops its force upon the bullet until, when the latter reaches the end of the barrel, it has gained velocity enough
agents will serve as an illustration.
to carry
it

a mile or more.

But

if

a charge of nitro-glycerine,

having a total explosive force no greater than that of the powder,

ity

be substituted, the

result will

be very

different.

with which nitro-glycerine burns

the

The

rapid-

suddenness of the
to its influ-

impulse

is

such

that, before the bullet

is

can respond

ence, the breach of the barrel

destroyed.

The blow
powder on a
is

of a mallet on a chisel resembles the action of

bullet.
It is
a.

pushing a.c\.\or\, and,

in this respect,

hammer. A chisel, therefore, will be driven deeper into the work by a blow from a mallet than by one of the same force from a hammer, while a chisel handle
unlike
that

of the

which has withstood blows from a mallet for years, may be shattered in a single hour by use under a hammer.

An

excellent form of mallet

is

shown by

Fig. 129.

BENCH TOOLS.
103.

63

Sand-Paper

is

neither a tool nor an appliance, strictly

its

speaking, but, on account of

tool-like

action,
in

it

should be

mentioned with them. is crushed quartz, and

glued to paper.

The "sand" used

is

making sand-paper It is very hard, angular, and sharp.

sand-paper
is

graded as to degree of coarseness, by precipitation, and then

The

finest
4^,

marked
3,

00, from which

is

the gradations run o,

i,

i^, 2, 2^,

and

which
the

the coarsest.
light

104.
strips of

Miter-Boxes are useful

in cutting
;

ends of

wood

at

an angle of 45 degrees

they are fretjuently

of wood, like the

adapted

to cutting at other angles.

When

one represented by Fig. 219, they are usually made by the

workman himself. A wooden miter-box is composed of three pieces a bottom and two sides. It is necessary that the bottom piece

be uniform
it is

in

width and thickness, and have jointed edges, and

well to prepare the other pieces in the

is

same way.

After

the box

nailed, the sides should be square with the outside

face of the

bottom piece

this surface

may now be used

two

as

a working-face.

Lay

off across the working-face

lines at a

distance apart equal to the width of the face, thus forming with
the outside edges of the box, a square.

The

diagonals of this
c,

square will represent the two oblique cuts, one marked

the one taken by the saw, Fig. 219.
lines

and

Project up the sides such

from the points thus

;

fixed, as will

be useful in making the

cuts

the sawing

is

then done with the back-saw.

t/.

No

special

directions are required for laying off the cut

105.

Iron Miter-Boxes are

,^

fi-.

iso

now

in general use.

The

ac-

curacy with which work

may

be done by the
will

use

of one

more than compensate any

for

bench-worker
invested in
it.

the
1

money
;

Fig.

30 may be taken as a type

the

work

64
is

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.

supported by the frame as shown, while the proper position of

is

the saw

maintained by the uprights B, which, in the sawing

process, slide
at

down

into the standards C.

The saw may be

set

any angle with the back of the box D, by swinging the frame

E, which supports the standards C;

suitable fastening operated

is

held in position by a

by F.

io6.

Bench Clamps

are useful in holding two or

more pieces

of material together temporarily.

They

are particularly valu-

able for keeping pieces that have been glued, in place until they
are dry.

Wooden clamps, or hand-screws,

Fig. 131.

are of the form

The whole

length of the jaws,

AB

shown by and A^B\ may

be made

to bear evenly

upon the work, or

to bear harder at

certain points, as

AA^

or

BB\
makes.

Iron clamps are illustrated by Fig. 132, but the mechanical

arrangement

differs in different

Such clamps are very

Fis.

13S

Fig. 131

useful in

many

kinds of work, but,

all

things considered,

it

is

doubtful whether they are as serviceable to the bench-worker

as the

wooden ones

just described.

107.

Grindstones are selected with reference to their "grit."

coarse, soft-grit stone will

idly than

one of

finer grit, but the

remove material much more rapsurface produced will be

Thus,

very rough compared with that produced by the other.

BENCH TOOLS.
when
better
grit
it is

65

necessary to remove material for the purpose of givis

ing shape to a casting or forging, the coarse, soft-grit stone

;

but

if

a smooth cutting edge

is

required, one of fine

tools,

should be used.

For wood-working

a stone rather

fine

and

soft

is

found best.
to

The speed of a power grindstone

feet a minute, de-

must vary from 500

pending upon
with which
it

1000 circumferential

its

diameter, and the accuracy and

It

steadiness

runs.

may

not be well to run a 20" stone

5'

results if

beyond the minimum limit, while one of 4' or run beyond the maximum. As a
tool=grinding
is

may
run

give

good
it

rule,
if

a stone for
faster,

at its

maximum
its

speed when,

would throw water from

face.
is

By

circumferential speed

meant the speed of the circumferfound by multiplying the diameter

ence of the stone.

of the stone, in

This

is

feet,

by

3.

14 16 (ratio of diameter to circum-

ference), which will give the circumference of the stone, in feet,

and
^

this

product by the number of revolutions per minute.'

Example

/.

A 4'

stone

is

run at 30 revolutions a minute; what

is its

circumferential speed?

The circumference
4'

of a 4' stone

is

X 3.1416=
it

12.56'.
if it

This would be the speed of the stone

per minute; but, since

were

to

make
is

but

revolution

makes 30

revolutions,

its

speed

12.56'

X 30=

376.80' or 377' (nearly).

Example
tial

II.

It

is

desired that a 30" stone should have a circumferen-

speed of 280' per minute.

How many

revolutions should

it

make?

30" =2.5'.

The circumference

of a stone 2.5' in diameter

is

2.5'

X 3-1416=

7.85'.
if it is

This would be the speed of the stone

minute.
the

were

to

make

revolution per

But the circumferential speed

of revolutions

280' per minute, and therefore

number

made must be

280' H- 7.85

= 36

(nearly).

66
1

BENCH WORK
08.

IN

WOOD.
off

Water

is

used on a stone as a means of carrying

;

the heat resulting from friction between stone and tool

it

also

washes away the particles of stone and

steel that

come from
the inter-

the grinding, and which, without the water, w^ould

stices

fill

between the cutting points of the stone, and make the

surface so

smooth

as to be useless.
in use, should not stand in or over

grindstone,

when not

water.

Water
will

softens a stone,

and one unequally exposed

in

to

moisture

be found

softest

such

places

as

are

most

exposed.

When

brought into use, the softer parts wear away

more

rapidly than the others, causing the stone to

become "out
is

of round."

Water

is

best supplied from a tank, or from service

it

pipes, so arranged that

may be

shut off

when

the stone
all

not

running, the drip-pan under the stone being at

fectly

times per-

drained.

After every precaution has been taken, the

stone will in time

109.

become untrue and need

a Grindstone.

attention.

To

True

When

stone

becomes

untrue, or the outline of the face, which should be slightly convex,

becomes concave,

it

may be

corrected by using a piece of

soft iron as a turning tool, the stone

being run dry.

:

The

action

of the tool

may be

explained as follows

the soft iron allows

in its surface,

small particles of the stone to

imbed themselves

from which position they act against the revolving stone, and the cutting is done by these imbedded particles and not by the
iron.
is worn in the process, however, and, as its enlarged, it should be turned to bring becomes cutting surface

The

latter

new

angle or face into action.

This operation
i

is

easily per-

formed by using a piece of gas pipe (about

") for a turning tool.

no. Truing Devices are now generally attached to power They are of several forms, of which that shown by Fig. 133 may be taken as an example. The base of this atgrindstones.

tachment

is

secured to the grindstone frame as near the stone as

may be

convenient.

is

a hardened steel screw v/hich revolves

BENCH TOOLS.
freely

^y

on

at C, in

D,

bearings B. The frame in which runs is pivoted such a way that by a movement of the hand-wheel will move forward in the direction of the arrow. By
its

adjusting the hand-wheel

face of the

D,

is

brought into contact with the

moving

stone,

and

at

once
its

begins to revolve.

The
it

action of

thread would
it

move

endwise, were
bearings.

not prevented by

its

The

advancement of the thread, which is not met by a

effect of this angular

corresponding

lateral
is

movement
becomes

of

the parts in contact,

stone.
recut.

a shearing cut across the face of the

dull
it

When

the screw

may be

softened and

111.

Oilstones.

The

most useful

of

all

oilstones

are

found near Hot Springs, Arkansas.

classes,

They

are divided into two

known
stone.

to

the trade as the

is
is

Arkansas stone and the

in

Washita

The former
It

of very fine grain, appearing

much

like white marble.

used

sharpening the most

delicate

instruments, and

produces an edge of remarkable

is

keenness.

The Washita

stone

much

coarser in grain, with a

color sometimes almost white, but

lines of a reddish cast.
It cuts

more frequently shaded by with rapidity, and with much

greater delicacy than would be expected of so coarse a stone.

Probably no better oilstone exists for sharpening wood-working

and

similar tools.

112.

Oil

is

used on an oilstone

for the

same reason
it

that

water

is

used on a grindstone.

To be

serviceable,

should be

as free as possible

from

all

tendency to become thick or gummy.

or even lard
oil,

A good
oil is

quality of

sperm

oil,

may be used

olive

frequently

recommended.

113.

could be

Form of Oilstones. It is evident that if oilstones made round, and mounted like grindstones, they could

68
be used more
able.

BENCH WORK
effectively than

IN

WOOD.
a small block
is
is

when only

avail-

The

reason they are not so mounted

that, in their

native bed, the whetstone layers are traversed in every direction

by veins of hard quartz, which,

stone,

if

allowed to enter into a finished

tool that

would destroy the cutting edge of any

it.

might

be applied to

It is

so

uncommon

to find large pieces of

whetstone free from the quartz, that disks above 4" or 5" in

diameter can be afforded only by those to whose work they are

indispensable.

For bench purposes, Washita stones are about i" x 2" x 7" but no attempt is made to have them Fig. 134 Such a stone, when qJ- ^^j^y uniform size.
set into a block

and provided with a

is

cover to keep out the dust,

for

ready
surface

use.

See Fig.

134.

Its

should be kept as nearly as possible straight, in the direction of

its

length,

and should never be hollowed across

it

its

breadth.

When
114.

out of shape

must be trued.

Slips of Washita stone

s(iuare,
i^'i ^-.

whose cross-sections are round,

triangular,
etc.,

are

supplied
slip
is

i:jo

7
115.
the mixture
to the surface of a flat
is

i)y
is

i\^Q

trade.

A
by

wedge-shaped
Fig.

represented

135

it

form extremely useful to the benchworker.

To True an Oilstone, mix water with sharp sand until Apply a quantity of this is thin enough to run.
board or plank, and, with the face that
in

to

be trued

contact with the saud-covered board,

its

move

the stone about, frequently changing the direction of

motion.

Under
up

this

treatment, the surface of the stone will be evened

If the

rapidly.

sand that

is

first

applied becomes dull,

it

may be

replaced by new.

BENCH TOOLS.

69

Another, and usually a more convenient way, consists in substituting for the

sand a sheet of sand-paper tacked over the

edge of the board. Coarse paper may be used at first, and afterwards a finer grade selected for finishing the work.

PART
oi*;o

II.

BENCH
Ii6.

-WORK.i

No work

at the

that relating to the location

bench (9-13) is more important than and production of lines. Carelessalways be manifest in the
it

ness or want of

skill in this will

fin-

ished work.

To

the beginner

may seem monotonous, and

even hard,
a shaving
;

to stand at the

bench several hours before turning

but he must understand that a scratch cannot be

that

called a line, and

patience and accuracy are the chief

requisites in skillful manipulation.

117. Location of Points (14-17).

All

measurements must

begin somewhere.
to begin, the

The greater the number of points from which

there are for mistakes.

more chances

Thus

in

Note.

The

material, or "stock,"

needed

for the

exercises of the

course should be straight-grained, free from

knots, well-seasoned, and

is

machine-dressed.
to he preferred.

good

quality of either white pine or yellow poplar

in

Good work cannot be done

poor material.

difficult.

By easy steps the operations to be performed become more and more The student should not advance to a new exercise until the pre-

ceding one has been completed in a good, workman-like manner.

ure, unless the result of accident,
trial

fail-

should invariably be followed by another

is

of the exercise.

Otherwise, a careless habit

brief,

encouraged.
its

The
which

course

may appear

but experience has demonstrated

comto

pleteness as a preparation for constructive

it

work

in

any of the

lines
if

leads.

After the fifteen exercises have been finished,

time

remains, any ordinary piece of bench work

may be undertaken.

72
measuring from
take.
If

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.
is

E to F,

Fig. 136, there

one chance

for a mis-

is

located by measuring from F, then in the loca-

Fig. 13G

BENCH WORK.
face,
;

73

but not both if it is to receive lines on four faces, as A, B, and D, two of them, as A and B, for example, must be working-faces ; if on six faces, three must be working- faces. For example, suppose lines are to be made on the surface A, Fig. those running across the piece, 136, from ^ as a working-face
C,
;

as ad, will then

be made perpendicular to B, and those running

If,

lengthwise, as rd, parallel to B.

ing-face
is

on the contrary, the workthe lines are

disregarded, and

some of

made from

some from D, truth of B and as parallelism, and hence

B and

their truth will

depend not only on the individual surfaces, but also upon their
is

there

a double chance of error.

Only

one
as

face, therefore, should

be used from which to do the lining be made on

all

for a given surface.

If lines are to

four sides,
all

A, B, C, and D, and

and

are the working-faces,

all lines

lines

on

and

C can

be

made from B, and

It will
it

on

and
in

Z> can be

made from A.

be seen, therefore, that

is

making a piece a
the

true square in section,

necessary to use

beam

of the square on only two faces.

EXERCISE
120.

No.

r.

Measuring
is

and Lining.

The

stock required

i| inches thick, 4 inches wide,

Fig. 137
directions,

and 4 feet long, or, as usually written, if" x 4" X 4'. shows the completed exercise.^ To aid in following
it

will

be well to

letter the four faces of the

work A, B,

C,

and

Z), respectively, as

indicated by Fig. 137

as

(End

Elevation), and

to

mark two of them,

and B, working-faces.

Operations to be performed on Face A, from Working- Face, Fig. 137.

121.
pencil

as

Spacing with Pencil and Rule (i8). By use of and rule, lay off points a, 1" apart along the whole
is

Fig. 137

broken

in

accordance with the principles given in

6.

74

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.

length of the piece, the Hne of points being kept straight by

preserving a uniform distance between

face

them and the workingis

B.
will

This distance

may be

anything that

convenient,

and

be

sufficiently accurate if

determined by the eye.

2),

n
L
4

-idY
I I I

1J
ft
ft

ft

ft

ft

ft

((

III
,

ka

II

<i

<i

Working Face B.

Face A.

END ELEVATIOr

Face B.

Face
122. 21).
line,

C.

The
as
<r/>

Cross-lining with Pencil

and Framing-Square (19-

points having been located, draw through each a

(Face A), using the framing-square and pencil.

BENCH WORK.
While a
line is

75

being produced by the outside of the shorter

leg of the square be, Fig. 138, allow the longer leg ab to drop

down

so that

its

inside

edge may be firmly pressed against the

d.

working-face, as indicated by the arrows

When

the progress

Fig. 138

JIT

of the lining causes the leg ab to project beyond the work so

much
shown

as

to

be imperfectly guided by the working-face, as

its

at a'h\ Fig. 138,

position should be reversed as indi-

cated by the dotted outline.

in using

This method must be observed

any similar

tool, as the try-square, bevel, etc.

