Iugaza Tom2012 - CH1-5

Theory of Machines
Dr. Anwar Abu-Zarifa . Islamic University of Gaza . Department of Mechanical Engineering . 2012
Syllabus and Course Outline
Faculty of Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering EMEC 3302, Theory of Machines
Instructor: Dr. Anwar Abu-Zarifa Office: IT Building, Room: I413 Tel: 2821 eMail: aabuzarifa@iugaza.edu.ps Website: http://site.iugaza.edu.ps/abuzarifa Office Hrs: see my website
SAT MON 09:30 11:00 09:30 11:00 Q412 Q412
Text Book: R. L. Norton, Design of Machinery An Introduction to the Synthesis and Analysis of Mechanisms and Machines, McGraw Hill Higher Education; 3rd edition
Reference Books: John J. Uicker, Gordon R. Pennock, Joseph E. Shigley, Theory of Machines and Mechanisms R.S. Khurmi, J.K. Gupta,Theory of Machines Thomas Bevan, The Theory of Machines The Theory of Machines by Robert Ferrier McKay Engineering Drawing And Design, Jensen ect., McGraw-Hill Science, 7th Edition, 2007 Mechanical Design of Machine Elements and Machines, Collins ect., Wiley, 2 Edition, 2009
Dr. Anwar Abu-Zarifa . Islamic University of Gaza . Department of Mechanical Engineering . 2012 3
Grading: Attendance Design Project Midterm Final exam
5% 25% 30% 40%
Course Description: The course provides students with instruction in the fundamentals of theory of machines. The Theory of Machines and Mechanisms provides the foundation for the study of displacements, velocities, accelerations, and static and dynamic forces required for the proper design of mechanical linkages, cams, and geared systems.
Course Objectives: Students combine theory, graphical and analytical skills to understand the Engineering Design. Upon successful completion of the course, the student will be able: To develop the ability to analyze and understand the dynamic (position, velocity, acceleration, force and torque) characteristics of mechanisms such as linkages and cams. To develop the ability to systematically design and optimize mechanisms to perform a specified task. To increase the ability of students to effectively present written, oral, and graphical solutions to design problems. To increase the ability of students to work cooperatively on teams in the development of mechanism designs.
Chapter 1
Introduction
Definitions
The subject Theory of Machines may be defined as that branch of Engineering-science, which deals with the study of relative motion between the various parts of a machine, and forces which act on them. The knowledge of this subject is very essential for an engineer in designing the various parts of a machine. Kinematics: The study of motion without regard to forces More particularly, kinematics is the study of position, displacement, rotation, speed, velocity, and acceleration.
Kinetics: The study of forces on systems in motion A mechanism: is a device that transforms motion to some desirable pattern and typically develops very low forces and transmits little power. A machine: typically contains mechanisms that are designed to provide significant forces and transmit significant power.
Application of Kinematics
Any machine or device that moves contains one or more kinematic elements such As linkages, gears. belts and chains. Bicycle is a simple example of a kinematic system that contains a chain drive to provide Torque.
An Automobile contains many more examples of kin-systems the transmission is full of gears.
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Chapter 2
DEGREES OF FREEDOM (MOBILITY)
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Degrees of Freedom (DOF) or Mobility

DOF: Number of independent parameters (measurements) needed to uniquely define position of a system in space at any instant of time. A mechanical systems mobility (M) can be classified according to the number of degrees of freedom (DOF). DOF is defined with respect to a selected frame of reference (ground).
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Rigid body in a plane has 3 DOF: x,y,z Rigid body in 3D-space has 6 DOF, 3 translations & 3 rotations three lengths (x, y, z), plus three angles (, , ). The pencil in these examples represents a rigid body, or link.
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Types of Motion
Pure rotation: the body possesses one point (center of rotation) that has no motion with respect to the stationary frame of reference. All other points move in circular arcs. Pure translation: all points on the body describe parallel (curvilinear or rectilinear) paths. Complex motion: a simultaneous combination of rotation and translation.
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Excavator
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Slider-Crank Mechanism
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Links, joints, and kinematic chains

