Dr.

Tom Gally
AE 301 Aerodynamics I 1
9/27/2004 AE 301 Aerodynamics I 77
Airfoils Airfoils
Airfoils are the basic building block of airplanes! Airfoils are the basic building block of airplanes!
You find airfoils when you take cross sectional cuts of You find airfoils when you take cross sectional cuts of
the wing, horizontal and vertical stabilizers, the wing, horizontal and vertical stabilizers,
propellers, compressor and turbine blades, etc. propellers, compressor and turbine blades, etc.
The various uses of airfoils are: The various uses of airfoils are:
produces forces normal to the flow produces forces normal to the flow
reduces forces in the direction of flow reduces forces in the direction of flow
accelerate and/or energize the flow accelerate and/or energize the flow
In this chapter we will learn all about airfoils and In this chapter we will learn all about airfoils and
their 3 their 3- -D counterpart, wings. D counterpart, wings.
9/27/2004 AE 301 Aerodynamics I 78
Airfoils (continued) Airfoils (continued)
The geometry of an airfoil is described using the The geometry of an airfoil is described using the
following nomenclature for: following nomenclature for:
Leading and trailing edges: the most forward and aft points Leading and trailing edges: the most forward and aft points
of an airfoil. of an airfoil.
Note that the leading edge is Note that the leading edge is not not always the stagnation point! always the stagnation point!
In fact, usually it isnt. In fact, usually it isnt.
Also, when and airfoil is tilted, the most forward point can b Also, when and airfoil is tilted, the most forward point can be e
misleading. Instead use the point furthest from the trailing misleading. Instead use the point furthest from the trailing
edge which is usually well defined. edge which is usually well defined.
Trailing Edge Leading Edge
Chord, c
Mean camber
line
Camber
Thickness
Chord line
9/27/2004 AE 301 Aerodynamics I 79
Airfoils (continued) Airfoils (continued)
Chord line and chord: the straight line connecting the L.E. Chord line and chord: the straight line connecting the L.E.
and T.E. and the length of that line. and T.E. and the length of that line.
The chord length is a useful reference dimension. The chord length is a useful reference dimension.
The airfoil Reynolds number is usually based upon chord, Re The airfoil Reynolds number is usually based upon chord, Re
c c
. .
Geometric dimensions are non Geometric dimensions are non- -dimensionalized dimensionalized by chord by chord
length, I.e coordinates are given by x/c and y/c. length, I.e coordinates are given by x/c and y/c.
Trailing Edge Leading Edge
Chord, c
Mean camber
line
Camber
Thickness
Chord line Dr. Tom Gally
AE 301 Aerodynamics I 2
9/27/2004 AE 301 Aerodynamics I 80
Airfoils (continued) Airfoils (continued)
Mean camber line and camber: the line midway between the Mean camber line and camber: the line midway between the
upper and lower surfaces, and the distance of this line from upper and lower surfaces, and the distance of this line from
the chord line. the chord line.
To be precise, the midpoint is located along a line To be precise, the midpoint is located along a line
perpendicular to the camber line itself. perpendicular to the camber line itself.
The camber, though, is measured perpendicular to the chord The camber, though, is measured perpendicular to the chord
line. line.
Note that camber is a function of x and non Note that camber is a function of x and non- -dimensionalized dimensionalized by by
chord length: chord length: y y
c c
(x)/c. (x)/c.
Trailing Edge Leading Edge
Chord, c
Mean camber
line
Camber
Thickness
Chord line
9/27/2004 AE 301 Aerodynamics I 81
Airfoils (continued) Airfoils (continued)
Thickness: the distance between upper and lower surfaces. Thickness: the distance between upper and lower surfaces.
Precisely, thickness should be measured perpendicular to the Precisely, thickness should be measured perpendicular to the
camber line. camber line.
The thickness, like the camber, is a function of x and usually The thickness, like the camber, is a function of x and usually
non non- -dimensionalized dimensionalized by chord: t(x)/c. by chord: t(x)/c.
Note the build up sequence: lay out the chord line, Note the build up sequence: lay out the chord line,
add the camber on to it, then add the thickness on add the camber on to it, then add the thickness on
top of that. top of that.
Trailing Edge Leading Edge
Chord, c
Mean camber
line
Camber
Thickness
Chord line
9/27/2004 AE 301 Aerodynamics I 82
Airfoils (continued) Airfoils (continued)
Other definitions: Other definitions:
Geometric angle of attack, Geometric angle of attack, : the angle between the chord : the angle between the chord
line and the line and the freestream freestream flow direction. flow direction.
Lift, L and Drag, D: the airfoil forces perpendicular and Lift, L and Drag, D: the airfoil forces perpendicular and
tangent to the flow direction, respectively. tangent to the flow direction, respectively.
The resultant forces, R, is just the vector combination of lift The resultant forces, R, is just the vector combination of lift
and drag and drag
V