123.

Chalk-Lining (36).
apart, the
first

Lay

off points

on

lines

ab and

ad
to

1^"

point in each case being |" from the

located, chalk-lines are

working-face.

Through the points thus

first

be made, as shown by face A, Fig. 137.

Insert the awl at the

point on the line ab, and drawing

the cord tight with one hand, apply the chalk with the other,

beginning at the awl.

chalk
is
it

Care must be taken that the cake of

not cut to pieces by the cord.

easy to hold the cord under the

little

practice will
in

make

thumb

such a way

as to form a small shoulder

on the chalk, Fig. 139, which by

7^

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.

the friction of the cord will be gradually carried across the face

of the cake

another

is

then formed to take

it

its

place.

When

the cord has been chalked, stretch

over the point on the line

Fig.

140

ad
awl

that corresponds to the point

is

on the

line

ab

at

which the

inserted.

Then

raise the

cord near the middle as shown

by Fig. 140, and by suddenly releasing it, cause it to " snap " on the surface of the work. In snapping, the cord should be drawn up vertically, for if drawn at an inclination as shown by
a, Fig. 141,

a wide blurred line will

be produced.
for

Repeat

this

operation

each of the points, finishing face

as shown.

A
S.

Each

line

should be
to

clear

and well-defined.

Try

make
be-

141

each one better than the preceding.

t\veen the

Never snap more than once same points.

Operations to be performed on Face B, from

as a

Working- Face,
124.
the

Fig.

137.

Lining with Pencil and Try-Square (22).

Hold
use

beam

of the scjuare firmly against the working-face, and,

using the outside edge of the blade as a guide, continue across

face

the lines on the working-face which were

If the

made by

of the framing-s(iuare.
lines will
etc.,

be

sharj), straight,

work has been well done, the and parallel, as shown by ab, cd,

Face B,

Fig. 137.

BENCH WORK..
125.
is

77

to

be

Lining with Pencil and Bevel (23-25). set at an angle of 45 degrees, and the

The bevel
lines ag, fg,

drawn from the points made by the intersection of the lines already drawn and the working-face, Face B, Fig. 137. Let the beam of the bevel bear firmly on the working-face.
etc.,

126.

"Gauging" Lines with Pencil and Rule.

to

These
left

lines, as ik, hi, etc., are

be spaced \" apart, as shown by

end, in the

Face B.
Grasp the
rule at a

proper distance from

its

hand, and press the forefinger against the working-face, to

which the
the right

rule is perpendicular, as shown by Fig. 142. With hand apply the pencil to the work, and at the same time press it against the end of the rule. In this way, the pencil against the rule, and the fingers of the left hand against

the working-face,

move along
It
is

the length of the work, thus pro-

ducing a
.

line parallel to

Fig.

142

the working-face.

not necessary to lay off

points, since the distance

between the pencil and

the edge can always be

known by
In making

obserx'ing the

graduations of the rule.

a
line,

the

pencil will be

more
if
is

easily

kept in position
siderable force

con-

used in pressing

it

against
it

the

rule

to

prevent this force from displacing the rule,

must be met
See arrows

by a greater force acting

c

in the opposite direction.

and

d.
is

This

a rapid

working-face, where exactness

method of producing lines parallel is not demanded.

to

the

78

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.

Operation to be Performed on Face Working- Face, Fig. 137.

127.

from

as a

and

lines

Spacing by Use of Scriber (37) and Rule. made with a pencil, while accurate enough

Points
for

many

purposes, are too inexact to define the proportions of different

parts of a joint.

Where good

fitting

of any kind
all

is

required,
lines

the pencil should not be used, but

points and

be

made make

with a scriber.

The

scriber should be sharp,

and should

a clearly-defined cut, not a dent.

rule, then, to

Using the

determine the distances, substitute

along the length of the work

the scriber for the pencil, and, following the dimensions given

(Face D, Fig. 137), lay

off points

through which the lines ah,

128.

cd, etc., are to

be drawn.

Lining with Scriber and Try-Square.

Through

the

points already placed, scribe lines, as ab, cd, etc., with the trysquare.

is
it

Care must be taken that the advancing edge of the scriber not turned out from the scjuare blade ; in such a case,
is

likely to "

run out " from the square and give a crooked

in

line.

Neither should the scriber be turned

After a

so

much

as to

crowd the square from its position. can be scribed easily and rapidly.
129.

little

practice, lines

Lining with Scriber and Bevel.

it

Set the

bevel at an

angle of 45 degrees and, using

as before, scribe lines from

the ends of the try-square lines, as

shown by
130.

he, ad, etc.

Gauge-Lining

(32the

35).

The gauge provides

production
to

most ready means

curate
parallel

for the ac-

of

lines

a
in

working-face.
Fig.

As shown

143,

the

beam

of the gauge

carries

BENCH WORK.
a steel spur C, which does the marking.

79

also

carries

head D, which

is

adjustable on the beam.

To
tween
face

use the gauge, adjust the head so that the distance be-

it and the spur C is equal to that between the workingthen close the fingers over the and the required line head and extend the thumb on the beam towards the spur, as shown by Fig. 143. Holding the gauge in this manner, bring
;

the head against the working-face,

move

the gauge along the

work, and the

line

will

be produced.
the

To

pre-

^^^p^"^^'

vent the spur from sticking,

first

stroke

make a which may be

should

light line,

strength-

^.:-

'

:^ n^ f_2: JL-

-^-^-^-^^^^j'-y

ened by a second, and

even a third passing of
the gauge.

^Ig^;:g?^-r^--=;^37^~ - --Jj^^^.^ ^^Xp

the line in each case
is

The depth of
It
is

regulated by

turning the gauge as indicated by the relative position of

and X,

Fig. 144. tool

is

obvious that no spacing

is

necessary

when this By use

Fig. 137-

to

be used.
eg, etc..

of the gauge, lay off the lines _//;,

Face D,

Operations to be performed on Face

C,

from

j5

as

Working- Face,

Fig.

137.

131. The lines on this face are to be used in Exercise No. 3. By applying the principles already developed (121, 122) locate

This the lines as shown by the drawing. Face C, Fig. 137. work may be done with the pencil, the lines ab and a^b' being " gauged " by use of the rule (126). The line cd. End Elevation, may be made in the same way.

Bo

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD,

^,/
'

/
'

11
1/

if

IP
/
1

I
I,

'

I!

If

}!(
I

(ill
I

li iihi

'f'

BENCH WORK.

8i

EXERCISE

No.

2.

Practice with Chisel and Gouge (39, 40, and 42).

The

stock required

Fig. 145

is |" X 4V' X 8". shows the Hnes that are needed,

all

of which are

produced

as

explained in the foregoing exercise, except the

arcs of circles,

which must be put

in with the dividers (26);

and

B are

working-faces.

An end
Fig. 146

elevation of the finished

piece

is

represented by Fig. 146.

132.
best, in

To remove the Portion abc, Fig. 145.

removing surplus wood with the
any attempt
quite
to

It is

always

chisel, to

cut across

the
the

grain, as

carry the
in

cutting

edge along
action, the

grain

is

sure

to

result

a splitting

chisel following the grain of the

\Mtiich

wood,
preits
:;.

splits

ahead

of

it,

and

14=r

vents the operator from controlling

course.

In removing the portion abc,

in the vise

the

work should be held

with

the working-face

toward the operator.

i" chisel will be found of convenient

size.

Beginning at one end, make suc-

cessive cuts with the chisel, as

shown
re-

by Fig. 147.
quired
[i.e.

Each

stroke of the chisel

full

should cut almost to the

depth

remove a shaving from the

face of nearly the whole triangle abc),

the thickness of the cutting varying with

the character of the material

and the

82

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.
however, to go slowly, for
if

Strength of the operator.

It is best,

the chisel will not be properly guided

the

workman's whole
it

KMs. 14=8

strength

is

required to push

through

the wood.
will

The

surface thus
it
it,

produced
be true to

not be smooth, but

will

the line.

To smooth

a wide chisel

should be used, as shown by Fig. 148,

to
at the

it

same time

it is

and a longitudinal movement imparted being pushed forward.

to the

It will

be noticed that both chisels are applied

work

in

such a way as to turn the shaving from the bevel, and not from the flat face. This is done that the flat face may be avail-

able as a guiding surface, which,

solid

when kept
b,

in contact with the

material back of the cut (see

Fig.

148), will insure

straightness in the forward

movement

of the cutting edge, and,

consequently, accuracy of work.

133-

To remove the Portion defg^ Fig. 145. With the work flat on the bench, face A Kisr. 1-tO
uppermost, place a f " chisel so as to bring its cutting edge in
the
position

occupied
is

by the
|^"

line hi,

which
drive

about

from

the

end of the work.

the

With the
verti-

mallet,
cally
r.

chisel

downward,

as indicated

by
the
to

Fig. 149.

When down

to the

depth of the required

chisel should

cut,

be pushed over

the

position a, to

make room
which
it

for the next cut, after

may be withdrawn and

Se^iimiAB.
j^^

placed

position

again

at

e.

This

operation

is

to

be repeated

until the

whole length of the piece

BENCH WORK.

83

has been passed over, making the work appear as indicated, in

The cuttings may then be repart, by Sec, AB, Fig. 149. moved. The sides of the opening will be even and fairly The distance the chisel is advanced (/) must desmooth.
pend on the
material,

and the depth

c to d.

to

which

it is

driven

it

should never be so great as to risk the breaking of the chisel

when it is moved from position To remove the portion jkon,

in the last exercise,

Fig. 145.

Using the

chisel as

remove the portion jklm, and afterwards

the portion Imon.

134.

To remove the Portion pqr, Fig. 145.

by Fig. iso, the
fibers

This

is

done

with the gouge, which, unhke the chisel,

grain, as indicated

may be used

with the

concave surface of the work allowing

its

individual

to

give

greater support to one

resisting
will

another in
It

splitting

tendency.

be seen that the bevel of the

is its
is

gouge

only guiding surface.

This being necessarily short,

Light cuts should be taken,

the tool

a difficult one to use.

especially

when
no,

the grain of the

2.

wood

is

not favorable.
the part between the

To
lines

finish

Exercise No.

Round

fg and
all

and

also the part

between the point

and the

line ks, to agree with the finished

form shown by Fig. 146, and

smooth

chiseled surfaces not already finished.

EXERCISE
The
No.
I
;

No.
is

3.

Sawing
finished

(49-55).

stock required
it

the

piece

from

Exercise

is

to

be cut

as indicated

by the

lining

on Face C,

Fig. 137-

135.

Handling the Saw.

The

saw should be grasped

it

firmly with the right hand, a better control of

being secured

84

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.

by extending the forefinger along the side of the handle. In starting a cut, the side of the saw should be pressed against the

thumb of

the

left

hand, which then acts as a guide, as shown

by Fig. 151. The saw must not be crowded against the work, but, on the contrary, to prevent the teeth from penetrating too

movement should be accompanied by a liftThe saw should always be moved with a long stroke, bringing as many teeth into action as possible. A short, jerky movement is at no time necessary or desirable. It
deeply,
its

forward

ing action of the wrist.

is

good practice

for the

beginner to keep up the proper motion

it

of the saw, while maintaining a very light contact between

and the work.

Success in

this exercise is to
all

be measured by

uniformity of contact throughout

points of the stroke.

There are two

first,

errors
;

which are

likely to

be

made

in

sawing

sawing off the line

and, secondly, sawing at a wrong angle.

Fig. Kis. 151

1G2

136.
line, the

To guide the Saw.

blade

If the

saw tends to run

off the

may be

slightly twisted in the direction

It will

it

ought

to take, as

shown by
its
is

Fig. 152.

immediately respond by

a change in

course.

The

correction should be

made

as

soon as the error

discovered.

BENCH WORK.
137.

85

To correct the Angle of the cut, the saw should be bent, shown by Fig. 153, and at the same time moved vertically, as shown by Fig. 154, instead of in the usual direction, which is indicated by the dotted line ab in the same figure.
as

138.
Start

Eip-sawing on the line ab and a^b\ Face C, Fig. 137. the saw on the lines ab and cd (the latter shown in End
Elevation).
the
first

By

following

Kig.

1G4

line

the

proper

direction of the cut will be

insured,

and by keeping

on the second the piece

will

be cut square with the

working -face.

The

saw

once

started, the truth of

the angle

may be

occasion-

ally tested

by the try-square
Fig.

applied as shown by Fig.

155.
this

15G

Attention given to

matter at
the

first,

will

soon make
Fig.

operator

155

sufficiently skillful to

judge

the

angle
for

accurately

enough
ab, cut

most work.

After cutting on the line

also

on the

line

a'bK

In sawing a piece from

one end to the other

one
cut, the saw, in

in

coming

out, should not

be allowed to injure the

trestle.

This danger
it

may be met by
will

slanting the

board so that

be supported by one corner, thus leav-

ing an

cut will end, as

open space between the trestle and the point where the shown by Fig. 156.

S6

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.

Observe the general

When
is

139. Cross-cutting on the lines e/ axidg/i, Face C, Fig. 137.

directions that have already been given.
is

the piece that

being cut

is

almost divided, there

splinter.

danger that the uncut portion may break and

This

tendency must be guarded against by properly supporting the

work, either by the hand or by a suitable arrangement of the
trestles.

EXERCISE
The
No.
3.

No.
is

4.

Planing (66-74).
Exercise
is always shown a disposition hand on the right side of the

stock required

the pieces resulting from

140.

In grasping a plane, there

to place the

thumb of
is

the

left
;

when

for, as will be seen by Fig. 157, drawn back, the arm, by contact with the body, becomes stiffened, and the motion of the plane restricted.

plane.

This should not be done

the plane

The hand,
on the
left

therefore, should
side, as

be so turned as
Fig. 158.

shown by

the plane

may be
Kij;.

easily carried well

to bring the thumb Held in this manner, forward and well back.

157

T^iu-.loS

When

the surface of the

work

is

large,

begin to plane at

its

right-hand end.

With a

series of easy strokes pass across the

face of the work, then step forward

and take a second

series of

BENCH WORK.
Strokes,

8/

and so on

until the

whole surface has been passed over.

it is

In the
the

first

series of strokes

necessary to draw the plane off

work, as shown

by Fig. 159.

In doing

this,

sufificient

pressure must be exerted in the direction of the

arrow to overcome any

tip,
;

tendency to

as indicated
in the
last

by the
._
,

dotted outhne

series of

strokes the wrist may, for the

reason, be rested easily

same on the back of the plane.

To make

the strokes between the ends properly, the plane should be

lifted so that the

shaving

movement
ment of
will

of the plane ceases.

bodily from the work.

the

may be finished before the forward The plane need not be lifted The natural, slightly-upward moveout, as

arm when stretched

all

shown by

Fig,

160,

accomplish

that

is

necessary.

