INTELLIGENT MATERIALS

Smart materials age Synthetic materials Iron age Bronze age Stone age

Fig. 1. The eras of materials science The history of the science of materials is shown in the Fig. 1. A review of the historical evolution of this science is presented in Fig. 2, which highlights the distinct transition from structural materials to functional materials; and now smart materials.

Composite materials Multifunctional materials Simultaneous functions Intelligent materials Properties Functions Information

Structural materials Properties

Functional materials Functions

Monolithic materials

Fig. 2. Evolution of material science

STRUCTURAL MATERIALS Structural materials are those materials that are principally characterized by their mechanical strength and are generally employed in load-bearing situations. A list of some common structural materials deployed in practice is shown as follows: Steel Polycarbonate Wood Iron Concrete Graphite-epoxy laminates Functional materials For functional materials, their principal functional characteristic is utilized in the field of science and technology, rather than the inherent structural properties of the material. The following table lists a variety of functional materials. Material nickel-titanium cadmium sulphide terbium iron quartz electro-rheological fluids Properties shape-memory piezoelectric magnetostrictive pyroelectric viscoplastic

aluminum soap solution barium titanate copper oxide potassium dihydrogen phosphate selenium germanium

viscoelastic ferroelectric photoelectric electro-optic photoelectric photoconductive

Thus, for example, vibration transducers typically with a piezoceramic element, which, when fixed to a vibrating structure, is subjected to dynamical deformations and thereby develops an appropriate time-dependent electrical signal for measuring the vibrational response of the structure. The mechanical strength of the piezoelectric element is not used in this application, instead the functional piezoelectric characteristics of the material, which couple the mechanical and electrical behavior, dominate the selection process. Smart materials The current generation of smart materials and structures incorporate one or more of the following features: 1. Sensors, which are either embedded within a structural material or else, bonded to the surface of that material. Alternatively the sensing function can be performed by a functional material, which, for example, measures the intensity of the stimulus associated with a stress, strain, electrical, thermal, radiative; or chemical phenomenon. This functional material may, in some circumstances, also serve as a structural material.

2. Actuators, which are embedded within a structural material or else, bonded to the surface of the material. These actuators are typically excited by an external stimulus; such as electricity in order to either change their geometrical configuration or else change their stiffness and energydissipation (damping) properties in a controlled manner. Alternatively, the actuator function can be performed directly by a hybrid material, which serves as both a structural material, and also as a functional material. 3. Control capabilities, which permit the behavior of the material to respond to an external stimulus according to a prescribed functional relationship or control algorithm. These capabilities typically involve one or more microprocessors and data transmission links, which are based upon the utilization of an automatic control theory. What is a Smart Structure or an Adaptive Structure? A smart structure employs distributed actuators and sensors, and one or more microprocessors that analyze the responses from the sensors and use distributed-parameter control theory to command the actuators to apply localized strains to insure the system respond in a desired fashion. A smart structure has the capability to respond to a changing external environment (such as loads or shape change) as well as to a changing internal environment (such as damage or failure). Smart actuators are used to alter system characteristics (such as stiffness or damping) as well as of system response (such as strain or shape) in a controlled manner. Much. of the early development of smart structure technology was driven by space applications such as vibration and shape control of large flexible space structures.

 Now smart structure research has been extended to aeronautical and other systems. Smart structures are like living beings. They would alter their structure, account for damage, effect repairs and retire. Many researches have demonstrated the feasibility of such "living" materials. There are a variety of devices: actuators and motors that behave like muscles; sensors that serve as nerves and memory; and communications and computational networks that represent the brain. In some respects, the systems have features that can be considered superior to biological functions. Some substances can be hard and strong at one moment but made to act like gel the next moment. These so-called intelligent materials systems have substantial advantages over traditionally engineered constructs. Traditionally, a skilled designer always considers the worst case. As a result, the design contains large margins of safety, such as numerous reinforcements, redundant sub-units, backup subsystems and added masses. This approach, of course, demands more natural resources than are generally required and consumes more energy to produce and maintain a structure.