C/4
Drag, D
Lift, L
Resultant, R
Moment, M
c/4
Dr. Tom Gally
AE 301 Aerodynamics I 3
9/27/2004 AE 301 Aerodynamics I 83
Airfoils (continued) Airfoils (continued)
Moments Moments
Because we have forces, we also have moments which need Because we have forces, we also have moments which need
a reference location. a reference location.
While the leading edge seems most obvious, the quarter While the leading edge seems most obvious, the quarter
chord location, c/4, is the standard reference. chord location, c/4, is the standard reference.
The reason for this is that for symmetric airfoils in The reason for this is that for symmetric airfoils in inviscid inviscid
flow the moment about about the quarter chord is zero! flow the moment about about the quarter chord is zero!
V

C/4
Drag, D
Lift, L
Resultant, R
Moment, M
c/4

9/27/2004 AE 301 Aerodynamics I 84

Airfoils (continued) Airfoils (continued)
Practical airfoils which have both camber and viscous effects Practical airfoils which have both camber and viscous effects
do not in general have M do not in general have M
c/4 c/4
= 0, and in fact M = 0, and in fact M
c/4 c/4
usually usually
varies with varies with . .
A special location does exist, however, where even though A special location does exist, however, where even though
the moment isnt zero, it is at least a constant at all the moment isnt zero, it is at least a constant at all s s. .
This point is called the aerodynamic center, AC. This point is called the aerodynamic center, AC.
Fortunately, the aerodynamic center is usually relatively Fortunately, the aerodynamic center is usually relatively
close to c/4. close to c/4.
c/4
M
LE
M
c/4
M
ac
9/27/2004 AE 301 Aerodynamics I 85
Design Philosophy Design Philosophy
The biggest reason for designing airfoils is for their The biggest reason for designing airfoils is for their
ability to produce lift. ability to produce lift.
It turns out that, It turns out that, inviscidly inviscidly, a good lifting surface is , a good lifting surface is
a simple flat plate. a simple flat plate.
Unfortunately, that big adverse pressure gradient on Unfortunately, that big adverse pressure gradient on
the upper surface leads to flow separation at low the upper surface leads to flow separation at low s. s.
V

p
x/c
1.0
Lower surface
Upper surface Dr. Tom Gally
AE 301 Aerodynamics I 4
9/27/2004 AE 301 Aerodynamics I 86
Design Philosophy (continued) Design Philosophy (continued)
A quick fix to the flat plate is to add enough camber A quick fix to the flat plate is to add enough camber
so the leading edge points into the oncoming flow. so the leading edge points into the oncoming flow.
By doing this, the big adverse pressure gradient is By doing this, the big adverse pressure gradient is
avoided avoided
Unfortunately, this only works at one particular angle Unfortunately, this only works at one particular angle
of attack and is not ideal for an airplane which flies at of attack and is not ideal for an airplane which flies at
many different conditions. many different conditions.
p
x/c
1.0
Lower surface
Upper surface
V