Fig. 160

If the plane

is

allowed

full

contact with the work on the

backward

stroke, a dulling effect

if

on the cutting edge

rough and
gritty.

is

pro-

duced, especially

the
it

work
on
160.
its

is

Under
from the
in

such circumstances,

is it

better to raise the plane

work
ever,

entirely, or turn

edge, or draw

it

back

the

position
it

shown by
is

Fig.

On

small, clean surfaces,

how-

best

to

disregard this caution, since

sharpening

88

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.

takes less time than placing the plane before beginning each
stroke.

In planing a narrow surface,

ITig.

for

example, the edge of a

161

board, difficulty in keeping the plane

on the work may be overcome by

grasping
it

in

such

way

that

the

fingers of the left hand, while press-

ing against the face of the plane,

may
the

maintain

light

contact

with

work, as shown by Fig. i6i.

141.

The mouth
a
result,

of a plane sometimes
ceases.

becomes clogged,

and, as

the cutting

This

may be caused

which scrapes off fibers which it cannot cut; or by the low set of llie cap on the iron; or by a bad fit between cap and iron, which allows a shaving to find its way between them, thus forming an obstruction to the passage In new planes, the stoppage may be due to of other cuttings.

by a

dull cutting edge,

narrowness of the mouth, which

to pass.
It
is

will

not allow a thick shaving

should be remembered, however, that narrowness

of mouth
for this

an element in the production of smooth work, and reason the opening should be no wider than is abso-

lutely necessary.

To

preserve the face of the plane, apply occasionally a few

oil.

drops of lubricating
142.

Jointing the sawed edge of the i|" X 3" x 16" piece from Exercise No. 3, to finish at i|" X 2|" X 16". Set the
Fig. 1G3
Scale,

U = l'

1~
2r'
16"
i

B
gauge at 2|" and from the working- face
/?,

^B
Fig.

162, gauge

BENCH WORK.
lines all

89
Fasten the piece in

around the piece, as

if/"

and
;

/>g.

the vise with the sawed edge

up

plane nearly to line with the

jack-plane and finish with the fore-plane.

143.

Planing to a Square each of the four if" x 2" x 16"

pieces from Exercise No. 3, their finished size to be if" x if" X 16". Select a straight face, or, if none is exactly right, correct the best

and mark

it

as a working-face.

Let

this

be done

Suppose Fig. 163 represent an end of one of the pieces, and let be its working- face. With the fore-plane, joint
the four pieces.

on each of

to

j^. -j^g

d
'^''

B
is

from A, and mark

as a second working-face.

Repeat

this

operation on each of the other pieces.

to finish),

Set the gauge at i|" (the width to which each side

and from the working-face

ing-face

gauge a

line

on B.

From workgauge

joint

to line,

and perform
on

this

operation on each

remaining piece.
set as before,

From

as a working-face with the

produce

lines

and C, and plane >

to these
size,

Hnes.

This done, the four pieces should be of the same

and

true squares in section.

144. Whenever a series of similar operations is to be performed on two or more pieces, the method developed by the foregoing exercise should always be followed. By carrying all the pieces along together, the

work
if

will
is

be more easily and

finished as a separate

more
piece.

rapidly accomi)lished than

each

145.

Smooth Surfaces cannot always be produced by a

plane.

The presence

of knots or a crooked grain causes the

surwill

work

to split in

advance of the cutting edge, and a rough

sharp plane set to take a fine shaving,

face results.

do much to remedy this evil, but it cannot be entirely overcome. Surfaces, such as a table top or a door panel, which
are not required to be true,

may be made

as

smooth

as possible

90

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.

with a plane, and the rough spots reduced afterwards by means of a hand-scraper, appHed as shown by Fig. 164.

surface

Fi" ie4

^^^^

^^

required to
is

be true as well as

smooth,

best
like

smoothed by a scraper
a
plane-iron.
to

mounted
scraper

Such

may be made
is

act uniformly

over an entire surface, whereas the handscraper

useful

on rough spots
of

only.

The
True
joint,

requirement

both
is

truth

and
a
left

smoothness,

however,
are

very

unusual.

surfaces
are

necessary

about
as

but

the

parts

of a joint

smooth enough
is is

by a plane.
to

On

the other hand, a surface that

is

required

be perfectly smooth,
will

one which
if

made

to

be seen,
its

and

be

sufficiently true

the eye does not detect

inaccuracy.

146.

Sand-Papering (103).
by the plane.

The use of sand-paper should

is

be confined to the removal of the minute fiber which

raised
its

and

left

This fiber

is

usually invisible, but

presence

may be

detected by comparing a surface newly-planed

with a similar surface upon which sand-paper has been judiciously used ; the latter will be much smoother. In applying sand-paper, the motion should be " with the grain." To pre-

vent the destruction of sharp corners or delicate features of any

sort, the

sand-paper should be held about, or fastened

to,

block of

work

wood corresponding somewhat

flat

to the

form of the

block for a

flat

surface,

a curved block for a

is

curved surface.
instead of the
it

A
to
fit

piece of thick leather

block,

sometimes used
as

wooden
will

and

is

often

more convenient,

may be bent
Sand-paper

almost any surface.

not satisfactorily reduce irregularities in a

and should never be substituted for the scraper. As has been implied, it will simply remove the fiber, and a few
surface,

BENCH WORK.
Strokes arc generally found to be sufficient
result in injury.
;

91

more

are likely to

EXERCISE
The
stock required
is

No.

5.

Box.
;

|^"

x 6"x 24V'

it

must be lined as

shown by Fig. 165, and cut is shown by Fig. 166.

into five pieces.

The

finished

box

Fig. 165
Scale. l}

= l'

r
I

-I

^10--

lO'-l-

J_
147.
If

on each of the

five

pieces there
it

is

a surface

suffi;

ciently true for a working-face,

should be marked as such

JFig.

otherwise, a working-face should

100
1'

be made.
face
joint

From
mark
it

the working-

Scale, li

one edge on each

as the

piece and

work-

ing-edge.

Set the gauge at 2f (the inside depth of the box)

side

and gauge the

joint

and end

pieces to this depth, after which

them

to line.

From
the

the
try-

working edge,
square, scribe
face of
all

with

on the working3i"

the pieces, including

the bottom, a fine about 5" from

one end.

With the back-saw

ELEVATION

(56) cut these ends, being careful to keep on the outside of the line (148).

The work
167.

may be

held

on the bench-hook, as shown by Fig.

92

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD,
to act across the

In starting the cut, the saw

may be made

angle of the work in the direction of the Hne ab, but should
gradually be brought to the position shown,
parallel to the face of the work,
its

motion being

and

its

stroke long enough to

bring every tooth into action.

The

position of the saw in Fig.

167, together with the dotted outline, shows a proper range of

movement.

The
ing-face

ends,

when sawed, should be square with

the work-

If the cut is a poor one, a and working-edge. second may be taken by removing just enough material to

hold the saw

if it

is

only a

little

" out,"

it

will

be best, in
to length.

this case, to pass the error for

a time.

One end

of each hav-

ing been squared, the pieces

may now be brought

one of the two pieces which are to form the ends of the Measbox, lay off and scribe a line 4" from the squared end.
ure the second end piece by the
for both,
first
is

On

to insure the
just

whether the measurement

4" or not.

same length Next, on

one of the two side pieces, 9!" from the squared end, scribe a
line for

sawing and, using the

first

piece as a measure, lay off a

also

similar line

on the second side piece and

been thus
all

on the bottom

piece.

All the pieces having

lined, they

may be
will

cut

with the back-saw, after which of the dimensions required.

148.

but the bottom piece

be

Sawing " outside of the line" may be

if

illustrated as fol-

lows

two

lines are

made on

a piece of work just 12" apart,

07i

and the portion between cut out by sawing exactly

the lines,

BENCH WORK.
it is

93
than 12" long by half

obvious that the piece

will

be

less

the width of the saw kerf at each end, or, adding the two deficiencies, by the width of one kerf, Jg " or more. ^^' The appearance of an end when cut outside of a
line will
line

be that shown by Fig. 168.

The smooth
;

^l^^^^l

along the upper surface, represents the cut

in lining the material

made by the scriber work of the saw.

the rest shows the

The side and end pieces are to 149. Nailing (254-256). be nailed, as shown by Fig. 169, three 6-penny casing nails being used at each angle. When brought together, the pieces
must be
Nails,
flush

pretty nearly right will not do.

in a certain position,
1

when seen
first,

appear equal in width

while a view at right
i

throughout their length. A, Fig.

angles to the

70

shows them wedge-shaped, B, Fig.

70.

In

Fi-. IGO

Fi-.iro

WORKING EDGE

94
150.

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.

Hammer Marks

who

is

skilled in the use of a

One on the work must be avoided. hammer, can drive a nail slightly

below the surface of the work without leaving a scar ; but it is better to stop driving before the hammer head touches the

work than
151.

to risk

damage.

Setting Nails.

When
nearly
until the

the nail has been driven as

as possible,
at least Jg- "

Fig.

in

"home"
head
the
is

"set"

it

below the

surface of the work.

set, rest
little

In applying the

finger of the left

hand and
there

on the work,
press the
will

as

shown by

Fig. 171,
it
;

set

firmly against

then be no trouble in keeping the

set

on the head of the

nail.

Withdrawing Nails. It sometimes happens that a when partially driven, is found to be tending in a wrong direction, in which case it must be withdrawn. If the hammer, when used for this purpose, is allowed to get into the position shown by Fig. 172, it will mar the work, the nail is likely to splinter the wood around the hole in coming out, and an unnecessary amount of force on the hammer handle is required to draw it. A better way is to keep the hammer from contact with the work by a block of wood, as a, Fig. 173. The block152.
nail,

Eig.lTa

FiK.irS

ing should be increased in thickness as the nail

If

is

withdrawn.

the

work has been

well done,

the nail will not be bent.

BENCH WORK.
Never attempt
been withdrawn.
or,

95

to

start

*nail

in

a hole froni which one has

The second

nail will either follow the first

prevented from doing

this, will

take an opposite course no

nearer right.

153.

Fastening the Box Bottom.

The

side

and end pieces

of a box,

when

nailed together,

may

not be exactly rectangular,

although each piece has the required length, and the fastening

cannot be depended on to retain them with certainty

given form.

in

any

But when the bottom piece

It
is,

is

added,

all

parts be-

come
be
in

fixed.

therefore, important that the rest of the

is

box

proper form when the bottom

nailed.

The bottom
pieces,

piece has been cut the same length as the side

and
;

it

has a working-edge with which both ends are

a
little

square

it

is

wider than

is

necessary, but this can be

made

right in finishing the box.

Place

the

bottom

piece

with the working-face inside,

and the working-edge even

with the outside edge of one

of the side pieces, as shown

by Fig.
nails a.

174,

and drive the

the angles

Now since

b are right angles, the

end pieces of the box,

is

in

order to be

square with the side, to which the bottom

already nailed,
If they

must agree with the ends of the bottom piece.

agree, but shp past, as

do not

shown by
which

Fig.
nails

74, slight pressure will

spring
points

them
c.

to place, after

may be

driven at the

The

nails in the

bottom of a box must be so placed

as to

avoid those which hold the sides to the ends.

driven at the corners
d.

No

nail

can be

Finishing the box.

all

With the smooth-plane take

a light cut

over the outside, keeping the sides and ends square with the

96

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.

bottom and with each other. The ends of the box, where the end grain of the bottorn and side pieces is encountered, present
the most difficulty.

154.

In planing end grain, the cutting edge must be sharp

If only a little material
is

and

set to take a fine shaving.

off,

to

be taken

the

movement
edge
will

of the plane should be so limited

that the cutting

not extend beyond the work, two

cuts being taken in opposite directions, as indicated by

and

B,

Fig.

175.

The motion

of the plane in both directions.

F'ig.1'7'6

FiK-lTG

EZl
much
be removed, and

ceases near C.

If

is

to

it

seems best

to carry the plane the entire length of the surface, a bevel

may

be made which

will

allow the cutting edge of the plane to leave

at a little distance

the work gradually, and shown by Fig. 176.

from the edge, as

EXERCISE
The
is

No.

6.

Bench-Hook

(12).

stock required is if" X 2f" X 16" from Exercise No. 4. shown with the necessary lining by Fig. 177, in which figure the Plan, face A, represents the working-face, and the The finished piece is Elevation, face B, the working-edge. shown by Fig. 1 78.
It

155.
ject

Lay

off the lines

ab across face A, as shown by

ab and cd on face B, Fig. 177. Proae, and project cd across

BENCH WORK.
face

97

(not shown), and from these, project on face

Hnes
Lo-

similar to

ab and
/

cd,

which are already located on B.

ab and
cd,

cate the point

on

lines

and
in

also

on the

similar lines

of the opposite face

D, measuring

each case from the work-

Scale

!>/=

l'

PLAN fFACE

A.)

ELEVATION fFACE

B.)

ing-face A, as indicated by the dimensions given.

straight-edge,
face.

By

use of a

draw

ij

and

ik,

and similar

lines

on the opposite
There are
is

Cut along the

two
w.3,ys

lines iJ

and

ik with the rip-saw.

of starting the saw

when

the material, as at k,

not

sufficient to

hold the blade.

eg,

First, a

saw cut may be made

along the line

surface, eg,

and the

triangle cqk chiseled out, giving a flat

;

on which

to begin

secondly, a block of

wood

of

the

same breadth with the work may be fastened

in the vise

98
with the
latter, as

BENCH WORK
shown by
ik,

IN

WOOD.
extending

Fig.

79, thus, in effect,

the surface ok.

In the case of the hne

is

the second plan

preferable.

The

block

should bear well upon the work

B at k.
lines ij and ik having been sawed, and ai with the back-saw. With the chisel produce the bevels repreBore the hole sented by mn and op. R., Fig. 178, and the piece is fin-

The

cut di

ished.

156.
bit
is

With reference
will cut

to

R,

it

may be

said that while an augerit

(89)

smoothly when entirely within the material,

sure to splinter

when coming out on

the bit

the face opposite the

starting point.

To

prevent

this,

may be used from one

left

side until

its

spur appears on the opposite side, and then withdrawn, and

started in the opposite direction in the hole

by the spur

or the work

may be

held firmly to

another block, as shown by Fig. 180,

and the
piece.

bit

allowed to pass into the

the

block as though

two were one

An

auger-bit should cut freely, and advance into the

work
poor

without

much pushing on

the brace

if it

does not,

it is

in

condition and should be sharpened.

EXERCISE
The
it

No.
is

7.

Halved
X i|" X
lining,

Splice

(202-203).

stock required

i|"

16" from Exercise No. 4

is

shown with the necessary

is

by Fig. 181.

The com-

pleted piece

shown by

Fig. 182.

BENCH WORK.

99

lOO

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.
when put
together,

the material, and their united thickness,

as in Fig. 182, would be greater or less than the material else-

ELEVATION. FaCC B.

where.

The

pieces cut out, therefore, are from opposite faces.

is

Then
if

if

the gauge line

not in the center of the piece, that

is,

bhgf\?, thicker than

side,

ij/k,

the smaller piece will be taken out on

one
be

and the

larger piece

on the other

and the sum of

the two remaining parts

when put

together, as in Fig. 182, will

ec{ual to the full size of the material.

159.