Linkage design:
Linkages are the basic building blocks of all mechanisms All common forms of mechanisms (cams, gears, belts, chains) are in fact variations on a common theme of linkages. Linkages are made up of links and joints.
Links: rigid member having nodes Node: attachment points
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1. Binary link: 2 nodes 2. Ternary link: 3 nodes 3. Quaternary link: 4 nodes Joint: connection between two or more links (at their nodes) which allows motion; (Joints also called kinematic pairs)
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Joint Classification
Joints can be classified in several ways: 1.By the type of contact between the elements, line, point, or surface. 2.By the number of degrees of freedom allowed at the joint. 3.By the type of physical closure of the joint: either force or form closed. 4.By the number of links joined (order of the joint).
A more useful means to classify joints (pairs) is by the number of degrees of freedom that they allow between the two elements joined.
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A joint with more than one freedom may also be a higher pair
Type of contact: line, point, surface Number of DOF: full joint=1DOF, half joint=2DOF Form closed (closed by geometry) or Force closed (needs an external force to keep it closed) Joint order
Joint order = number of links-1
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lower pair to describe joints with surface contact
The six lower pairs
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The half joint is also called a roll-slide joint because it allows both rolling and sliding
Form closed (closed by geometry) or Force closed
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Terminology of Joints
A joint (also called kinematic pair) is a connection between two or more links at their nodes, which may allow motion between the links. A lower pair is a joint with surface contact; a higher pair is a joint with point or line contact. A full joint has one degree of freedom; a half joint has two degrees of freedom. Full joints are lower pairs; half-joints are higher pairs and allow both rotation and translation (roll-slide). A form-closed joint is one in which the links are kept together form by its geometry; a force-closed joint requires some external force to keep the links together. Joint order is the number of links joined minus one (e.g. 1st order means two links).
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Kinematic chains, mechanisms, machines, link classification

Kinematic chain: links joined together for motion Mechanism: grounded kinematic chain Machine: mechanism designed to do work Link classification: Ground: any link or links that are fixed, nonmoving with respect to the reference frame Crank: pivoted to ground, makes complete revolutions Rocker: pivoted to ground, has oscillatory motion Coupler: link has complex motion, not attached to ground
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crank mechanism Elements: 0: Ground (Casing, Frame) 1: Rocker 2: Coupler 3: Crank
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The Ground Link
When studying mechanisms it is very helpful to establish a fixed reference frame by assigning one of the links as ground. The motion of all other links are described with respect to the ground link. For example, a fourbar mechanism often looks like a 3-bar mechanism, where the first bar is simply the ground link.
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Drawing kinematic Diagrams
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Determining Degrees of Freedom
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Determining Degrees of Freedom

Two unconnected links: 6 DOF (each link has 3 DOF)
When connected by a full joint: 4 DOF (each full joint eliminates 2 DOF)
Gruebler s equation for planar mechanisms: DOF = 3L-2J-3G Where: L: number of links J: number of full joints G: number of grounded links
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Determining DOFs
Grueblers equation for planar mechanisms
M= 3L-2J-3G
Where
M = degree of freedom or mobility L = number of links J = number of full joints (half joints count as 0.5) G = number of grounded links =1
M = 3 ( L 1) 2 J
Kutzbachs modification of Gruebler s equation
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The Cylindrical (cylindric) joint - two degrees of freedom

It permits both angular rotation and an independent sliding motion (C joint)
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The Spherical (spheric) - Three degree of freedom

It permits rotational motion about all three axes, a ball-and-socket joint (S joint)
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Example
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Example
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Grueblers Equation
Gruebler s equation can be used to determine the mobility of planar mechanisms. Grueblers Equation DOF L J G = mobility = number of links = number of revolute joints or prismatic joints = number of grounded links Link 2 3 DOF
L=2 J=1 G=1 DOF = 1
Link 1 3 DOF
1 DOF
DOF (M) = 3*L 2* J 3 *G = 3 (L-1) 2 * J
Mobility of Vise Grip Pliers