9/27/2004 AE 301 Aerodynamics I 87

Design Philosophy (continued) Design Philosophy (continued)
So, the next fix is to round the leading edge so that So, the next fix is to round the leading edge so that
there is no angle at which the flow must go around a there is no angle at which the flow must go around a
sharp corner. sharp corner.
Of course, this adds thickness to the whole airfoil as Of course, this adds thickness to the whole airfoil as
shown below. shown below.
By tailoring the leading edge radius and thickness By tailoring the leading edge radius and thickness
distribution, we control the pressure variation. distribution, we control the pressure variation.
p
x/c
1.0
Upper and
lower surface
V

9/27/2004 AE 301 Aerodynamics I 88

Design Philosophy (continued) Design Philosophy (continued)
This control allows us to design airfoils for different This control allows us to design airfoils for different
applications as indicated below. applications as indicated below.
Note: these pressures are theoretical, inviscid results! Dr. Tom Gally
AE 301 Aerodynamics I 5
9/27/2004 AE 301 Aerodynamics I 89
Dimensional Analysis Dimensional Analysis
A dimensional analysis of the relationships between A dimensional analysis of the relationships between
aerodynamic forces and flow/geometry properties aerodynamic forces and flow/geometry properties
yields the following force coefficients: yields the following force coefficients:
The coefficients are functions of the other important The coefficients are functions of the other important
non non- -dimensional variables, angle dimensional variables, angle- -of of- -attack, Mach attack, Mach
number, and number, and Reynolds Reynolds number: number:
c q
l
C
l

=
c q
d
C
d

=
2
4 /
4 /
c q
m
C
c
c m

=
( )
c l l
M f C Re , , = ( )
c d d
M f C Re , , =
( )
c m m
M f C
c
Re , ,
4 /
=
9/27/2004 AE 301 Aerodynamics I 90
2 2- -D Wind Tunnel Results D Wind Tunnel Results
Lift curve plots: Lift curve plots: c c
l l
versus versus
For cambered airfoils there For cambered airfoils there
can be lift at zero can be lift at zero
Angle Angle- -of of- -attack for zero lift is attack for zero lift is
called the zero lift called the zero lift , or , or
L L=0 =0
For symmetric airfoils, For symmetric airfoils,
L L=0 =0
= 0 = 0
Linear Linear behaviour behaviour at moderate at moderate
Inviscid Inviscid theory says: theory says: c c
l l
= 2 = 2( (
l=0 l=0
) ) ( ( in radians) in radians)
Thus, the lift curve slope = Thus, the lift curve slope = dc dc
l l
/ /d d = 2 = 2 ( (also called also called a a
o o
or or C C
l l
) )
At high and low At high and low , separation occurs and the linearity , separation occurs and the linearity
disappears disappears
The maximum value of The maximum value of c c
l l
is called, obviously enough, is called, obviously enough, c c
lmax lmax
The corresponding angle The corresponding angle- -of of- -attack is, attack is,
clmax clmax
At angles At angles- -of of- -attack beyond attack beyond
clmax clmax
the airfoil is the airfoil is stalled stalled! !
C
l