To
ij
;

cut the pieces,

first

run the rip-saw

down
c,

the lines

gf and

next, with the back-saw, cut the lines bf

and

/J

next the hnes

and

being care-

Kig.183
\

ful

in all

of these cuts to keep the

Finally,

proper side of the line (148).

together as in Fig. 182.

cut on the line a, and try the pieces

If the

work

has been well done, the joint will be

'"T
END ELEVATION.

good.

If

it

is

not good, the faults

may be
ij,

corrected.

if

not quite to line,

to

it

by using the

chisel as

shown by

Fig.

The cuts gf and may be brought To facili147.

BENCH WORK.
tate

lOI
side

the

operation,

make chamfers on each

shown by

from the

hne
tage

to the

sawed

surface, as

Fig. 183, to be used

instead of the hne.

;

Such chamfers present a twofold advan-

they are both visible from the same point, and they pre-

vent splintering on the side on which the chisel comes out.

The
that

fitting

on the

line ab, Fig. 182,

fits,

having been finished, supbut

B'iS.

pose that the heading-joint ac

184

hd does not
fits

or

suppose

that

neither
184.

properly, as

shown by
is

-^^^^
Fig.

If the discrepancy

not great,
it

the joint

may be
fit.

corrected by use of the chisel, or

may be

sawed
160.

to a

"To saw a
joint at c

Fit," the two pieces should be

clamped
Fig. 184,

together, or held by

hand

in the

position

shown by

wide as the saw

sawed into. This will make c at least as Without changing the relative position of the pieces, turn the work over and saw d, which will also become at least as wide as the saw kerf, and, consequently,

and the

kerf.

equal to
If in

c in so far as the joints

is

have been affected by the saw.

each case the joint

close

enough

to hold the saw, the If

pieces after sawing will ing

is

come

together perfectly.

one saw-

insufficient,

the pieces may be brought together and

sawed a second, and even a third time.

This method of
fitting
is

may be

widely apphed.

When

the joint

perfect, the pieces are to be nailed at each

end with 4-penny casing

as illustrated

nails

driven

obhquely, or

" toed,"

by

Fig.

185.

While

nailing, rest the pieces

ro2

BENCH WORK

IN
to

WOOD.
retahi

and

B
^

on the bench C, and,

them
block
is

in

position,

allow
the

one to bear on

D^

which

in turn

held by the

bench-stop.

The block

protects the ends of the

work, which would be

mutilated by the benchstop
in
it.

if

they were placed

direct

contact with

i6i.

Toeing Nails.
to

The advantage
it

be

derived from toeing a

nail lies in the fact that

always

" draws "

in

y
hi' ^__,/

the direction in which

it is

driven.

If driven

as
\

it

shown by a. will draw

both
in

Fig. 185,

upon

a horizontal

and
tion,

in a vertical direc-

sure

and will thus ingood contact be-

tween the parts of the

joint.

The
the

nails

having been
set,

driven and

each of

four sides
a
final

may be
smooth-

given
-k

ing by a stroke of the

plane.

BENCH WORK.

103

EXERCISE
The
is

No.

8.

Splayed
16",

Splice.

stock required

is

if'x if'x

from Exercise No. 4

the necessary lines are

shown by

Fig. 186.

The

finished piece

represented by Fig. 187.

1I

162.
off
/,

Let the faces

on face

Hne

a,

A and and from

J? be
a,

the working- faces.

d, c, d, e,f, g, h,

the hnes

Lay and

and project these Hnes on

all

four faces of the work.

;

Set the

bevel at

an angle of 45 degrees with its beam on A, as indicated by the dotted outline, lay off on B lines dj, bk, gj, and Connect points on both ik, and repeat these lines on face D.

and D, forming

lines

which on

appear as

/'J

and

ij.

The

portions
163.

marked r

are to be removed.
first

ITi-.lSS

To

cut the joint,

bj

use the

and iJ, and afterwards the back-saw on the short The backoblique lines gJ and bk.
rip-saw on the lines

saw can
piece
is

easily

be started

if,

while the
is

held in the vise, a stroke

direction a,
Fig.

given in the
to carry the

188,
to

saw into the work a distance equal

the depth

104
of
its

BENXH WORK
teeth, after

IX

WOOD.

which

it

may be

turned into the desired di-

rection b.

The splayed ends

dj and ik

may be may be
ISO

cut with the

work on

the bench-hook, Fig. 189.

By

following the directions given in

finished, as

the previous exercise the joint

Fig. 187.
Kijj.

shown by

EXERCISE
The
it is

No.

9.

Mortise-and-Tenon
is

Joint (211-215).

stock required

if"

X if" X
lines

16", from Exercise

Fig. 190.

No. 4

shown with the necessary piece is shown by Fig. 191.

164.

by

The

finished

Let

and
d.

B represent

the two working-faces.

lay off line a,

From
on

one end of the piece, on face A,

lines h,
line
(f,

and from

a, lay off

c,

and

Measure

carefully the width of the piece

face A,
d,

and

lay off one-half of the

same on each
lines e

side of

the line

and through the points thus fixed make

c,

and/.
th
j

Project the lines a,

lines e

and d on

all

four faces of the piece,

and

and

on

B and

D,

the two faces adjoining A.

Set the

gauge

gh and a and carry it around the end of the work to the line d on face D. Set another gauge at i^" (|" -|- f ", the width of the mortise and
at ^",

and from

face

A, gauge on

the line

similar line

on the opposite face D.

Gauge the

line ij

of the tenon), and gauge between the same lines as before, pro-

BENCH WORK.
ducing
g'h', i'f, etc.

lOS

The

mortise and the tenon are formed

by cutting out the portions

marked

r.

The method
mortise
is

of "lay-

ing off" the width of the

and the tenon

especially ob-

to be

served.

The

distance
lines

between the two

which define the width

of the mortise, and those

which define the width

of
the tenon,

being

equal to the difference

in the setting

of the two

'

gauges,

must

be
result,

the
as

same.
far as

The
are

I
.t

the mortise and

tenon

concerned,
different

would not be
if

the piece containing

the mortise were twice

as thick as that carrying

the tenon.

It is best to

use two gauges to avoid

the mistakes which might
arise

from

changing a

single one.

Then,

if

it

should be found necessary to

use

them

after

the

first

lining, precisely

the
will

same measurements
be obtained.
This
short-

process

can be

io6

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.
lines at

ened by using a mortise-gauge (33), which makes both the same time.
165.
lines

Cutting the Mortise.

It will

be remembered that the

which appear on face B, Fig. 190, have their counterparts

'/(

SIDE.

on the opposite face D.

To

cut the mortise, select a chisel

having a width as nearly as possible etjual to the space between

the gauge lines, and, beginning on face B, near the middle of the mortise, advance toward one end, as

shown by

Fig. 149.
at the

The

end of the mortise having been reached, and advance

commence
;

starting point

to the other end.

Always loosen

the chisel by a

in the opposite direction

backward movement of the handle a movement would injure the ends of the mortise.
After the
first

(See Fig. 149.)

few cuts, each deeper than the

preceding, the chisel can easily be

or more, in pine or poplar.
If the

made
depth

to penetrate
is

an inch

equal to half the

thickness of the work, no attention need be given to the chips.

One
the

side of the mortise having been cut in this manner, turn work over and repeat the operation on face D, the chisel

BENCH WORK.
being driven

107

down
is

to

After the cutting

finished, the chips

meet the opening made from the first side. may be dug out with a
by use of a wooden plug.
chisel with
its

chisel or driven through

to drive

Never

try

them through by using the

such use

cutting edge

parallel to the grain, as

is

very likely to split the work.

chips

The

having

been

re-

moved, the truth of the mortise

may be
edge,

tested

by using the
Fig.

flat

side of the chisel as a straightas

shown by

192.

The
at a.

sides of the finished mortise

should agree with the chisel, as

Compare a with

b.

Remember

that at least one-half the

thickness of the line should remain on the work.

166.

The Tenon may next be

it.

cut by using the back-saw,

both across the grain and with

The

sawing,

if

to line, leaves
;

nothing to be done except the pointing of the tenon

this

is

accomplished by a stroke of
the chisel on each side, which
^ ^"
^'

makes
Fig.

it

appear as shown

b}'
is

193.

The

pointing

necessary, because a square-

# ^
PLAN.

=^

ended,

tight-fitting tenon,

if

driven to place, will splinter

the sides of the mortise.

The
suffi-

length of the tenon

cient to

is

make

it

project beELEVATION.

yond the mortise a distance more than ecjual to the part

pointed.
cut
off".

After the fitting has been done, the i)rojccting part

is

When

both the mortise antl tenon are finished, cut the piece

io8

BENCH WORK
line
c,

IN

WOOD,
tenon in the mortise.
It

on the

Fig. 190,

and

try the
fit.

should enter at a light-driving

If the shoulders of the

tenon
to a

do not make a good

is, if
fit,

joint with the cheeks of the mortise, that

is

the joint at S, Fig. 191,

not good,

it

may be sawed
is

as in the case of the splice.

When
light

all

satisfactory,

bore

the pin hole, insert the pin, cut off the projecting portion of the

tenon and of the pin, and take a

faces

shaving from those sur-

on which a plane may be used.

Select a piece of straight167. To Make a Pin (249). grained material, in this case 4" or 5" long, and, by use of the
chisel,

reduce

it

in

section to a square whose side

it is

is

slightly

greater than the diameter of the hole

to

fit.

Then

take off

the corners,

making

it

an octagon
Ki-. 10-4

in section,

and point one

end.

All this will

be best accomplished
as indicated
is

if

the piece

is

held

by the bench-hook,
168,

by Fig.

94.

Drawboring

a term ap])lied to a

method of

locating

Kis. lO'"

pin holes so as to

make
Fig.

the pin draw the tenon

into

the

mortise.

195 shows

the

relative

position of the holes before the pin

It
is is

inserted.

evident

that

tight-fitting pin will

have

a tendency

to

make

the

holes

in

the

mortise

and

tenon
holes

coincide, and thus draw the two pieces together.

The

BENCH WORK.

109

hiay be located on the mortise and tenon by direct measure-

ment

or the cheeks of the mortise

may be bored through and

1-

-r

-i

S^.

f-

t\
the tenon inserted, and

marked
hole
its

by putting the
already

bit into the

o^
5

bored

and forcing
the

point against

tenon.

The
bit

'

tenon

may then be withdrawn

^
little

and bored, the point of the

being placed a

nearer the

shoulder of the tenon than the mark.

no
The
if

BENCH WORK
practice of drawboring
all, is

IN

WOOD.
commended, and,
is

not to be

indulged in at

great care
it

and discretion must be exerand but

is

cised.

In

many

cases,

puts a strain on the joint which

resistance,
joint
little

nearly equal to
is left

its

maximum
for
is

strength

to

do the work

which the

made.

Frequently,

the mortise or tenon

spht and rendered practically useless.

EXERCISE

No.

lo.

Keyed Mortise-and-Tenon Joint (240-245). The

stock required
"Fig.
is

if"

X if" X

16",

from Exercise No. 4

lining

isr
= 1'

it is

shown with the neby Fig.

Scale, 3

cessary
196.
is

^^=^

The

finished piece

represented by Fig.

197.
PLAN.

169.
fers

The

lining dif-

from

that

of

the
in
:

preceding

exercise

the following respects

the position of the line b

is

changed

as

indi-

cated by the dimension

figures,

and the position

of lines e and /, which

extend around the piece,

is

changed
;

to

correis

spond

the mortise

made
than
ELEVATION.

longer on face

on face D,
one
oblique

giv-

ing
line
/,

end,

as indicated

by the dotted

face

BENCH WORK.
As regards the tenon, the
line

I I I

is

added

at a distance
d,

from

equal to the thickness of the piece on the line

is

face

the point h

located on face A, and on the opposite face

C,

and the

line g/i

drawn on both

faces.

cut as in the preceding exercise, and one end

The mortise r' is to be made oblique as

to be
g/i
;

indicated by the figure.

To form
First,

the tenon the portions

g, cut

marked r are
finally,

removed.
then, be-

beginning at
k,

along the oblique line

;

ginning at

the two lines k/

and,

define the shoulders

will

of the tenon by cutting on the line

d.

This order

save

all

the lines as long as they are needed.

170.
is

study of the finished piece will show that the tenon

inserted from the face

g/i,

D, and pushed over

at the other

so that the splayed

edge of the tenon,

/,

bears on the splayed end of the mortise,

leaving an

open space

end of the mortise

to

be

filled

See Fig. 197. The key should be planed from a piece 5" or 6" long. be driven
It
is

by the key.

It

should be uniform in width and nearly so in thickness, there

being but a slight taper near the end which

is

to

in

advance

this

end should be pointed

like a tenon.

best

to drive the

key from the inside

in the direction

indicated by

the arrow, Fig. 197.

The

piece

is

to be finished in accordance with the appear-

ance and dimensions shown by Fig. 197.

EXERCISE
The
stock

No. n.

Plain

Dovetail.

required
parallel,

edges jointed

is two pieces, each and one end squared.

|"x3f"X4",
(The material
8", which, after

may be worked up

as

one piece ^" x

J"

being planed to width,

may be

cut in two with the back-saw,

thus giving the squared ends rec^uired.)

The working- faces

in laying off

used

in

preparing the material

may

also

be used
will

the lines.

To

avoid confusion one piece

be called

and

Il2
the Other

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.

Fig. 198 shows the Hning necessary for

Xand Y

respectively.

The
off

finished joint

is

shown by

Fig. 199.

171.

Lay

on

all

four faces of each piece, |" from the

squared end, the

Fasten A^
in

line ad, Fig. 198.

the vise,
off

and on

its

squared end lay

Fig. 198.

lines as g/i,

Remove

the piece from

the vise, and with the bevel set

"i
ef.

to

4"

(29), project on the

faces

and

oblique lines as

The

portions which are to be

ELEVATION (FACE

A.)

removed to form the mortises, are marked r. Put the piece in the vise again, and with the back-saw
cut

down

the oblique lines as

e/.

With a
r

chisel,

used as

in cutting

an ordinary mortise, remove the

material

between the
it

lines.

If
re-

preferred, part of

can be

moved by boring a
r'

hole as indi-

cated by the dotted outline.

hole will

The
is

make

the chiseling easier,

but in so small a piece of work

anything gained.
in the vise,

it

is

doubtful whether there

The

piece

X having

been

finished, fasten

working-end up and working-face outward.

Place

the working- face of

X on

the working-end of V, as

Fig. 200, taking care that the line a/>

on

X
Y

is

in the

shown by same line

with the working- face of V.

Holding the work

in

in this position,

and guided by the mortises

oblique lines as
with the
g/i,

X, scribe on the end of

the

Fig.

198.

Remove

from the

vise,

and

beam

of the square on the working-end, project to ad

lines as e/

from the extremities of the oblique lines just made. The portions marked r and r' are to be removed to form the

BENCH WORK.
"pins."
Tliose on the outside

113
r'

marked

may be removed
X.

entirely with the

saw; those on the inside

(r), partly with the

chisel, as in the case of the mortises in the piece

172.

The

joint

ought to go together by

light driving,

and

be perfectly square on
the
inside

between
If

the working- faces.

it is

found to be
it

satis-

factory, take

apart,

apply a light coating

of glue, and drive toELEVATION
(B.)

gether again.
the glue
is

When

hard, the

joint

may be smoothed and

shown
in Fig. 199.

squared, and

the ends of the pieces cut to the dimensions

173.