EXAMPLE OF APPLICATIONS - MR Damper for Semi-Active Vibration Control of Bicycle Active Control eXperts (ACX) Inc. developed a smart shock with a sensor, a piezoelectric actuator and a microprocessor. A sensor in the shock reads the position and speed of the piston, and sends the data to a smart circuit. The circuit then sends a signal to a piezoelectric actuator in the valve, flexing it in milliseconds. The piezoelectric actuator regulates the flow of oil through the valve, changing the damping characteristic of the shock. The smart shock enables the compression damping levels of the suspension to be automatically and continuously adjusted, providing optimized performance over the complete range of terrain conditions and riding speeds. The end result is a smoother ride and increased tire-to-ground contact, allowing the rider to go faster over changing terrain and still in control. With the advance of smart materials research, the application of electrorheological (ER) and magnetorheological (MR) fluids to the development of controllable shock absorbers were investigated by many researchers in universities and companies. ER and MR fluids are smart materials with suspensions of micron-sized particles dispersed in a carrier fluid having low viscosity. The particles will be formed into chainlike fibrous structures in the presence of a high electric field or a magnetic field, and the apparent viscosity increases markedly. When the electric field strength or the magnetic field strength reaches a certain value, the suspension will be solidified with high yield stress; conversely, the suspension can be liquefied by removal of the electric field or the magnetic field. The whole process happens very fast, less than a few milliseconds, and can be easily controlled. The energy consumption is also very small, only several watts. Both ER and MR fluids were initially developed independently in 1940's. Initially ER fluids received the most attention, but were eventually found to be not as well suited to most applications

as the MR fluids. In the non-activated or off state, both MR and ER fluids typically have similar viscosity, but MR fluids exhibit a much greater increase in yield strength and therefore viscosity, than their electrical counterparts. For ER fluid, the required electric field strength should be around several thousand volts per millimeter and the maximum yield stress is about l0kPa; but for MR fluid, the required electric current is only 1 to 2A and the maximum yield stress can reach about 100kPa. In addition, MR fluids is far less sensitive to contaminants and extremes in temperature. The application of ER damper in vehicle suspension system was investigated by Petek et al, Choi et al and Wu et al etc. As for MR damper, a research group at Virginia Tech investigated the response of a MR vehicle suspension under different control schemes of shy-hook, ground-hook, and hybrid semi-active control. They evaluated the performance of semi-active MR suspension for a full scale quarter car model test rig, as well as for a heavy truck on road. Gordaninejad et al investigated the potential application of controllable MR shock absorber in mountain bicycle and off-road motorcycle. CarreraTM developed the MagneShockTM, which contains MR fluid and is produced under an exclusive licensing agreement with the Lord Corporation. This commercial product will be used in racing car. It is very easy for rider to adjust the rebound and compression damping by changing the applied current to the built-in magnet through a controller. REFERENCES http://www.rockshox.com/ http://www.mrfluid.com http://web.me.unr.edu/ciml/ http://www.acx.coml http://www.avdi.me.vLedu http://www.carrerashocks.com/MagneShock.htm

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SMART MATERIALS AND STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS The principal ingredients of a premier class of smart materials
Network of actuators

Structural materials

Smart Materials

Real-time control

Network of sensors

capabilities

Microprocessor-based Computational capabilities

The figure shows the principal ingredients of a premier class of smart materials. They will not only have a tremendous impact upon the design, development, and manufacture of the next generation of products in diverse industries but also the economic climate in the international marketplace. The field of smart materials and structures is very broad and will ultimately include a variety of diverse disciplines including biotechnology, neural networks, nanotechnology and artificial intelligence.

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Teams of engineers and scientists have focused on employing a network of embedded sensors, microprocessors, and an array of dynamically-tunable actuator materials interfaced at a global level with traditional structural materials. Actuator candidates for smart materials
Actuator Characteristics Cost Technical Maturity Networkable Embedability Linearity Response (Hz) Maximum Microstrain Maximum Temperature (oC) Electrostrictiv Electro e Rheological Materials Materials Moderate Fair Yes Good Fair 1-20000 200 300 300 Moderate Fair Yes Fair Fair 0-12000 Magnetostrictive Materials Moderate Fair Yes Good Good 1-20000 200 400 Nitinol Shape Memory Alloy Low Good Yes Excellent Good 0-5 5000 300 Piezoelectric Ceramic Moderate Good Yes Excellent Good 1-20000 200 300

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Sensor candidates for strain measurement