L=0
C
l max

Clmax
a
o
stalled
9/27/2004 AE 301 Aerodynamics I 91
2 2- -D Wind Tunnel Results (continued) D Wind Tunnel Results (continued)
Also have influence of Also have influence of Re Re
c c
(See data in Appendix D) (See data in Appendix D)
Very small influence of Very small influence of Re Re
c c
at moderate at moderate s s
Strong influence of Strong influence of Re Re
c c
near separation near separation
To be expected since separation is viscous phenomenon To be expected since separation is viscous phenomenon
Note: the greater Note: the greater Re Re
c c
, the later the separation. , the later the separation.
Also note effect of standard roughness or boundary layer Also note effect of standard roughness or boundary layer
trip on airfoil. trip on airfoil.
This result is not typical This result is not typical - - the standard roughness used in the standard roughness used in
these tests was huge compared to modern standards. these tests was huge compared to modern standards.
Note effect of simple flap on lower surface Note effect of simple flap on lower surface
Provides much more lift Provides much more lift
Unfortunately, also provides much more drag Unfortunately, also provides much more drag Dr. Tom Gally
AE 301 Aerodynamics I 6
9/27/2004 AE 301 Aerodynamics I 92
2 2- -D Wind Tunnel Results (continued) D Wind Tunnel Results (continued)
Drag Drag polars polars, , c c
d d
versus versus c c
l l
Plots of Plots of c c
d d
versus versus c c
l l
look something like parabolas for most look something like parabolas for most
airfoils airfoils
Strong influence of Strong influence of Re Re
c c
as expected since drag is due to as expected since drag is due to
friction forces friction forces
Note that camber tends to the center of the polar to positive Note that camber tends to the center of the polar to positive
lift coefficients. lift coefficients.
Moment coefficients: Moment coefficients: c c
mc mc/4 /4
and and c c
mac mac
For symmetric airfoils, For symmetric airfoils, c c
mc mc/4 /4
= = c c
mac mac
0 0
For cambered airfoils, For cambered airfoils, c c
mc mc/4 /4
and and c c
mac mac
are both negative, I.e. are both negative, I.e.
nose down pitching moment. nose down pitching moment.
c c
mc mc/4 /4
gets more negative with gets more negative with (or lift), (or lift), c c
mac mac
is constant is constant
9/27/2004 AE 301 Aerodynamics I 93
Pressure Coefficient Pressure Coefficient
The pressure coefficient is a non The pressure coefficient is a non- -dimensional form of dimensional form of
pressure. pressure.
Subtract ambient pressure, p Subtract ambient pressure, p

, to remove altitude , to remove altitude
dependence. dependence.
Divide by Divide by freestream freestream dynamic pressure, q dynamic pressure, q

, to non , to non- -
dimensionalize dimensionalize. .
Just like lift and drag coefficients, the pressure coefficient Just like lift and drag coefficients, the pressure coefficient
allows us to present experimental results which are allows us to present experimental results which are
independent of scale and flow velocity. independent of scale and flow velocity.
However, just like lift and drag coefficients, C However, just like lift and drag coefficients, C
p p
= f ( = f ( ,M, ,M,Re Re
c c
) )
2
2
1

=
V
p p
C
p

9/27/2004 AE 301 Aerodynamics I 94

Calculating Calculating c c
l l
from C from C
p p
Lift can be calculated by integrating the pressure Lift can be calculated by integrating the pressure
difference between upper and lower surfaces difference between upper and lower surfaces

=
TE
LE
u
TE
LE
l
ds p W ds p W L cos cos
( ) ( )

= =
c
u
c
l
dx p p dx p p
W
L
l
0 0
( ) ( )

= =
c
u
c
l
l
dx
q
p p
d
dx
q
p p
c c q
l
c
0 0
1 1
( ) ( )

=
1
0
, ,
c
x
d c c c
u p l p l
W
V

c
s ds
p
Dr. Tom Gally
AE 301 Aerodynamics I 7
9/27/2004 AE 301 Aerodynamics I 95
Calculating Calculating c c
l l
, , c c
d d
and c and c
m m
The previous calculation is only exactly true for a The previous calculation is only exactly true for a
zero angle of attack. A more general approach is to zero angle of attack. A more general approach is to
calculate normal and axial forces, calculate normal and axial forces, c c
z z
and and c c
x x
: :
( ) ( )

=
1
0
, ,
c
x
d c c c
u p l p z
c
W
V

s ds
p

( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
1
0
, ,
c
x
d
dx
dz
c
dx
dz
c c
l
l p
u
u p x
( )( ) ( )