It will
is

the joint

be seen that one part of made, and the second part is

to
fit

then
ELEVATION
(A.)

made

the
first

first

hence, the

proportions of the

part need not be

determined with great exactness.

the piece
treats

The

skilled
:

bench-worker usually proceeds as follows

on

Ki-. SiOO

X (if
all

there are several pieces, X, he

at the

them

same time) he

lays off

the lines ab and cross-lines as gh, the latter

without

measuring, and

then saws obliquely

WORKING FACE-^

without the use of lines as ef; on

Khe

lays off

the lines ab and oblique lines as gh, and saws without making
lines

as

ef.

In

this

way the

joint
it

is

soon made, and,

al-

though not perfectly symmetrical,

well-fitted.

may be

well-formed and

114

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.

EXERCISE
The

No.

12.
is

Lap,

or Drawer, Dovetail,
'

stock required

one piece

piece i"

X 3f " X 4" and one X 3I" X 4",

edges jointed parallel

and one end of each

squared.
piece
201.
is

The finished
shown by
Fig.

It will

be seen

that the piece

ELEVATION (FACE
B.)

Y does
of the

not extend across the

full

thickness

piece X, and, consequently, the end grain

does not

apScale,

pear in Eleva3

1'

tion

B,

Fig.
PLAN (FACE
D.)'

201.
ELEVATION (FACE
A.i

174.

On

y.

Fig.

202, scribe thickness

the line ab, |"

(the

of

X)

from the
it s-

working- end,

and

continue

A-

e-C

across the working-edges.

Set a

gauge

and from the workgauge the line cd on the working- end, and extend it on the edges until it meets the exat |",

ing-face

ELEVATION (FACE

A.)

tended line ab, as shown by face D, Fig. 202. From the workingend of X, with the same gauge,

make

the line ab on the two faces

-C

and C. Produce the remaining lines on X, cut the mortises, and

lay off
exercise.

by X, as

in

the

last

B
ELEVATION (FACE
A.)

END.

BENCH WORK.

'5

In cutting out around the pins (F), the dehcacy of the work

does not
is

demand
by

the most dehcate chisel, but one as large as

convenient should be used.

Fig. 201.

Finish the joint to the dimen-

sions given

EXERCISE

No.

13.

Blind

Dovetail.

The
is

stock required
pieces,

two

each
edges

I"

X 3I" X 4"
parallel

jointed

and

one end squared. The

finished joint
is

shown

by
ELEVATION (FACE
in the
B.)

Fig.

203.
is wholly

The
with-

dovctall

square a^cd, and, consequently, no

face.

end grain shows on any

175.

With the square,

lay

off

on the
at,

working- faces and two edges of each piece

of material, Fig. 204, the lines ^a,
ELEVATION fFACE
A

and

cd, dk,

and from the working- face

line
ef.

A
8

gauge

on the ends of each piece the

Scale,

l'

PLAN (FACE

d
D.)

a>

PLAN.

De

, h

0,

A--

-fi

T,
ELEVATION (FACE
A.)

END

ELEVATION.

ii6

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.

pieces,

Cut both pieces as shown by Fig. 205. Taking one of the which will be called X, space and lay off on the reduced
^

end surface
as indicated

lines as op,

Fig. 206, using the try-square blade

by the dotted outline.

Next, produce oblique

300
Scale,

lines as gh,
figure,

shown
cut

in the

same

l'

and
;-.

the

mortises

marked With
in

in the vise

apply X,
al-

which the mortises have

as

ready been cut,

aMa

shown by

Fig. 207, so that points

may be
to

located along the exterior angle

e'

of V, corresponding
in

the

A-

,C

openings

X.

Project these

points (shown on line e'f, Fig.

208) from the exterior angle

e',

n
ELEVATION (FACE
A.;

to

the

interior

angle

^',

Fig.
V,

END.

.D,

Next apply 207. shown by Fig. 209

position the
the line
a'i',

X
;

to

as
this

from

points
Fig.

shown on
angle
a'.

208, can be

Y
J

secured

along

the

A.)

These

points,

when connected,
206.

will give lines as gk, V, Fig.

From
ELEVATION (FACE

these lines, project

i)',

on the

working-face lines as
to the line d'k'.
r,

down
re-

Cut out the

It

portions

marked

and the dovetail

is

finished.

now

mains

to

make

a miter-joint between the two rectangular proV.

jections

on

X and

Set the bevel at a miter (an angle of 45

No

dimensions are given for locating the lines similar to

represents.

o/>,

X,

Fig.

206.

They can be found by measuring

is

the drawing, which, as indicated by

it

the scale,

one-fourth the size of the piece

BENCH WORK.
degrees) and scribe the dotted line
e,

117
on each piece
been
;

Fig. 205,

then cut to hne with a chisel.

glue,

When

the joint has

fitted,

and

finish to

dimensions.

Fig.
a'

aos
e'b'

"Fig.

S09

rf'J

X
Y
tWN
V I'm'

176.

If,

instead of cutting out the

is

first

and
the

last

space of Y,

one-half only

cut out, as

shown by

Fig. 210,
if

the dividing line being on a miter, and,

outside portions of X, m,
;;/,

FiS.

210

Fig. 206, are cut

/
that

away

to a miter to correspond, the joint will

appear as
Fig. 203.

plain

miter -joint,

instead

of

shown by

EXERCISE
177.
Fig. 211

No.

14.

Frame

and Panel (246-248).

shows a small panel door.

The frame

is

made

up of

stiles

and
;

tenon joints

which are fastened together by mortise-andthe spaces within the frame are filled by panels.
rails,

The lower panel is simply a thin board screwed to the back of the frame. The upper panel is composed of narrow strips, which are inserted in a groove made in the frame for their reception. The front of the frame, around the lower panel, is chamfered,
.

and around the upper panel

this

is

beaded.

It

is

the purpose of

exercise

to construct

that portion of the

door included

within the rectangle abdc.

ii8

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.
to

Three pieces of stock are required, each jointed

l^^iy..

dimen-

C211

TTig.
Scale,

212
3' = !'

\^/////////^///m'/f

ELEVATION.

sions as follows

for the stile,

;

X 2V' X 9" for the rail, li" X 4" X 6^" and for the The panel i" X 5'' X 5^".
i|"
;

finished
Fig. 212.

work

is

shown by

178.

The

niortise-and-tenon joint between the

stile

and

rail,

both

in the size

and position of
It will

its

parts,

is

shown by

Fig. 213.

The width

of the mortise and the tenon should be equal to the

width of the f " chisel' so placed as to make the

the
rail.

be noticed that the

lines are

stile

extend beyond
it

the lower edge of

called,
is

This extension, or "horn," as

is

for the

The nominnl width

of a chisel does nut always agree with

its

actual

width.

BENCH WORK.
purpose of re-enforcing the end of the mortise during the
ting,

119
fit-

a recourse which must ahvays

work
all

be had when the mortise

in the finished

closely approaches the

end of the

material.

After

the jointing has been done, the horns

may be

cut

off.

Having

laid off the necessary lines for cutting the mortise

and
be

the tenon, very light lines, as cd

and

c^(f,

Fig. 213, should

made on both

stile

and

rail to

guide

in cutting the

chamfers.

"Fig.
Scale,

213
3=
1

!,j--._^j^

SIDE OF RAIL.

SIDE OF ST! LE.

EDGE

.1

OF ST LE
I

Cut and

fit

the

mortise and tenon, and then

make both

chamfers, as shown in the finished piece, Fig. 212.

179.

Short chamfers (222, 223) like these are best cut by

use of the chisel, a spokeshave sometimes being used in finishing.

Long chamfers may be cut rapidly by the drawing-knife, which may be followed by the smooth-plane.
180.

Before putting the joint together, enlarge the outside

as
c,

end of each mortise,

shown by a and
c,

d,

Fig. 213, to

make
been

room

for

the wedges

which, after the joint

has

I20
driven
together,

BENCH WORK
are
to

IN

WOOD.
in

be

dipped

glue

and driven

as

indicated.

This method

of wedging

forms

a very strong

joint (250, 251).

181.
as

Round

the edge of the panel

Fig. 212,

on the bottom and

it

side,

shown by

a,

and

fasten

to

frame by two i" No. 8 screws

in the stile

one

the back of the

in the rail,

and one,

b,

(258).

182.

In inserting screws, the outside piece (in this case the

panel) must be bored for each screw.

sufficiently large to allow the
if

The

hole should be
;

screw to pass through easily

at the top, or "

and,

the

wood

is

hard,

it

must be enlarged

coun-

terbored," to receive the head of the screw.

The
if
it

piece in

which the screw holds

(in this case the frame),

is

of soft wood,

need not be bored unless there

that of the screw.

danger that
in

may

split,

\\\

which case a hole should be made,

diameter about two-thirds

The

necessity for a hole in hard

wood
short,

depends

largely

on the proportions of the screw.

large-wired screw will stand almost any service, while a long

slender one will frequently be twisted or broken under the

strain necessary to

drive

it

into

wood which

is

only moder-

ately hard.

ficiently.

Judgment must determine when the screw is driven sufThe head must bed well into the wood but
;

there

is

danger that

it

may be

" forced so far as to " strip

the thread, and that, as a consequence,

the

screw

will

not

hold (96,98).

Never allow the screw-driver

screw while the
183.
latter
is

to

slip

from the

slot

of the

being driven.

Brad-awls are useful in preparing the way for small

screws.

The

cutting edge should always be placed across the

grain so that the fibers will be cut,

to close

and not simply pressed apart

withdrawn.

up again when the

tool

is

The

difference

BENCH WORK.
in effect

121

may be

seen by comparing, Fig. 214, A, which shows

a proper action, with B.

Fig.

214

EXERCISE
This exercise consists
in

No.

15.

Paneling.
that portion of the panel

making
Fi{;.ai5
Scale,
8'
l'

door, Fig. 211, included within the rectangle efgh.

122

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.
to

Three pieces of stock are required, each jointed

sions as follows
:

dimen-

stile

panel strip |"

X if"

X 2^" x 9"; rail ii" x 2|" x 6|" X 18". The completed exercise is shown
i^"

by Fig. 215.
184.

In considering the joint between the

Fig.

stile

and

rail

as

shown by
a, Fig.

216, three

new
is

features will be observed;

the
at

groove, or " plow," which

to receive the panel, as

shown
c^/,

215

the beads /,/; and the mitered corner

which

allows the parts to be plowed

and beaded

as shown, without

affecting the mortise-and-tenon joint.

Follow the dimensions, and

in the

line for the mortise

rail to

and tenon
stile

as

preceding exercises, supposing the

(/'j'c',

be of the form

indicated by the dotted outline

Fig. 216,

and the

to
ec,

be of the form indicated by

Scale,

e/d.

This done, add the lines

i'-l"

BENCH WORK.
185.

123

No

special direction can be given for using the

it

plow

(85), except that

it

is

to

be used from the working-edge; but

it

will

be safe

to practice with
it

on a piece of waste material

before applying

to the

work.

Scale,

END.

186.
inside

edge of both
/^,

Next, the beads /,/, Fig. 215, are to be formed on the rail and stile, that is, along the edges
Fig. 216.

marked
(84).

the use of the plow,

What has already been may also be said of the

now
to l)e

said regarding

beading- [)lane

The mitered
stile

corners are

formed by cutting with

the back-saw to lines already made, antl then the joint between

and

rail, fitted

and wedged as

in Exercise

No.

14.

The frame having been made may be given to The panel strip, althe panel. ready jointed, must be "matched"
ready, attention

by forming the tongue

groove
a, Fig.

/'

and the

217.

This opera-

tion brings into use the V' match-

ing-planes (82), which should

first

be tried on a piece of waste material.

to be

The bead r. Fig. 217, is made with a ^^V" beadingstrip

side.

'

end.

plane.

Cut the panel

into

lengths suitable

for

forming the

complete panel, Fig. 218, using either the bevel or the miter-

124
box

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.
The
fitting
if

in obtaining the angle of the ends.

of the

pieces one to another will be most easily done

in order, as a, b,
<r,

they are cut

etc.

187.
resting

In using the miter-box, Fig. 219, the work a, while

side
will

b,

on the bottom of the box, must be pressed against the in which position, the saw, guided by the box as shown,

cut the piece at a miter.

in the

used

same manner.

By

using

The opposite guide cc may be d the work will be cut off

square.

To

hold the pieces of the panel together, and to fasten

the panel to the frame, light brads

may be
used.

inserted
b.

in

the
or,

oblique ends

of the panel strips shown at

Fig.

215,

what

is,

perhaps, better, glue

may be

If the

door were

complete, as shown by Fig. 211, the panel would have perfect

support in the frame.

PART

HI.

ELEMENTS OF "WOOD CONSTRUCTION.

TIMBER.^
i88.

"
is

Timber
used
in

is

that portion of the

woody

material of trees

which

carpentry and joinery."

" If the trunks of

timber-bearing trees are cut, they are found to be composed of concentric cyHndrical layers, whose crosssections
other,

form

rings,

separated

from

each

Fig.

220

and evidently quite

distinct.

These
tree.

layers [Fig. 220] are formed,

one each year,

of the

during

the period of growth

in

They vary
the

thickness, in density,

and

in

color, according to the rapidity of growth,

length

of the

season,

and other

cir-

cumstances which may change from year

to

year.
'

"The
it is

outer portion of the trunk

is

called the

usually lighter in color,

and

less strong

sap-ivood,' and and dense than the

interior portions, or heart-wood. "

The

circulation of sap through the

I-n

favorable weather.

winter

it is

supposed

sap-wood occurs during to cease, and this

period of checked circulation causes the lines of demarkation

between successive annual

rings."

Quotation marks under

I.

this

heading

refer to Thurston's " Materials of

Engineering," Part

126

BENCH WORK
is

IN

WOOD.
its

"The heart-wood
is

nearly or quite impervious to sap,

vessels being closed up,

and the wood

is

dense and hard."

It

usually far

more durable than sap-wood. " Different kinds of trees, and different
species,

individuals of the

same

have different proportions of sap-wood.

The

slower- growing trees usually contain the least."

189.

"'Felling' Timber should always,

;

if

possible, be prac-

ticed at the period of maturity

if earlier,

the

wood
and

will

not

have acquired
tain too
will

it

greatest strength

and

density,
;

will

con-

great a proportion of sap-wood

if later,

the

wood

have become weakened by incipient decay.

is

"The oak
age,

said to reach maturity

when about too

years of

and

it

should not be felled at less than 60.

" Pine timber should

be cut

at

from 70 to 100 years of age,

felling

and ash and elm,

from 50 to 100. " The season of the year best adapted to

at

timber

is

either midwinter or

midsummer.

The months

of July and

August are often selected,

as at those seasons the

sound

trees

remain green, while the unsound trees are then turning yellow.

Healthy trees then have tops

uniform
in color, while

in full

foliage,

and the bark

is

unsound

trees are irregularly

covered

with leaves of varying color, having a rougher, and often a

loosened, bark, and decaying limbs."
After felling, " the trunk should be immediately stripped of
bark, and, when heart-wood only
is

its

wanted, the sap-wood reis

moved
This
is

as soon as possible.