Sensor Characteristics Cost Technical Maturity Networkable Embedability Linearity Response (Hz) Sensitivity (Microstrain) Maximum Microstrain Maximum Temperature (oC) Fibre-Optic Interferometer Moderate Good Yes Excellent Good 1-10000 0.11 per fiber 3000 300 Nitinol Shape Memory Alloy Low Good Yes Excellent Good 0-10000 0.1-1.0 5000 300 Piezoelectric Ceramic Moderate Good Yes Excellent Good 1-20000 0.001-0.01 550 200 Strain Guage

Low Good Yes Good Good 0-500000 2 10000 300

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Actuator and sensor capabilities for smart materials and structures applications
Actuators Acoustical Devices Capacitive Devices Electro-rheological Fluids Electrostrictive Materials Fibre-Optics Devices Magnetostrictive Materials Piezoelectric Materials Shape-Memory Materials Strain Guages X-ray Devices Sensors X X X X X X X X X X X X X

A review of the actuator and sensor candidates suggests that some functional materials may be employed as either an actuator or as a sensor, while others are only able to perform one of these functions, as indicated in Figure 3.8. The dual versatility of these materials could be exploited in some smart materials and structures applications by employing the same material as a sensor and/or as an actuator during service. Thus, for example, a material serving as a sensor could continuously monitor the vibrational response of a structure, prior to becoming an actuator when the amplitude of vibration becomes excessive in order' to alleviate this dynamical behavior.

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Health-monitoring of parts utilizing embedded sensors In a smart structure, the embedded sensing system would initially be employed to monitor the state of cure during the fabrication of a smart component with fibrous polymeric materials, in order to ensure that the part is processed correctly. Subsequently, the embedded sensing system would be employed to continuously monitor a number of critical parameters within the part during service, as illustrated by the dynamic stress characteristics of the robot arm. If these stresses exceed prescribed criteria, for example, then the associated signals would be fed to the robot controller and the resultant mode of operation would be modified in order to restore the system characteristics to the prescribed work envelope. Finally, the embedded sensing system would be employed to monitor the structural integrity of the component. The embedded sensing system could be employed to monitor the structural integrity of structural members, such as aircraft wings, for example, by detecting cracks and monitoring the propagation of these defects. Such a capability will be an invaluable tool for inspection and maintenance personnel. Examples of smart structure A strategy for actively controlling the dynamic response of an aircraft wing fabricated in smart materials. A research program is focused on the development of smart wings whose dynamical response can be automatically adjusted in order to provide smooth flight by adjusting the stiffness and damping properties in discrete sections of the wings. This philosophy, featuring finite element control segments, incorporates sensors, actuators and microprocessing capabilities. Thus, as the mass of the wing is reduced by the consumption of aviation fuel from the fuel tanks in the wings, the natural frequencies of the wing structure will also change.

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The sensors will monitor the relevant characteristics of the smart structure, and the signals from the sensors will be fed to the appropriate microprocessors, which will evaluate the characteristics of the signals, prior to determining an appropriate control strategy in order to synthesize the desired response characteristics. This will typically be accomplished by controlling the material characteristics of the actuators in the specific finite element segments. The material changes in a typical finite element control segment will in turn alter the global stiffness, and damping characteristics of the smart structure in order to achieve the desired response. Smart rotor design of helicoper The dynamic behavior and performance of state-of-the-art helicopter rotors fabricated in advanced polymeric fiberous composite materials are dependent upon the speed of rotation, the speed of the machine, aerodynamic loads and also the ambient environmental conditions of temperature and relative humidity. The rotor is typically designed for a worst-case scenario, which results in a state of over-design for all other operating conditions. A rotor designed and fabricated in a smart material would be able to detect changes in temperature and moisture associated with operating in the cold dry Arctic regions, or alternatively in the hot, humid equatorial climates, in addition to detecting dynamic strains associated with wind gusts, for example. These data could be monitored and processed by a microprocessor system in a smart rotor, prior to dictating the appropriate corrective actions to be implemented by a network of embedded actuator systems in the structure, in order to ensure optimal performance under all service conditions.