This example applies Gruebler s equation to the determine the mobility of a vise grip plier. Each revolute joint removes two DOF. The screw joint removes two DOF. L=5 J = 4 (revolute) J = 1 (screw) G = 1 (your hand) DOF = 3*5 - 2*5 - 1*3 = 2 The mobility of the plier is two. Link 3 can be moved relative link1 when you squeeze your hand and the jaw opening is controlled by rotating link 5.
4 4 3 3
1 1 2 2
Punch Press
Slider-Crank Mechanism
As designated in the figure, there are four links link 1, link 2, link 3 and link 4. Link 1 acts as a crank. Link 2 acts as connecting link, link 3 is the slider and link 4 is ground.
Joint Number
Formed between links
Joint type
1 2 3 4
Link 4 and Link 1 Link 1 and Link 2 Link 2 and Link 3 Link 3 and Link 4
Revolute (or Pin) Revolute (or Pin) Revolute (or Pin) Translatio nal or (Slider)
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Mechanisms and Structures
If DOF > 0, the assembly of links is a mechanism and will exhibit relative motion If DOF = 0, the assembly of links is a structure and no motion is possible. If DOF < 0,then the assembly is a preloaded structure, no motion is possible, and in general stresses are present.
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Paradoxes
Greubler criterion does not include geometry, so it can give wrong prediction We must use inspection
L=5 J=6 G=1 M=3*5-2*6-3*1=0
E-quintet
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Rolling cylinders even without slip (The joint between the two wheels can be postulated to allow no slip, provided that sufficient friction is available) is an example in which the ground link is exactly the same length as the sum of two other links. If no slip occurs, then this is a one-freedom, or full, joint that allows only relative angular motion () between the wheels. With that assumption, there are 3 links and 3 full joints, The equation predicts DOF = 0 (L=3, J1=3), but the mechanism has DOF = 1. Others paradoxes exist, so the designer must not apply the equation blindly.
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Chapter 3
Linkage
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History
Leonardo da Vinci (1452, 1519), Codex Madrid I. Industrial Revolution was the boom age of linkages: cloth making, power conversion, speed regulation, mechanical computation, typewriting and machining
Linkages Today
In many applications linkages have been replaced by electronics. Still linkages can have a cost advantage over electronic solutions: Couple different outputs by a mechanism rather than using one motor per output and electronics to achieve the coupling. Current applications: Sports Equipment, Automotive (HVAC modules), Precision Machinery (Compliant Mechanisms), Medical Devices
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Mechanical linkages are usually designed to transform a given input force and movement into a desired output force and movement.
Transmission System
Gear consistent translation linear transfer function
Linkage Inconsistent translation non-linear transfer function
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Gearbox
transfer function
consistent translation linear transfer function
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crank drive = Linkage
Inconsistent translation non-linear transfer function
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Bagger
The pushing movement of the piston (crank mechanism) is transferred into a swinging movement of the shovel.
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Fourbar Mechanism
Twobar has -1 degrees of freedom (preloads structure) Threebar has 0 degrees of freedom (structure) Fourbar has 1 degree of freedom The fourbar linkage is the simplest possible pin-jointed mechanism for single degree of freedom controlled motion
One link is grounded in each case
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The fourbar linkage is the simplest possible pin-jointed mechanism for controlled motion with one degree of freedom. Changing the relative lengths of the links can create a wide variety of motions.
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4-Bar Nomenclature
Ground Link Links pivoted to ground:
Crank Rocker
B Coupler A Crank Link 1, length d Ground Link Pivot 02 Pivot 04 Rocker
Coupler
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Linkages of more than 4 bars
Provide more complex motion

See Watts sixbar and Stephensons sixbar mechanisms in the textbook
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The Grashof Condition

Grashof condition predicts behavior of linkage based only on length of links
S=length of shortest link L=length of longest link P,Q=length of two remaining links
If S+L P+Q the linkage is Grashof :at least one link is capable of making a complete revolution Otherwise the linkage is non-Grashof : no link is capable of making a complete revolution
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Grashof-Type Rotatability Criteria for Higher-Order Linkages Rotatability is defined as the ability of at least one link in a kinematic chain to make a full revolution with respect to the other links and defines the chain as Class I, II or III. Revolvability refers to a specific link in a chain and indicates that it is one of the links that can rotate.
I.
If S + L < P + Q (Class I), the linkage is Grashof and at least one link will be capable of making a full revolution with respect to ground.
II. If S + L > P + Q (Class II), the linkage is non-Grashof and no link will be capable of making a full revolution with respect to any other link. III. If S + L = P + Q (Class III), the linkage is special-case Grashof and although at least one link will be capable of making a full revolution.
Crank-Slider
The crank-slider (right) is a transformation of the fourbar crank rocker, by replacing the revolute joint at the rocker pivot by a joint, maintaining the same one degree of freedom.
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Cam Follower
A cam follower is a mechanism that appears to have only two moving links (apart from ground), but it has 1 DOF. It has a fourbar equivalent if the coupler (Link 3) is viewed as a link of variable length.
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Practical Considerations
There are many factors that need to be considered to create goodquality designs. The choice of joint type can have a significant effect on the ability to provide good, clean lubrication over the lifetime of the machine. Pin Joints versus Sliders and Half Joints A. Pin Joint Easy to lubricate ( with hydrodynamic lubrication) Can use relatively inexpensive bearings B. Slider Requires carefully machined straight slot or rod Custom made bearings Lubrication is difficult to maintain pin joint is the clear winner
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Sleeve or journal bearing, the geometry of pin-in-hole traps a lubricant film within its annular interface by capillary action and promotes a condition called hydrodynamic lubrication in which the parts are separated by a thin film of lubricant . Seals can easily be provided at the ends of the hole, wrapped around the pin, to prevent loss of the lubricant.
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Relatively inexpensive ball and roller bearings are commercially available in a large variety of sizes for revolute joints.
Their rolling elements provide low-friction operation and good dimensional control.
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For revolute joints pivoted to ground, several commercially available bearing types, Pillow blocks and flange-mount bearings.
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MOTORS AND DRIVERS