=
1
0
, , ,
c
x
d
c
x
c c c
u p l p LE m
sin cos
x z l
c c c = cos sin
x z d
c c c + =
9/27/2004 AE 301 Aerodynamics I 96
Compressibility Effects Compressibility Effects
A A linearized linearized theory of compressible flow provides an theory of compressible flow provides an
approximate relationship between compressible and approximate relationship between compressible and
incompressible pressures and forces: incompressible pressures and forces:
where the zero subscript indicates M=0. where the zero subscript indicates M=0.
These relations are knows as the These relations are knows as the Prandtl Prandtl- -Glauert Glauert
Rule Rule
2
,
1

=
M
C
C
o p
p
2
,
1

=
M
C
C
o l
l
0
1.0

C
p
C
p,o
9/27/2004 AE 301 Aerodynamics I 97
Compressibility Effects (continued) Compressibility Effects (continued)
The value of the The value of the Prandtl Prandtl- -Glauert Glauert Rule is that it allows Rule is that it allows
the testing of airfoils and wings at low speeds the testing of airfoils and wings at low speeds
(incompressible) and the prediction of how the same (incompressible) and the prediction of how the same
shapes would behave at higher Mach numbers. shapes would behave at higher Mach numbers.
The singularity at M The singularity at M

=1 is non =1 is non- -physical. In fact, the physical. In fact, the
theory is not accurate for transonic flow. theory is not accurate for transonic flow.
Also, note that the increase in C Also, note that the increase in C
p p
and and c c
l l
with M with M

is at is at
a fixed angle of attack. In practice, the faster and a fixed angle of attack. In practice, the faster and
airplane flies, the lower angle of attack at which it airplane flies, the lower angle of attack at which it
flies (higher q flies (higher q

). ). Dr. Tom Gally
AE 301 Aerodynamics I 8
9/27/2004 AE 301 Aerodynamics I 98
Critical Mach Number Critical Mach Number
The critical Mach number, The critical Mach number, M M
cr cr
, is that , is that freestream freestream
speed at which the local flow first reaches M=1. speed at which the local flow first reaches M=1.

=0.3

=0.5

=M
cr
=0.7

=0.75

=0.8
=0.44
=0.78
=1.00
>1
>1.3
Shock wave
Flow separation
At some speed beyond M
cr
the flow
develops undesirable features (like
strong shocks and/or separation) and
drag increase rapidly!
9/27/2004 AE 301 Aerodynamics I 99
Critical Pressure Coefficient Critical Pressure Coefficient
The pressure coefficient for which M=1 is called the The pressure coefficient for which M=1 is called the
Critical Pressure Coefficient, C Critical Pressure Coefficient, C
p, p,cr cr
or C or C
p p
*. *.
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

1
p
p
q
p
q
p p
C
p
2
2
2
2
1 2
2
1

= |
.
|

\
|
= = M p
p
p
V V q

( )
( )
1
2
2
1
2
2
1
1
1

+
+
= =

M
M
p
p
p
p
p
p
o
o

+
+
=

1
1
1 2
1
2
2
1
2
2
1
2

M
M
M
C
p
But,
and for isentropic flow
Thus,
9/27/2004 AE 301 Aerodynamics I 100
Critical Pressure Coefficient (continued) Critical Pressure Coefficient (continued)
Then, for M Then, for M

= = M M
cr cr
, C , C
p p
= C = C
p, p,cr cr
and M=1: and M=1:
( )