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Commonly Used Smart Actuators Piezoelectric Ceramic Stack Actuator Piezoelectric Ceramic Patch Actuator Shape Memory Alloy (SMA) Wire Actuator and Composite Beam with SMA wire Actuators Commonly Used Smart Sensors Fiber Optic Bragg Grating Sensor Piezoelectric Ceramic Patch Sensor Piezoelectric Ceramic Thin Film Actuator

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SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES AND GLOSSARY

Actuator: A device that produces motion (displacement). Blocked force: The maximum force an actuator can generate if blocked by an infinitely rigid restraint. Ceramic: A polycrystalline, inorganic material. Closed loop operation: The actuator is used with a position sensor, providing feedback to the position servo controller compensating for nonlinearity, hysteresis and creep (see open loop). Compliance: Strain produced per unit stress. The reciprocal of stiffness. Creep: An unwanted positive or negative increase in the displacement of the material over time. Curie Temperature: The temperature at which the crystalline structure changes from a piezoelectric (non-symmetrical) to a non-piezoelectric (symmetrical) form. At this temperature PZT ceramics looses the piezoelectric properties. Domain: A region of electric dipoles with similar orientation. Drift: See creep

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HVPZT: Acronym for High Voltage PZT (actuator). LVPZT: Acronym for Low Voltage PZT (actuator). Multilayer actuator: An actuator manufactured in a fashion similar to multilayer ceramic capacitors. Active ceramic material and electrode material are "co-fired" in one step. Layer thickness is typically on the order of 20 to 100 um. Open loop operation: The actuator is used without a position sensor. Displacement roughly corresponds to the drive voltage. Creep, nonlinearity and hysteresis are not compensated for. Electric polarization: In the so-called dielectric materials, the constituent atoms are considered to be ionized to a certain degree and are either positively of negatively charged. In such ionic crystals, when an electric field is applied cations are attracted to the cathode and anions to the anode due to electrostatic interaction. The election clouds also deform, causing electric dipoles. This phenomenon is known as the electric polarization of the dielectrics, and the polarization is expressed quantitatively as the sum of the electric dipoles per unit volume [C/m2, where C is in coulomb]. Ferroelectric materials: Depending on the crystal structure, the centers of the positive and negative charges do not coincide even without the application of external electric field. Such crystals are said to possess spontaneous polarization. Especially

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when the spontaneous polarization of the dielectric can be altered by an electric field, it is called ferroelectric. Pyroelectricity: This is the phenomenon in which, because of the temperature dependence of the spontaneous polarization, as the temperature of the crystal is changed, electric charges corresponding to the change of the spontaneous polarization appear on the surface of the crystal. Among the pyroelectric crystals, those whose spontaneous polarization can be reversed by an electric field (not exceeding the breakdown limit of the crystal) are called ferroelectrics. In order to establish ferroelectricity, it is necessary to apply an electric field on a pyroelectric material and experimentally ascertain the polarization reversal. Piezoelectric Materials: Materials that change their dimensions when a voltage is applied and produce a charge when pressure is applied. (In crystals belonging to 20 of these point groups [except for the point group (432)], positive and negative charges appear on surfaces when stresses are applied. These materials are known as piezoelectrics.) Piezoelectric effect: The piezoelectric effect is the production of an electric charge on the surface of a material, and hence a voltage across the materials, as a result of the application of stress. The piezoelectric effect therefore allows a conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy through a material transducer.

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Electrostriction: All dielectric materials undergo a strain when subjected to an applied electric field, resulting in a slight change in shape. The change in length of a dielectric under the action of an electric field is termed electrostriction. Magnetostriction: Magnetostriction is a property of materials which change length when they are magnetized either spontaneously by virtue of a magnetic phase transition (spontaneous magnetostriction) or under the action of a magnetic field (fieldinduced magnetostriction). Polarization: The electric orientation of molecules in a ferroelectric/piezoelectric material. PZT: Acronym for Plumbum (lead) Zirconate Titanate. Polycrystalline ceramic material with piezoelectric properties. Often used as acronym for piezo translator. (PZT PbTiO3, PbZrO3) Stiffness: The spring constant (of a piezo actuator). Translator: An actuator that produces linear motion (displacement). Measurand: A physical quantity, property or condition which is measured Sensitivity: The ratio of change in sensor output to a change in the value of measurand Hysteresis: The maximum difference in output, at any measurand value within the specified range, when the value is approached first with increasing and then with decreasing measurand.