Unless manually operated, a mechanism will require some type of driver device to provide the input motion and energy. A motor is the logical choice to create the input. Motors come in a wide variety of types. The most common energy source for a motor is electricity, but compressed air and pressurized hydraulic fluid are also used to power air and hydraulic motors.
Electrical Motors AC DC Servo Stepping
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Chapter 4
Design of Linkage Systems
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Engineering Design involves 1. Synthesis 2. Analysis

Design a mechanism to obtain a specified motion or force.
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Mechanism Synthesis
Type Synthesis given the required performance, what type of mechanism is suitable? Linkages, gears, cam and follower, belt and pulley and chain and sprocket.
Number Synthesis
How many links should the mechanism have? How many degrees of freedom are desired?
Dimensional Synthesis
deals with determining the length of all links, gear diameter, cam profile.
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QUALITATIVE SYNTHESIS The creation of potential solutions in the absence of a well-defined algorithm which configures or predicts the solution and also judge its quality. Several tools and techniques exist to assist you in this process. The traditional tool is the drafting board, on which you layout, to scale, multiple orthographic views of the design, and investigate its motions by drawing arcs, showing multiple positions, and using transparent, movable overlays. Commercially available programs such as SolidWork and Working Model allow rapid analysis of a proposed mechanical design. The process then becomes one of qualitative design by successive analysis which is really an iteration between synthesis and analysis.
TYPE SYNTHESIS The definition of the proper type of mechanism best suited to the problem and is a form of qualitative synthesis. This is perhaps the most difficult task for the student as it requires some experience and knowledge of the various types of mechanisms which exist and which also may be feasible from a performance and manufacturing standpoint. An engineer can do, with one dollar, what any fool can do for ten dollars. Cost is always an important constraint in engineering design.
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DIMENSIONAL SYNTHESIS The determination of the proportions (lengths) of the links necessary to accomplish the desired motions and can be a form of quantitative synthesis if an algorithm is defined for the particular problem, but can also be a form of qualitative synthesis if there are more variables than equations.
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MECHANISM SYNTHESIS: TWO APPROACHES
CAD program SolidWorks
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LIMITING CONDITIONS Once a potential solution is found, it must be evaluated for its quality. There are many criteria which may be applied. However, one does not want to expend a great deal of time analyzing, in great detail, a design which can be shown to be inadequate by some simple and quick evaluations.
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TOGGLE: One important test consist in to check that the linkage can in fact reach all of the specified design positions without encountering a limit or toggle position, also called a stationary configuration. The toggle positions are determined by the colinearity of two of the moving links.
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o TRANSMISSION ANGLE: The transmission angle is defined as the angle between the output link and the coupler.
o It is usually taken as the absolute value of the acute angle of the pair of angles at the intersection of the two links.
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o It is a measure of the quality of force transmission at the joint. Radial component only increases friction at pivot O4. Tangential (normal to Link 4) produces torque. = 90o is optimal. In design, keep > 40o To promote smooth running and good force transmission.
Ideally, as close to 90 as possible
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Position analysis for Crank-Rocker mechanism

The calculation of out-put angle
4.5 ALGEBRAIC POSITION ANALYSIS OF LINKAGES -Additional
ALGEBRAIC POSITION ANALYSIS OF LINKAGES
Excel or other program
Graphical Synthesis Motion Generation Mechanism

Two positions, coupler as the output 1. 2. 3. Draw the link AB in its two desired positions, A1B1 and A2B2 Connect A1 to A2 and B1 to B2. Draw two lines perpendicular to A1 A2 and B1B2 at the midpoint (midnormals). Select two fixed pivot points, O2 and O4, anywhere on the two midnormals. Measure the length of all links, O2A = link 2, AB = link 3, O4B = link 4 and O2 O4 = link 1 B1 A2 B2 O2 O4 A1
4.
5.
Graphical Synthesis Motion Generation Mechanism Three positions, coupler as the output
Same procedure as for two positions. 1. 2. Draw the link AB in three desired positions. Draw the midnormals to A1A2 and A2A3, the intersection locates the fixed pivot point O2. Same for point B to obtain second pivot point O4. Check the accuracy of the mechanism, Grashof condition and the transmission angle. B3 4. Change the second position of link AB to vary the locations of the fixed points
A2 A1 B1 A3
O2 B2
O4
3.
Graphical Synthesis Motion Generation Mechanism