+
+
=

1
1
1 2 2
1
2
2 ,

cr
cr
cr p
M
M
C Dr. Tom Gally
AE 301 Aerodynamics I 9
9/27/2004 AE 301 Aerodynamics I 101
Drag Drag- -Divergence Mach Number Divergence Mach Number
The The Prandlt Prandlt- -Glauert Glauert rule rule does not does not apply to the drag apply to the drag
coefficient since it was found from coefficient since it was found from inviscid inviscid flow. flow.
However, the drag coefficient does have a similar However, the drag coefficient does have a similar
appearance with a tremendous increase as M=1 is appearance with a tremendous increase as M=1 is
approached. approached.
The culprit is the onset of The culprit is the onset of
additional drag due to the additional drag due to the
presence of shock waves, presence of shock waves,
and, eventually, the presence and, eventually, the presence
of shock induced separation. of shock induced separation.
c
d
M
1.0 M
cr
c
d,o
0
9/27/2004 AE 301 Aerodynamics I 102
Drag Drag- -Divergence Mach Number Divergence Mach Number
The point at which the drag begins its rapid rise is The point at which the drag begins its rapid rise is
called the called the drag divergence Mach number drag divergence Mach number, , M M
dd dd
. .
This is obvious a rather loose definition. In practice, This is obvious a rather loose definition. In practice,
M M
dd dd
is usually tied to a slope or drag change quantity. is usually tied to a slope or drag change quantity.
I.e I.e dc dc
d d
/ /dM dM constant (NASA) constant (NASA)
or ( or (c c
d d
- - c c
d d,o ,o
) ) constant (Boeing) constant (Boeing)
Also note that it is always Also note that it is always
true that: true that:
M M
cr cr
< < M M
dd dd
< 1.0 < 1.0
See the book for the drag See the book for the drag
and lift variations of a typical and lift variations of a typical
low speed airfoil low speed airfoil
M
c
d
1.0 M
cr
M
dd
c
d,0
9/27/2004 AE 301 Aerodynamics I 103
Waves and Supersonic flow Waves and Supersonic flow
Consider a sound source at rest in air Consider a sound source at rest in air
Sound waves are emitted by the source and propagate Sound waves are emitted by the source and propagate
uniformly in all directions. uniformly in all directions.
The frequency of the sound we would here depends upon The frequency of the sound we would here depends upon
the density of the sound waves the density of the sound waves
Source
Sound waves Dr. Tom Gally
AE 301 Aerodynamics I 10
9/27/2004 AE 301 Aerodynamics I 104
Waves and Supersonic flow (continued) Waves and Supersonic flow (continued)
Now put the sound source into a slow motion to the Now put the sound source into a slow motion to the
left: left:
Because the speed of the wave is independent of the speed Because the speed of the wave is independent of the speed
of the source, we see the waves bunching up in front. of the source, we see the waves bunching up in front.
The frequency of the sound is no longer uniform in all The frequency of the sound is no longer uniform in all
directions, but varies from in front to behind directions, but varies from in front to behind
Source moving with
subsonic velocity
Compressed wave pattern,
higher frequency sound
Expanded wave pattern,
lower frequency sound
9/27/2004 AE 301 Aerodynamics I 105
Waves and Supersonic flow (continued) Waves and Supersonic flow (continued)
If we increase the source speed to supersonic: If we increase the source speed to supersonic:
Source is now moving faster than the sound it emitted Source is now moving faster than the sound it emitted
A wave front is formed from the locus of sound waves: only A wave front is formed from the locus of sound waves: only
behind this wave front is the source heard. behind this wave front is the source heard.
This wave front has another name: a This wave front has another name: a Mach wave Mach wave
Source moving with
supersonic velocity
Zone of silence
Wave front
Zone of noise
9/27/2004 AE 301 Aerodynamics I 106
Waves and Supersonic flow (continued) Waves and Supersonic flow (continued)
The angle the Mach wave makes with the source The angle the Mach wave makes with the source
velocity vector is called the Mach angle, velocity vector is called the Mach angle, . .
By using the length of the two velocity paths we see By using the length of the two velocity paths we see
that: that:
Source moving with
supersonic velocity
Mach wave
at
Vt