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Hystersis is expressed in percent of full scale output, during any one calibration cycle. Hysteresis is based on crystalline polarization effects and molecular friction and occurs when reversing direction. Hysteresis is not to be confused with backlash Linearity: The closeness of a calibration curve to a specified straight line. Threshold: The smallest change in the measurand that will result in a measurable change in sensor output. Tourmaline: From the chemical point of view, it is an aluminum-borosilicate. Rochelle salt: potassium sodium tartrate tetrahydrate, KnaC4H4O6.4H2O Remanent polarization: It is that remaining polarization upon actual field removal in the ferroelectric/piezoelectric hysteresis loop. Single crystal quartz: (SiO2) is a common example of piezoelectric materials. Piezoelectric coupling coefficient, k: It is the fraction of mechanical energy converted to electrical energy. Piezoelectric coupling coefficient: SiO2 0.1; BaTiO3 0.5 BaTiO3 : Barium titanate

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Perovskite structure: Let us begin with the ceramics with the simplest chemical formula, MX, where M is a metallic element and X is a nonmetallic element. For example, cesium chloride (CsCl) structure. MX2 include a number of important ceramic structures. For example, the most important ceramic compound, silica (SiO2) M2X3 corundum (Al2O3) Moving to ceramics with three atoms species, we find that the MMX3 formula includes an important ceramics with the perovskite (CaTiO3) structure. Zr: Zirconium Chemical element with atomic number 40 Lead zirconate titanate ceramic were developed in 1950s Poling: When one considers a ceramic consisting of a multitude of tiny, piezoelectric crystallites at random orientation, quite a different situation from that of a single crystal is obtained. This random orientation causes the overall ceramic to be inactive, with no piezoelectricity detectable until some means is found to polarize the ceramic as a whole entity. With piezoelectric crystallites this is possible only through techniques such as extrusion, hot forging, or directional recrystallization which will orient the crystallites during fabrication. A much easier method, called poling, is commonly employed; however, it requires special compositions that are not only piezoelectric but also ferroelectric. Poling is the application of a large coercive field on the order of 50Volts/mil, aligns crystalline subdomains in the ceramic.

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Polar materials: Pyroelectric crystals such as tourmaline and wurtzite are often called polar materials, referring to the unique polar axis existing within the lattice. The length of the polar axis (dipole moment) varies with temperature, changing sign as the temperature is either elevated or lowered. Electrorheological (ER) and Magnetorheological fluid ER and MR fluids are smart materials with suspensions of micron-sized particles dispersed in a carrier fluid having low viscosity. The particles will be formed into chainlike fibrous structures in the presence of a high electric field or a magnetic field, and the apparent viscosity increases markedly. When the electric field strength or the magnetic field strength reaches a certain value, the suspension will be solidified with high yield stress; conversely, the suspension can be liquefied by removal of the electric field or the magnetic field. The whole process happens very fast, less than a few milliseconds, and can be easily controlled. The energy consumption is also very small, only several watts. Both ER and MR fluids were initially developed independently in 1940s. Initially ER fluids received the most attention, but were found to be not as well suited to most applications as the MR fluids. In the non-activated or off state, both MR and ER fluids typically have similar viscosity, but MR fluid exhibit a much greater increase in yield strength and therefore viscosity, than their electrical counterparts. For ER fluid, the required electric field strength should be around several thousand volts per millimeter and the maximum yield stress is about 10 kPa; but for MR fluid, the required electric current is only 1 to 2 A and the maximum yield stress can reach about 100kPa. In addition, MR fluid is far less sensitive to contaminants and extremes in temperature.

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Ferroelectric/pizoelectric hysteresis loop

Unit cell

Paraelectric

Domain boundary

A paraelectric material exhibits only a modest level of polarization with applied fields. In contrast, a ferroelectric material exhibits spontaneous polarization in which domains of similarly oriented unit cells grow under increasing fields of similar orientation. In the figure, a ferroelectric hysteresis loop is the result of an alternating electric field. A dashed line indicates the initial spontaneous polarization. Saturation polarization (Ps) is the result of maximum domain growth (extrapolated back to zero field). Upon actual field removal, some remanent polarization (Pr ) remains. A coercive field (Ec) is required to reach zero polarization (equal volumes of opposing domains).

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