The bark

often

trees in spring,

and the

felling deferred

till

removed from autumn or winter.

probably the best course to pursue, usually."

190.
its

"Seasoning Timber

is

simply driving out the sap from

artificial

pores by either natural or

means.

This should

always be done as gradually as possible, otherwise the timber

is

liable to

crack or

'

check,' from irregular drying.

" Natural or air seasoning gives the best results.

The timber

WOOD CONSTRUCTION.
should in
all

12/

cases be squared as soon as cut,

It
is

and

all

large logs

should be halved, or even quartered.

then piled in the

seasoning yard in such a manner as to be protected as far as

possible from the sun
air

and on

rain.

It

should be placed where the not only of the

pile,

may

circulate freely
;

all sides,
is

but of

each log

bad ventilation
in

sure to cause rot.

After remain-

ing thus for

joists, if

some months,

the logs

may be

cut into smaller

needed

such form, or into planks and boards, and

again piled for further seasoning. " For heavy work two years, and for lighter work, four years,
is

sufficient time for seasoning

boards

but timber

is

rarely

overseasoned."
Artificial

ture, are

much more
It

methods of seasoning by means of high temperarapid in operation than the natural method
is

just described.

not impossible,

in this

manner, to season

one-inch material in two days.

igi.

Shrinkage

in

timber occurs whenever

it

loses moisture.

In the process of seasoning, shrinkage

may reduce

the width

and thickness of a timber fully "eight per cent," but it has little effect on its length. Wood cannot be so well seasoned as not to shrink whenever the surrounding dryness is increased. It
tendency to shrink after having its surface removed, by a plane, for example. This is due to the reopening of the pores, which in the fibers of the old surface had become closed
also has a

by contraction

in this

way new passages are afforded

for the

escape of moisture.
192. Swelling occurs whenever the timber absorbs moisture. Most woods give up moisture more readily than they receive
it,

and, therefore, a timber will not swell so

much when

trans-

ferred from a dry atmosphere to a moist one, as a similar timber

will

shrink

when

transferred from a moist atmosphere to a dry

one, the difference in

the atmos])heric conditions being the

in

same.

slight

change, however,

the

amount of surrounding

128
moisture
is

BENCH WORK
sufficient to

IN

WOOD.
in the
is,

produce a perceptible change

dimensions of a piece of wood.

the

As a
swells.

rule, the softer

wood

more

readily

it

shrinks
in

and
is

193.

Warping

wood

a change of form resulting from

unequal shrinkage or swelling.

Suppose Fig. 220 to represent the end of a

are others extending from the center in are

log.

It will

be

seen that, besides the lines defining the annual ring layers, there
all

directions

these

known

to the botanist as medullary rays,

and sometimes

to the carpenter as silver rays.

clearly defined
;

In some woods, they are very

in others, they are hardly discernible.

The
layers,

medullary rays serve to bind together the annual ring

and are not very much shortened by shrinkage. the outer ends draw together, as at A and B,
K'ig.

In seasoning,
Fig.

221,

and

ssa

Fig.

SS3

produce ragged cracks, which sometimes extend from the exterior to the heart-wood, as

shown.

194.

If a log

is

cut longitudinally into five pieces, the mid-

dle piece will, in shrinking (by the drawing together of the

medullary rays), become thinner at the edges

center, as

than at

the

shown by

Fig.

222.

The

other four pieces will

in the log

warp

as shown, the surface of

each piece, which

was

nearest the center,

becoming the convex

will

side after shrinking.

The
it

shrinkage of a square joist

vary according to

its

position in the log relative to the heart.

will

(See Fig. 223.)

Thus,

be seen

that, in

the cross-section of a timber, changes

WOOD CONSTRUCTION.
resulting

29

from shrinkage can be foretold whenever the character

of the end grain can be determined.

195.

Timbers

also

warp

in the

direction of

their length.

When

not due to the subjection of one

part to

dryness or

dampness
fiber
fiber

to the exclusion of other parts, this

can be traced to

unevenness in the grain, which exposes a greater number of

ends

in

one part of a surface than another.

The more
will

ends there are on a surface, the more readily moisture

pass into or out of the wood, and the

the local shrinking or swelling,

more pronounced

will

be

and consequent warping.

For
'r-r^-~^
'"^ ^" "

A
"^--m

example, suppose Fig. 224 to

represent the edge of a board

having

the
will

grain

as

shown.

Moisture

escape more readily from the surfaces marked

and A' than from those marked B and B'. The contraction of the surfaces A and A', will force the board into the shape

shown by the dotted line. The most fruitfiil cause of warping, however,
exposure.

is

unecjual

One

side of a board
is

may be exposed
it
;

to the sun

while the other

protected from
in length

the side exposed will be

found concave, both

or
If a

Heat from a stove dampness from the ground are common causes of warping.
and breadth.
board newly planed on
it

all

its

faces, is left flat

its

on the
sur-

l)ench,
face,

will

after a time

be found concave in

upper

a result due to the greater exposure of the upper surface

lower, which remained in contact with

as

compared with the

bench.

the

piece

having reasonably straight grain, and

all

which has been planed

end.
to

over, should be left

on

its

edge or

Pieces of irregular shape, that are required to be

made

form accurately, are best when cut roughly almost to the

to size.

required dimensions, and allowed ample time to shrink and

warp before being finished exactly

130

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.

CARPENTRY.!
196.
It is

the

work of the carpenter

its

to raise

frame of a building, to construct

floors

and inclose the and roofs, and to

;

complete
joiner

all

parts which give stability to the structure

the

makes the doors and windows, erects the stairs, and provides such interior woodwork as will finish the building as a A single mechanic may perform almost every kind habitation.
of work required in the construction of a building, thus eliminating this distinction of trades
fication,
;

but for convenience in

classi-

we may imagine
be understood
to

the

work of the carpenter and

that

of the joiner to be quite distinct.

It
is

will

that

neither carpentry nor joinery

confined

house-building.
it

While

all

bench work may and principles

this reason,

properly be classed as joinery,

involves forms

that are the logical outgrowth of carpentry.

in

For

the following consideration of joints, there are presented,

first,

those belonging to carpentry, which will include such as

;

are used in uniting timbers, as in a frame for a building

and,

secondly, those belonging to joinery, which

are used in joining small })lanks or boards.

will

include such as

This classification

cannot be rigidly adhered

the following pages.

to,

but

it

will

serve the purpose of

197.

Any two

timbers

their length, or they

may be may be united

united in the direction of

at

an angle.

Timbers united

in the direction

of their length are usually

>

'
!

subject to compressional strain, which has a tendency to reduce

their length, as indicated

by Fig. 225

or tensional strain,

lished by Rivinglons, have furnished

Tredgold's " Carpentry," and " Notes on Building Construction " pubmany of the facts presented under

Carpentry and under Joinery.

WOOD CONSTRUCTION.
which has a tendency to increase
cross-strain,
their length, Fig.

131

226

or
;

which has a tendency

to

bend them,

Fig. 227

or to two of these strains at the

same time.
must ahvays bend.

198.

Timber subjected

to cross-strain
is

The

fibers

forming that surface which

convex or has a

tendency to become so (as the lower surface, A, Fig. 227) will be subject to tensional strain, while the fibers forming
the

opposite

surface
is

will

be

brought

under compressional
representing a straight

strain.

This
Fig.

shown by

Fig. 228,

227
C

Fig.

238

^^

timber, and B the same timber bent. It follows, then, somewhere between the compressed surface and the

that

ex-

tended surface there

jieutral axis of a

will

be a

line

which
;

is

subject to neither
is

compressional nor tensional strain

such a line

called the

timber, and will be located with sufficient

this

accuracy for the purposes of

work,

if

drawn midway be-

tween the upper and lower surfaces, as shown by the dotted

line

CD,

Fig..

228.

In the timber that has been forced into a curved form, Fig.
228, the fibers within the neutral axis are under no strain ex-

cepting that reciuired to hold the compressed portion to the

extended portion
remote from

but the conditions are found

to

change

rapidly as the examination extends to fibers

this
axis.

more and more

For example,
at C,

In other words, the strength of such

its

a timber increases rapidly as

if

depth increases.

Fig. 227 represents a 2"

at

X 4" timber (2" wide and 4" deep)

supported

B, B, and capable of sustaining 200 pounds

132
it

BENCH WORK
that, if the

IN

WOOD.
doubled, leaving the width
it

can be shown

depth

is

the same, by substituting a 2"

8" timber,
;

will
if

sustain four

times the original load, or 800 pounds

while

the width

is

doubled, leaving the depth the same, by substituting a 4"

timber,
it

x 4"
400

will

sustain
is

only twice

the

original

load, or

pounds.

The law

that the strength of timbers subject to

cross-strain, varies

as

the width,

and

as

the

square of the

depth.*

igg.

Rankine has given

five

principles to be observed in

designing joints and fastenings.

1.

They

are as follows

"To

cut the joints and arrange the fastenings so as to

that they connect as
little

weaken the pieces of timber

sible."
2.

as pos-

"

To

place each abutting surface in a joint as nearly as

it

possible perpendicular to the pressure which

3.

has to transmit."

"To
it

proportion the area of each surface to the pressure

which
injury
to

has to bear, so that the timber

may be
in

safe against

under the heaviest load which occurs

fit

practice,

and

form and
"

every pair of such surfaces accurately, in order

to distribute the stress uniformly."

4.

To

proportion the fastenings so that they

may be

of

equal strength with the pieces which they connect."

5.

"To

place the fastenings in each piece of timber, so that

there shall be sufficient resistance to the giving

way of the

joint

by the fastenings shearing or crushing their way through the

timber."

Complicated forms of joints are

1

likely to violate

Rule

3.

By what has been

given,

it

will

be seen that

in

any body of material

fact, parts that

the portions most affected in resisting cross-strain are those lying near the

upper and lower surfaces, Fig. 227.

receive a cross-strain, especially
if

In view of this

are to

of iron, are, in important structures,

these surfaces.
is

formed
road

to present a large

amount of material near

rail-

rail

or an I-beam are simple illustrations;

a bridge truss

an elabo-

ration of this principle.

WOOD COXSTRUCXfON.

^33

Joints connecting Timbers in the Direction of their

Length.
200.
straps

Lapped

Joint,
is

shown by

Fig. 229, fastened either

by

or bolts B,

chimsy, but very strong.

in
its

201.
230, and

A
is

Fished Joint

simplest form

so called because of the two pieces "fish-pieces " or "fi's/i-/>/a/es."

iT'ig.

shown by Fig. marked A called

is

aao

Fii.-.i230

^j

H^ i^

i^Va

v^'

Fish-pieces may be of either wood or iron, and may be employed to form the fished joint shown in Fig. 230, or appHed to more complicated joints to increase their strength.

When

subject to compressional strain, a fished joint should

face. When subject to tensional may be indented, A, Fig. 231 or, ends may be tabled, B, Fig. 231, or keys
;

have four plates, one on each

strain, the plates, if
if

of iron,

of hard wood, the

inserted as

shown by

and B,

Fig. 232.

Other things being

Viir.
'-2:5

equal,

if

the

number of keys

may be diminished
the same.

is doubled, the thickness of each one-half without reducing the strength of

the joint, since the total

amount of abutting

surface will remain

in

Note. The student should observe carefully the position of the lines the following representations of joints, so that he may clearly see the

reasons for the different methods of construction. lie should first look for the abutting surfaces, and then note their relation to the rest of the joint.

'34
For

BENC^H

WORK

IN

WOOD.
be on the sides of the

cross-strain, the fish-pieces should

joim, as

shown by

Fig. 233.

The
so that

bolts

used

for securing fish-j)ieces, or

emi^loyed as

fas-

tenings for any joint, should be placed checker-wise, Fig. 233,

no two

will cut the

same

cross-section.
in

Fished joints are often used

strong as the timbers
202.

heavy construction.

By a
as

suitable proportion of parts, the joint can be

it

made almost

connects.
in

Scarfed Joints are those

which the two timbers

the joint uniform in

united are so cut and fitted as to

size

make

with the timbers.

In determining the form of any scarf,

the principles already given

closely as possible.
ing, but,

Some

scarfs

(199) should l)e adhered to as by their form are self-sustain-

compared with

the timbers they unite, are weak,

bolts, or

and

are

seldom used unless strengthened by

by

bolts

and

fish-pieces.

203.
its

scarfed johit for resisting coinprcssion

is

shown

in

simplest form by Fig. 234.

fish-pieces,
it

When

strengthened by bolts
joint.

and

forms an exceedingly good

P'ig.C334

Fig.

235

m
204.
235.

scarfed joint for resisting tension

is

shown by
it

Fig.

The key

supplies the abutting surface to receive the

strain tending to

open the

joint

in

thickness

is
is

equal to
not often

one-third that of the timber.

In practice this joint

WOOD CONSTRUCTION.

135

employed without fish-pieces. Fig. 236 shows a modification of 235, which will serve excellently for tensional strain.

205.
to

scarfed Joint for resisting cross-strain

its

is

subject

compressional strain in

upper portion, and

to tensional

its lower portion (198), and must, therefore, embody forms adapted to resisting both, as shown by Fig. 237. A single fish-piece is usually added to the lower side of the joint.

strain in

Fig..S37

206.

scarfed Joint for

as

resisiifig tension

and

compression

may be made,
shown by

shown by
;

Fig.

238

or, less

complicated, as
Fig. 240.

Fig. 239

or,

more

secure, as

shown by

Fig.

238

Kis.aso

207.
is

scaffed Joint for

resisting: tension

and

cross-strain
this

sometimes made as
Fig.

illustrated

by Fig. 241, but

form

is

340

Fig.,a41

ms

^mm
if in

not so good as the one shown by Fig. 233, the fish-pieces are indented.

the latter case

136

BENCH WORK

IX

WOOD.

Joints connecting Timbers at Right Angles.

Halving, Fig. 242, forms a very simple joint, and when It is frequently employed. well fastened, a strong one. Beveled-lialving, Fig. 243, is sometimes resorted to with the
208.

view of allowing the load imposed upon

the arrow, to hold the joint together.
stances, this joint
is

in the direction of

Under ordinary circum-

likely to

prove weak, because of a lack of

material at the shoulder near the letter A.

I^ig.

244

Fig.
ITis.

243

243

p
ELEVATION.

g^^

WOOD CONSTRUCTION.
Double-notching requires a notch
in

137

both timbers, Fig. 246.

X.

210.

Cogging

is

represented by Fig.

247.

It

has some
" cog "

advantage over notching in point of strength, inasmuch as the

timber

has

its

full

depth over

its

support.

The

makes the union between

If the

the two timbers, as a joint, quite as

satisfactory as the double notch.

surrounding conditions require

it,

the cog

may be

formed near one edge, instead of in the middle of the timber.

211.

Mortise-and-Tenon Joints.

tenon

is

a projection
;

made on
is

the end of a timber to form part of a joint

to receive a tenon.

a mortise

an opening intended

In Fig. 248,

is

a
the tenon
its
;

M,
;

the mortise

/?,

the root of the tenon

called

S, S,

shoulders

and

c,

c,

are sometimes

the

abutting

cheeks of the mortise.

212.

When

a vertical timber meets a horizontal timber,

is

the object of the joint

simply to prevent displacement

called

and
is

small, short

tenon, sometimes

" stub

tenon,"

usually employed.