M Vt
at 1
sin = = Dr. Tom Gally
AE 301 Aerodynamics I 11
9/27/2004 AE 301 Aerodynamics I 107
Waves and Supersonic flow (continued) Waves and Supersonic flow (continued)
A Mach wave is the very weak form of a more A Mach wave is the very weak form of a more
interesting phenomena, the interesting phenomena, the oblique shock wave oblique shock wave. .
Oblique shock waves radiate from the leading edge Oblique shock waves radiate from the leading edge
of bodies at supersonic speeds. They act to turn the of bodies at supersonic speeds. They act to turn the
flow parallel to the surface and slow it down. flow parallel to the surface and slow it down.
The angle of an oblique shock wave is given the The angle of an oblique shock wave is given the
symbol symbol and is always greater than and is always greater than . .
>
V

angles) turning small

for very (But,
M
1
> M
2
Oblique shock wave
=turning angle
9/27/2004 AE 301 Aerodynamics I 108
Waves and Supersonic flow (continued) Waves and Supersonic flow (continued)
Another interesting wave pattern is supersonic flow is Another interesting wave pattern is supersonic flow is
called the expansion wave. called the expansion wave.
An expansion wave appears when a surface bends An expansion wave appears when a surface bends
away from the local flow direction. The wave turns away from the local flow direction. The wave turns
the flow and speed is up! the flow and speed is up!
V
Expansion wave
M
2
< M
3
Expansion waves are
isentropic!!
Shock waves are
non-isentropic!!
9/27/2004 AE 301 Aerodynamics I 109
Lift and Wave Drag Lift and Wave Drag
Just like subsonic flow, a flat plate is the basic lifting Just like subsonic flow, a flat plate is the basic lifting
surface. However, unlike subsonic flow, surface. However, unlike subsonic flow, inviscid inviscid
theory does predict drag theory does predict drag - - called called wave drag wave drag, , c c
d d,w ,w
. .
1
4
2
2
,

M
c
w d

1
4
2

M
c
l

Flat plate
shock wave
shock wave
expansion wave
expansion wave
M

> 1 Dr. Tom Gally

AE 301 Aerodynamics I 12
9/27/2004 AE 301 Aerodynamics I 110
Lift and Wave Drag (continued) Lift and Wave Drag (continued)
Unlike subsonic flow, thickness and camber are not Unlike subsonic flow, thickness and camber are not
desirable desirable - - both produce additional wave drag but both produce additional wave drag but
dont help the boundary layer health. dont help the boundary layer health.
The reason is that the pressure distribution in The reason is that the pressure distribution in
supersonic flow is quite different. supersonic flow is quite different.
Note that the aerodynamic center is now at the 50% Note that the aerodynamic center is now at the 50%
chord location! chord location!
p
u
< p

p
l
> p

> 1
p

x/c
c
p
lower
1
0
9/27/2004 AE 301 Aerodynamics I 111
Summary of Airfoil Drag Summary of Airfoil Drag
So far we have introduced three forms of drag: So far we have introduced three forms of drag:
Friction drag: due to the surface shearing stress Friction drag: due to the surface shearing stress
Pressure drag: due to boundary layer and separation effects Pressure drag: due to boundary layer and separation effects
on the pressure distribution on the pressure distribution
Wave drag: due to the presence of supersonic flow and Wave drag: due to the presence of supersonic flow and
shock waves shock waves
Thus: c Thus: c
d d
= c = c
d,f d,f
+ c + c
d,p d,p
+ c + c
d,w d,w
In the wind tunnel, the techniques for measuring In the wind tunnel, the techniques for measuring
drag usually measure both friction and pressure drag drag usually measure both friction and pressure drag
combined. This is the so called profile drag: combined. This is the so called profile drag:
c c
d,profile d,profile
= = c c
d d,f ,f
+ + c c
d d,p ,p
9/27/2004 AE 301 Aerodynamics I 112
Summary of Airfoil Drag (continued) Summary of Airfoil Drag (continued)
Thus, a summary of airfoil drag looks like: Thus, a summary of airfoil drag looks like:
From this plot, it is easy to see why M=1 was called From this plot, it is easy to see why M=1 was called
the sound barrier. the sound barrier.
c
d
M
1.0 0
Low speeds,
profile drag only
Transonic speeds,
onset of wave drag
and possible high
pressure drag
Supersonic speeds,
wave drag decreases with
1/(M

2
-1)
1/2
variation
M
cr