In this case, the tenon should not reach

the bottom of the mortise, but the strain should be taken by

138
the shoulders.

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.

Sometimes, instead of making a stub tenon,

is

the whole end of one timber

is

let

into another,

and the

first

then said to be "housed."

213.

When
if,

a horizontal timber meets a vertical timber, the

as

joint

may be formed
shown by

shown by

Fig.
it is

stronger,

in addition to the tenon,

249, or made much " blocked," Fig. 250,

or housed as

Fig. 251.

Fig.G^O

Fij

214.

^Vhen one horizontal timber meets another,

practice,
if

it

is

common
to

the proportions of the pieces are favorable,

Fig.

employ a double mortise and tenon.

I'^is-aSl

252,

being

Fig.

So3

supported by B.
ever,

This method cannot be recommended, howis

because

B
to

very

much weakened

l)y

the

mortises.
is

With reference
ence to

B only,

the best place for the mortise

on

the neutral axis (in the center of the timber), while with refer-

only, the tenon should be

all

on

its

lower edge, that

it.

it

may be

re-enforced by

the material al)ove

If timbers

WOOD CONSTRUCTION.
of equal depth are thus joined, they
Fig. 253
;

139

will

appear as shown by
strong,
is

but this combination, while

not always
this rea-

practicable, because of surrounding conditions. son, both mortise

positions,

For

and tenon are often placed

in unfavorable

the form

and the strength of the joint sacrificed. Sometimes shown by Fig. 254 is used, but this has little in its

Fig.SSS

'if is-

2i34

I
favor, except the ease with

l=r-.

which

it

is

made.

better

comif

bination
joint,

is

shown by

Fig. 255, which, although less perfect as a

may
is

serve the purpose quite as well as Fig. 253

the
to

timber

long between supports.

Tusk tenons are used

overcome the difficulties presented by the forms sho^vn al)Ove when employed in heavy construction. This arrangement of
surfaces, Fig. 256, allows the mortise to be in the center of the

timber, and to be small

and

it

also allows the tenon,

by means

of the tusk T, to present a low abutting surface on the sup-

ported timber.

Its

strength and compactness fully compensate

it.

for the difficulty of fitting

inia.

2GG

F'is.SST

~=^.-^J^-_ -^:^

M1SCEL1.ANEOUS Joints.
215.

Oblique Mortises and Tenons

at

may be used

to join Fig.

two timbers meeting each other shows a

common

form

in

257 which the abutting surface, repreis

an oblique angle.

sented by the dotted line A,

perpendicular to the cheeks of

140
the mortise,
is

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.

and the strain transmitted in the direction of the between the surfaces represented by the dotted hne A and the full line B. A bearing along the latter line becomes unreliable when the timbers shrink, or when, by
arrow,

divided

the settling of connected parts, the surfaces change their relative position.

For
is

this

reason

it

is

better to

depend mainly on

the line A, which

less affected

by the causes mentioned.

To

take the strain wholly,

should be at right angles to the length

This, however, while

of the tenon-bearing timber. Fig. 258. apparently a well-formed joint,

is

not a strong one, for the

TTiK.SGS

tenon, which

is

usually equal to but one-third the width of

the timber, must alone receive the thrust.

To

relieve the

tenon

by increasing the area of the abutting surface, the end of A may be housed as shown by Fig. 259, or the joint may be
strengthened by bolts or straps.

The

mortise for the joint shown by Fig. 258

a/>c,

is

usually

made
is

of the outline

and the

triangle a'/'c

is

not

filled.

This

done because it is easier to cut down the line be than the a'c. There seems to be no objection to this practice.
Ki<;.

line

2GO
Fig,

il
3??^^!F7

S61

216.

Bridle-Joint

is

represented by Fig. 260.

its

It

pos-

sesses the advantage of having

parts so

exposed that any

oblique form of

inaccuracy

in the

fit

is

always apparent.

An

WOOD CONSTRUCTION.
bridle-joint, Fig. 261,
is

141

certainly worthy of study.

The width
the

of the bridle, B, Fig. 260, should not exceed one-fifth

width of the timber.

217.

Tie- Joint

is

shown by
away
tie

Fig. 262.

The timber

is

prevented from

falling

in the direction indicated

by the

arrow, by the insertion of the

Fig. 197

may be made

to serve the

B. The joint illustrated by same purpose.

H
I
i

Fig.

263

142

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.
in joinery.
It

equally suitable for the smaller

work

may

also

be true that some that are treated

are quite as useful in carpentry.
fication here

in connection with joinery,

used only serves to

As already stated, the classifix in mind a few general

;

principles
arbitrarily

governing the adaptation of joints

it

cannot be

adhered

to.

The
best,

rule in carpentry that

makes the simplest form of

also

joint

does not always hold in joinery, because the methods of

because the
less

the joiner admit of greater accuracy, and

pieces
affected

of material used

are

smaller,

and consequently

by shrinkage.

Beads and Moldings.

220.

Beads.

A single-quirked

bead'vi

being the quirk; a double-qtiirked bead

is

shown by Fig. 264, a shown by Fig. 265,

m222i^
and a bead
staff,

or angle, bead by Fig. 266.

The term

reeding

is

applied to a succession of beads, as shown by Fig. 267.

is

said

to

be stuck when
it is

it

is

formed on the piece of

material on which
l^-i-j;.

used, and planted

when

it

is

formed on

aoG
'

iV-*l''rn
r//

i^ig.

ser

'~"'^

lyg^S^gl
The
size

a separate piece and glued or nailed in place.

of a

bead

is

indicated by the distance A, Fig. 264.

221.

Beads are sometimes used wholly

It is a principle

for

ornament, but

they are designed chiefly to conceal cracks by the shadows

they cast.
in joinery, that

when two boards

WOOD CONSTRUCTION.
are to be joined they

143

must be made as one complete board, when with the joint so concealed that no crack is left, either decided very a be should there or first made or after shrinkage
;

crack, which will appear to have been

made
;

intentionally.

The

but, as the boards glue first kind of joint is made by means of have some freemust width considerable forming a surface of swelling tendenand shrinking of account dom of movement on
cies,
it

follows that

when

large surfaces are to be covered, glued

Under such circumstances, it is found joints cannot be used. at a close joint, but to allow the attempt no make best to
Fig

144
224.
larger

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.

Moldings, while of the same character with beads, are and often much more complex in form. 'I'hcy may be

stuck or planted.
Fig. 271,

Among

the most simple forms

is

the ogee,

which

is

projecting board

a table top,
?iose,

frequently used as a finish for the edge of a

for

example.
is,

225.
all,

A
is

round

Fig. 272,

perhaps, the simplest of

is

and

especially useful

where a projecting board

subject

to usage severe

enough

to destroy sharp angles or small details,

stair.

as

is

the " tread " of a

226.

From

a few sim])le forms, of which the two shown are

styles,

types, have
part,

sprung the variety of

which, for the most

have no designation but the number given them by the

ITio..

Fig. Qri

272

Ii^ig'

SVS

manufacturer.

While most of them may be stuck, as

is

the

ogee. Fig. 271, and the

common
;

they are generally planted.

planted on a plain surface

forms shown by Fig. 273, Fig. 274 shows a molding at A,

at

B, one planted

in

an angle, and

at C, a

rabbeted (bolection) molding which overlaps one of

of material used in a joint as a

the i)ieces forming the angle.

fillet^

is

light

strip

fastening, or, in connection with

beads and

moldings, as a

means of ornamentation.
227.

In joining boards, use

is

frequently

made

of some outside
is

support, which, though not considered a part of the joint,

Fillet, or thread.

WOOD CONSTRUCTION.
often the one element that
sible.

I45

makes

the adaptation of the joint posfloor

For example, two boards of a

;

may be joined

to

each

other in a variety of ways

but they are both supported and

retained in position by being fastened to the " flooring joist."

consideration of the joint between the boards, however, need

joist

not involve the

except as a fastening.

Heading-Joints, or Joints for uniting

Pieces in the

Direction of their Length.

228.

The

length to which boards

may be

sawed,

is,

in prac-

tice, limited

only by man's ability to handle and transport them

with economy.

For most purposes, the lengths of from ten

l)y

to

twenty feet which are supplied

longer ones.

the trade, serve as well as

easily

They can be handled more

words, more cheaply

Fig. 275

than boards of

in other

thirty or forty feet.

is

shows a square heading-joint, which

as indicated

usually

"cut

under " a
joint

little,

by dotted

lines, to insure

a close

on the

surface.
if^ig.

ars
NAiy*
.

iTig.

are

/ NAIL

i)Wf

JOIST

A
to

this will

is shown by Fig. As a joint, 276. seem more perfect than Fig. 275, but it is more difficult make, and the latter is in most places (juite as satisfactory.

splayed heading-joint

Joints F(m uniting Pieces in

229.

thi'.

Direction ok their
:

\\'ii)rH.

Joints of this class have two offices to perform

;

first,

to

prevent shrinkage from making an oj)en joint

to distribute to adjoining boards, strain that

and, secondly, received

may be

by any one of them

at points

between supports.

146
230.
Fig. 277

BENCH WORK
shows
at

IN

WOOD.

a.

plain butt-joint, which has no

provision against opening, and in which the boards port each other
;

do not supfigure

it is,

really,

no

joint at

all.

The same

shows
joint,

at

B, C, and

>, respectivel)', a filleted joint, a

rabbeted

and a matched joint. Any of these may be beaded as shown by Fig. 269. The marring of the surface by nail heads may be prevented by "secret nailing," which is shown in
Fig. 277.

^A^_

B
JOIST

Joints of this class which have

selves,

no support outside of them-

must be held by glue.

231.
will

Glued Butt-joint, shown by

in the softer
It is difficult,

Fig. 278, if well

be quite as strong

woods

as a glued

made, matched
if

or a glued filleted joint.

however, especially

the

boards are long, to keep the two pieces forming the plain joint
in ])ropcr position

while the glue

is

setting.

clamped, they are almost sure to

finally

slip,

so that

Even if they are when the joint has

become

firm, the

boards

similar to that shown. Fig. 278.

may have assumed a position The fillet, and the tongue and

?
groove

(B and D,

Fig. 277) are useful in

keeping the parts

in
for

place until the glue has hardened.

the

Dowels may be used

to the joint.

vals,

same purpose, Fig. 279. and are well fitted, they

Cleating.
tlie

If
will
is

they are placed at short inter-

add strength
a

232.

cleat

piece of material fastened

its

across

width of a board to prevent

warping

if

the sur-

WOOD CONSTRUCTION.
face
is

147
is

composed of

several pieces, the cleat

It

also designed to

hold them together.

pieces, as
Fig. 281.

may be

applied to the back of the

shown by Fig. 280, or across the ends, as shown by As the grain of the cleat is at right angles to that of the surface to which it is fastened, and since wood shrinks and swells more across the grain than with it, there is likely to be
Kig.

280
Kig. 281
A

7^//.|\\n|l'M'i'l'lM

3^CLEAT A
i!ul

^ELFAHiAsfc

'"'III

l-=
/|j|l\A|'/i|n'|'/(

148
tive

BENCH WORK
than B.
It is

IN

WOOD.

more

difficult,

however, to put screws or

other fastenings through

than through

either

may be

fastened by screws inserted from the face of the board.

234.

End

cleats are neat in

appearance, and, when decided

warping tendencies are not to be overcome,

do good

service.

To

supplement the fastenings, a narrow tongue

fit

may be formed

on the board to

a corresponding groove in the cleat, as

shown
235.

in

connection with B, Fig. 281.

If only

one surface of a cleated board

is

to
for

be made
example,
les-

the

use

of,

a drawing board,
strain

on the

cleat

may be

sened by a succession of saw cuts on the

lower side, extending the length of the
board, as shown by Fig. 282.

By

this

means, the warping tendency of a sevenSection

A.B.

eighths-inch board

may be reduced

to

that of a (juarter-inch, or even a one-

eighth-inch board.

Joints for uniting Pieces at Right Angles.

236.
Butt-Joints.

A
;

plain joint of this kind

is

represented

by Fig. 283.

The

joint

may be concealed by
when
the material

a bead, as indiis

cated by dotted lines

and,

thick and

it

is

desirable to prevent an exposure of

ble, the joint

end grain

as

much

as possi-

form also

may be modified, as shown by Fig. 284. This may be beaded. When great strength is demanded.
^is.

Kig.

283

QB4

^m
i
Fig. 285.

2B6

a housed joint

may be made,

The

sides

and ends of
frequently

troughs which are required to

be water-tight, are

WOOD CONSTRUCTION.
made
in this

149

way.

If there

can be no projection, as A, Fig.

as

285, this joint

may be modified

shown by

Fig. 286, but

it

will lose in strength.

237.
sole

Miter-Joint.

Fig.

287 shows a plain miter-joint.

it

Its

recommendation
weak, because

lies

in the fact that

exposes no end
it

grain, for,
faulty
:

from a mechanical point of view,

difficult to fasten,

is

weak and
because, as

and

faulty,

the two pieces

forming the joint shrink,

each

will

become

narrower on the lines A, A, and produce the change of form

shown by the dotted lines B and B'. As a result of this change, either the angle C between the two pieces must become smaller,
or the joint must open, forming a wide crack on the inside,

which

is

represented by the triangle

BDB'.
are

Miter-joints between two pieces of different thickness

Fig. L^ST

Vi'^.

288

Fis. 289

made

in the

form

illustrated

by Fig. 288.

Occasionally this
;

is

used when the pieces are of the same thickness, Fig. 289 for while it has the advantages of the plain miter-joint, it is stronger

and

less affected

by shrinkage.

Fig.

coo
-A

Fig. iiOl

238.
joints,

Glue, and brads or

nails, the

usual fastenings for miterinserted as

in

may be supplemented by

fillet

shown by

A, Fig. 290, or by small pieces inserted

saw cuts which are

Fig. 291.

made

across the angle of the joint, as

shown by A,

150

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.

239. Dovetail-Joints have already been discussed (171-176).

They can be made much

joints

stronger than any of the other angle

herein considered.

The

plain dovetail,
it

Fig.

199,

is

sometimes objectionable because

ances this objection.

exposes end grain, but the

checkered appearance of a well-made joint almost counterbalIn the lap-dovetail-joint, however, Fig.
201, the end grain disappears from one face, and in the blind
dovetail. Fig. 203,
tainly

from both

faces.

The

blind dovetail cer-

combines

all

that could be desired as far as strength

;

and

appearance are concerned

240.

but

it is

difficult to

make.
from
the

Mortise-and-Tenon Joints

in joinery are different

those employed in carj^entry, only in the proportions of their

parts,

and the accuracy with which they are

fitted.
is

When

thickness B, Fig. 292, of the pieces joined

the same, the

thickness A, of a simple tenon

may
and

vary from one-third to

it

two-thirds that of the piece on which

is

formed, practice

tending toward the larger figure

to

its

breadth

C ought

not

exceed seven times its thickness. For the thickness given. The Fig. 292 shows a tenon of the greatest breadth allowable.
is

breadth

thus limited because the sides of the mortise derive

their support

from the solid material

for

at

its

ends, and they

become

too

weak

good

service

when

the limit

named

is

Fifr.

203

=^
become
distorted, thus

exceeded.

Again, the tenon,

is

if

too broad, will not stand the

to

pressure of wedging, but

likely

putting additional strain on the mortise, and frequently causing

it

to split.

See Fig. 293.

WOOD CONSTRUCTION.
241.

151
is

When

the piece on which the tenon

if

to

be formed

is

very broad, a single tenon,

employed, leaves wide shoulders,

to objection,

AB,

Fig. 294.

These are open

because of the
its
it

tendency of the tenon piece to warp so that

surface

at

will

not agree with the surface of the piece

tenon. Fig.
is

joins, at C.

Under such circumstances a double

used.

295,

may be
will

This

will give the

support that

needed, and

not

violate the principle laid

down
if

in

240.

Double tenons, how-

ever, while they obviate

one

difficulty introduce another.

The

tenons are unyielding, and,

the piece

is

very wide,
as

its

shrink-

age

is

likely to

produce a crack between them,

denoted by

the dotted lines A, Fig. 295.

Fig.

894

Fig.

295

242. Haunching is a device by which the tenon proper is supplemented by very short tenons, or " haunches," as indicated by the dotted outline. Fig. 296. The entire end of the tenon

piece

is

thus inserted in the mortise piece, and prevented from

;

warping
creased.

the danger of
If the piece
it

its

splitting

from shrinkage

is

not in-

shown by

imperfection

illustrates

294 were haunched, the would be removed.

Fig.

Fig.

296

243.

Four

tenons

may be used
made
joint.

in a single joint

when

the

pieces to be united are very thick and wide, Fig. 297.

their use the parts are

By

small enough to prevent shrinkage

from producing a bad

152

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.

244. In forming a joint at the extremity of the mortise piece,

a single tenon,

if

employed, must be cut away

at

one

side, as

shown by
or
if

Fig. 298.

Such a

joint

the pieces are sufficiently

may be haunched. Fig. 299, wide, two tenons may be used,

Fig. 213.
"Fis-

aOS

^
i^
for

Fig.

200

245. Mortise-and-tenon joints in joinery are capable of

the modifications of form which they are

all

made

to

assume
in

in

carpentry.

They may be housed,

example, or

made

any

of the obhque forms.

Paneling.
246.

Panel
fill

is

a board, or a combination of boards, em-

ployed to

an opening within a frame.

Thus,

in Fig.

300 the

pieces J^ constitute the frame, and the pieces A, B, C, and

are panels.

D
to

The primary purpose of

so
it

this

arrangement
that

is

give an extended surface of w'ood

constructed

the

pieces of which

is

made

shall

be well and neatly fastened,

and, at the same time, the dimeiisions and the general appear-

ance of the whole, be unaffected by shrinking or swelling.

are frequently embellished, sometimes so richly that
sight of the mechanical necessity of the panel,

To
lose
to

enhance the attractiveness of the surface, both frame and panel

we

and come

regard
247.
vertical
joints.

it

as a

means of decoration.
itself
is,

The Frame taken by

in general,

made up

of

and horizontal pieces united

Vertical pieces extending the

by

mortise-and-tenon

full

length of any frame

WOOD CONSTRUCTION.
Kitr.

153

300

Sec.

CD.

154

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.
pieces, "rails."

are called "stiles,"

and horizontal
is

Each of

these parts should be as narrow as

consistent with the degree

rail

of strength required.

The width
stile,

of a

should never be more

than twice that of the

four
that,

which, as a rule, should not exceed

consideration of Fig. 300 will show

and a

half inches.
is

although the door

three or

more

feet wide, the only sur-

faces
stiles.

whose shrinkage can

affect the

width are the two 4-^-inch

size

Large surfaces are covered, not by increasing the

e is inserted to

of the parts, but by increasing their number.

The

fillet

cover the end of the tenons, which

would otherwise show on the edge of the door.

248. The panel may be either fastened to the back of the frame, or inserted in a groove, or " plow," made in the frame
to receive
it.

In either case, provision must be

made

for

shrinking and swelling.

are usually found to
fitted into the frame,

When

fastened to the back, screws

make a
It

sufficiently yielding joint.

is

When

no fastening
must
fit

rived from

its

position.

needed beyond that deloosely enough to draw out

on shrinking, but not so loosely

In Fig. 300,

as to rattle.

is

a plain panel screwed to the back of the

it is

frame, and the frame about

stop-chamfered.

This

is,

prob-

In comably, the simplest combination of frame and panel. it is best adapted to way, fastened in this panels mon with all

work

that

is

to

be seen from one side only, as a closet door,

or the permanent lining of a room. B shows a plain panel fastened to the back of a frame which
is

ornamented by a molding. C differs from only in being

let into

the frame instead of

being screwed to the back.

The

reverse face c

may be

orna-

mented by a molding
chamfer.

in the

same manner

as

C, or by a

D shows a raised
The
reverse face
</ is

panel embellished by a rabbeted molding.

a plain raised panel.

WOOD CONSTRUCTION.

55

A panel and frame may be plain on one side and ornamented on the other, the ornamentation on one side may differ from that on the other, or the sides may be similar and any
;

form of embellishment that

surfaces,

may

properly be applied to board

this

may be used

in

connection with

work.

FASTENINGS.
249.

Pins are employed principally as a means of holding

In carpentry one pin, generally,
is

tenons in mortises.

used

in

each

joint, its

diameter varying from one-sixth to one-fourth the

It is

width of the tenon.

commonly placed
mortise,

at a distance

from

the abutting cheeks of

the

equal to one-third the

length of the tenon.

the joint,
its

But to secure the

maximum

strength of

exact location in any particular case must be fixed

with reference to the character of the material, and also to the

relative thickness of the

tenon and the cheeks of the mortise.

In joinery,

it is

found best to use two or more pins, and, what-

ever the proportions of the joint

may

be, these rarely

exceed

three-eighths of an inch in diameter.

They

are inserted very

near the abutting cheeks of the mortise, so that that part of

the mortise between

not shrink enough to

them and the shoulder of make an open joint.

the tenon, will

Square pins are better than round ones, but the

latter are

more easily fitted and, therefore, more used. Drawboring has already been described (168),
250.
trated

Wedges.
by

The
to

most

common
in glue,

use of wedges

is

illus-

Fig. 213 in connection with Exercise

No.

14,

which

requires

wedges

be dipped

and driven between the

tenon and the ends of the mortise.

in

Wedges

are also driven

saw cuts made

in

the end of the tenon for the purpose of

156
expanding
it,

BENCH WORK
as illustrated

IX

WOOD.
a.t

section of a joint before the

by Fig. 301, which shows wedges are driven, and

zX

A B

a.

a.

section of the

finished

joint.

The saw

cut

should

extend
If
is

somewhat deeper than the point reached by the wedge.

the tenon
is

broad, or

if

a considerable increase in breadth

Fig. 301

more than one wedge must be used. When there more than two, a large one should be inserted in the center, and smaller ones on each side, as shown by Fig. 302, the wedges ready for driving at A, and the joint finished at B.
required,
are

251.

Blind-wedging

is

sometimes

resorted

to

when

the
Fig.

mortise does not extend through the piece.

303, the mortise
started in
;

As shown by

is

enlarged at the bottom and the wedges

then, as the pieces are driven together, the ends of

the wedges strike against the bottom of the mortise and spread

the tenon.

When

driven, the tenon cannot be withdrawn.

TTig. .TO-l

252.

Keys

differ

from wedges

in respect of their sides,

which
two

are parallel or nearly so.

The key may be a

what
is

single piece, as

shown

in the joint, Fig. 197, or,

better,
in

wedges. Fig. 304.

relative position

These may be put

place

made when

as

in the

upon each
ened.

other, as indicated

shown by A'B, after which, by driving them by A, B, the joint may be tightof the outside edges, which are in
is

The

parallelism

contact with the joint,

always maintained.

WOOD CONSTRUCTION.
253.

157

to strengthen a joint.

Dowels are round wooden pins of small diameter used They should be dipped in glue and
fit

driven at a tight

into holes

made

for their reception.

They

may be

carried entirely through one piece and into the other,

Fig. 282, or inserted as

Dowels may be made

be turned.

shown by Fig. 279. at the bench by the plane, or they may When planed, they will be improved in section if
steei.

driven through a round hole in a piece of iron or

are supplied by the trade, of
all

They

ordinary diameters, and in

lengths of several feet, so that the consumer has but to cut

them

to lengths suited to his purposes,

ser\-e well as

and point them.

After being dipped in

Shoe pegs

small dowels.

glue, they should

be driven in brad-awl holes.

Whenever

fastenings are required to be so placed that sub-

sequent operations bring the cutting tools about them, dowels

are preferable to brads or nails, since they

may be planed

off

without injury to the tool.

254.

Nails are classified according to the process by which

they are

made

and the use

their form and proportions ; which they are intended. Iron and steel are the most common materials, but when
;

the material used

for

305

Fig.iro

these would be destroyed by corrosion, copper and "galvanized " iron are used.

The forms
771011

of most importance to the

bench-worker,

may be

classed as covieasi7ii;-)

and
by

fi7tishi7ii;;

(or

nails.
illus-

Their comparative proportions are

trated
Figs,

170 and 305, the former

representing a
J

common, and
It is

the latter
'*""

a finishing
greater

nail.

evident that the

strength

of the
there
is

common

nail

"'^

makes
ceive

its
it

use desirable
properly,

when

sufficient material to re-

and when the appearance of the head on

15^
the surface

BENCH WORK

IN

WOOD.

is not objectionable. The finishing nail mav be used in more delicate material, and makes a smaller scar on the work.

Cut nails
each
nail
is

are so called because, in the process of manufacture,

cut from a plate of metal.

nail,
all

The

plate has a width

to
its

equal to the length of the

breadth.
Figs.

and a thickness equal

nails

Generally speaking,

of the form shown by

1 70 and 305 are cut. Wrought, as distinguished from cut

nails,

are those which

without breaking

will

bend
nails

sufficiently for clinching.

As the

term suggests, such

were formerly wrought under the

hammer,

it
;

being impossible to obtain the requisite quality by

machinery

had ceased

and they were 30 made long after common nails to be made by hand. In later years, however,

wrought nails have in reality been cut, but from better material and by more perfect processes than those which have been
technically called cut nails.
Steel cut nails are

now

generally introduced in this country,

cut,

and
.

will in

time take the place not only of the iron

:

but also

P^if?.

^ 30G
,

of the so-called wrought nails ' for, while less ex pensive than the former, they are equal in quality
'

to the latter.
IP'ire
flails,

Fig. 306, are at this time

coming
wire in

into general use.

Their strength and tenacity are

are

unequaled.
sizes varying

They

made from drawn

from that of the smallest brad to

that of the largest spike.

255to the

The

length of nails

is

indicated by numbers prefixed

^

word "penny,"

as 6-penny, 8-penny, terms

which are

'

It

has been suggested that they once indicated the value or price of a
nails,

given number of

6-penny

nails

being sold

at six

pence per hundred,

is

and 8-penny

nails for eight

is

pence per hundred.

a corruption of

Another explanation

that penny, as here used,

pound, 6-penny meaning that

WOOD CONSTRUCTION.
now used
significant.
arbitrarily,

159

l^ough, originally, they were doubtless

The

length of nails of ordinary sizes

3-penny
nail
is

is

given as follows

one inch long. one and one-fourth inches long.

4-penny
5-penny

" " " " "

one and three-fourths

two

"

"
"

6-penny
7-penny

" "

An

8-penny

two and one-fourth two and one-half

three three and one-half

"
" " "
"

"

lo-penny

"
"

two and three-fourths "

"

A
A
256.

i2-penny

20-penny

"

"

Brads are small finishing nails, in form similar to the shown by Fig. 305, the smaller ones being thicker, and the larger ones more slender. Their size is expressed in inches and fractions of an inch, and ranges from one-fourth of an inch
nail

to

two inches.
257.

Tacks are
is

useless for fastening pieces of

wood

to

each

other, but are indispensable

leather,

when

lighter material, like cloth or

to

be fastened to wood.

They vary

in

form and
Their
^

size

with the particular use for which they are intended.

is

size

expressed by a number prefixed to the word " ounce."

length of the

more common
i-ounce

sizes varies as follows

The

i6o
258.
brass,

bp:nch

work
are

in

wood.

Common Screws

either bright or blued, steel or

round-headed or flat-headed.

Bright screws are finished by polishing.

luster of the polish has

When
will

blued, the

been taken

off

by heat or an acid, and

not rust so

a deep blue finish produced.

easily as bright screws,

Blued screws

and

in

most work they look better

still

considerations which apply with

greater force to the use of

brass as a material instead of steel.

Flat-headed screws, shown by Fig. 124, are the most com-

mon.

When
this
is

used on finished surfaces, the heads should be

level

sunk below the general

and the hole above them

filled.

When
work

not convenient, round heads, which in the finished

will

appear above the surface, are frequently employed.

of screws
is

The
the

size

indicated by their length in inches or

fractions of an inch,

and by the diameter of the wire forming

is

body

this

diameter

expressed by a numl)er which refers

to a " standard screw gauge."

range from No.

The sizes of the screw gauge which represents a diameter of a little less than a sixteenth of an inch, to No. 30, which represents a diameter somewhat greater than seven-sixteenths of an inch.
o,

The
in

size of a screw two inches long and a quarter of an inch diameter would be written 2" x No. 15.

259.

Glue

is

chiefly of

two kinds, which are known as animal,

is

and
gives

fish glue.

Animal glue

a product obtained from the

refuse of tanneries (bone, horn, hoofs,

and

bits

of hide), which
boiled under

up the glutinous matter

Fish glue
is

it

contains

when

pressure.
fish.

extracted from the spawn and entrails of

As prepared

for the

market, both are generally in the

form of cakes, varying in thickness from an eighth of an inch

to very thin chips, according to the quality
glue.

and character of the

in water,

For bench work, these are dissolved

and the
one

mixture applied hot.

glue-pot
is

For convenience
is

in dissolving the glue, a

vessels,

used, which

an arrangement of two

WOOD CONSTRUCTION.

l6l

within another, the inner being for glue, the outer for water.

Heat
water

is

communicated

in

any convenient way

to the water,

and

the water in turn heats the glue.

is

The

use of the vessel of

to prevent the glue

Gluing.

When ready
Too much

from burning.
should be hot and
a

for use, the glue

It

of the consistency of thin sirup.

must be apphed with

brush, in a thin, uniform coating to both surfaces

that are to

be joined.

glue will prevent the pieces from

coming
as

together in the joint.

The

application should be

made
quickly

quickly as possible because the glue begins to cool and set as

soon as

it

is

taken from the pot

it

will

set

less

if

the pieces to be

glued are warmed.

After the pieces have

been put together, they should be rul)bed to squeeze out the surplus glue, and finally clamped in place and allowed to remain
until

dry

at least twelve hours.

Liquid glues are supplied by the trade.

They

require no

heating and are, therefore, always ready for use.

When end
and allowed
glue that
is

grain

is

to

be glued,
order to

it

must

first

be sized, that

is,

coated with thin glue,

in

fill

the pores of the wood,

to dry before the joint

is

made.

Otherwise, the

put into the joint

is

drawn

off into the grain

and

becomes

useless as a fastening.

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