Two positions Grashof 4-Bar mechanism with rocker as the output 1. 2. Draw the link CD in its two desired positions, C1D1 and C2D2 Connect C1 to C2 and D1 to D2 and draw two midnormals to C1C2 and D1D2 The intersection of the two midnormals is the fixed pivot point O4. Select point B1 anywhere on link O4C1 and locate B2 so O4B1= O4B2 Connect B1 to B2 and extend. Select any location on this line for fixed pivot point O2. Draw a circle with radius B1 B2 / 2, point A is the intersection of the circle with the B1 B2 extension. 7. Measure the length of all links, O2A = link 2, AB = link 3, O4CD = link 4 and O2 O4 = link 1 O2 A2 D1 C1 C2
3.
B1
B2
D2
4. 5.
O4
O2A = B1B2 / 2
6.
DIMENSIONAL SYNTHESIS - Solution
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Coupler Curves
q A coupler in a linkage in general has complex motion and provides the greatest variety of paths that can be traced. q The Hrones and Nelson Atlas of Fourbar Coupler Curves is a good reference
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Chapter 5
Velocity Analysis
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Velocity
Definitions
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Velocity of a point
Position of Point P
r RPA = pei
r r r & VPA = VP = RPA = pje

j
Velocity of Point P
d = pje j dt
Link in pure rotation
RPA as a complex number in polar form P is the scalar length J is the complex operator (constant)
Imaginary
Vector r can be written as: rei = r [ cos + i sin ]

r cos
Euler's formula
Multiplying by i gives: irei = r [ sin + i cos ] Multiplying by i rotates a vector 90
r sin
r sin
r cos
Real
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If point A is moving (Relative Velocity)
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Velocity Analysis of a 4-Bar Linkage

Given 2. Find 3 and 4
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Analytical Velocity Analysis of Fourbar Linkage Numerical Example

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Theory of Machines

Syllabus and Course Outline

Faculty of Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering EMEC 3302, Theory of Machines

Grading: Attendance Design Project Midterm Final exam

5% 25% 30% 40%

DEGREES OF FREEDOM (MOBILITY)

Degrees of Freedom (DOF) or Mobility

Links, joints, and kinematic chains

Links: rigid member having nodes Node: attachment points

Joint order = number of links-1

lower pair to describe joints with surface contact

The six lower pairs

Form closed (closed by geometry) or Force closed

Kinematic chains, mechanisms, machines, link classification

crank mechanism Elements: 0: Ground (Casing, Frame) 1: Rocker 2: Coupler 3: Crank

The Ground Link

Drawing kinematic Diagrams

Determining Degrees of Freedom

Determining Degrees of Freedom

The Cylindrical (cylindric) joint - two degrees of freedom

The Spherical (spheric) - Three degree of freedom

DOF (M) = 3*L 2* J 3 *G = 3 (L-1) 2 * J

Mobility of Vise Grip Pliers

Formed between links

Mechanisms and Structures

L=5 J=6 G=1 M=3*5-2*6-3*1=0

Gear consistent translation linear transfer function

Linkage Inconsistent translation non-linear transfer function

consistent translation linear transfer function

crank drive = Linkage

Inconsistent translation non-linear transfer function

Linkages of more than 4 bars

Provide more complex motion

The Grashof Condition

MOTORS AND DRIVERS

Electrical Motors AC DC Servo Stepping

Design of Linkage Systems

Engineering Design involves 1. Synthesis 2. Analysis

MECHANISM SYNTHESIS: TWO APPROACHES

CAD program SolidWorks

Position analysis for Crank-Rocker mechanism

4.5 ALGEBRAIC POSITION ANALYSIS OF LINKAGES -Additional

ALGEBRAIC POSITION ANALYSIS OF LINKAGES

4.5 ALGEBRAIC POSITION ANALYSIS OF LINKAGES -Additional

4.5 ALGEBRAIC POSITION ANALYSIS OF LINKAGES -Additional

4.5 ALGEBRAIC POSITION ANALYSIS OF LINKAGES -Additional

Excel or other program

Graphical Synthesis Motion Generation Mechanism

Graphical Synthesis Motion Generation Mechanism

DIMENSIONAL SYNTHESIS - Solution

r r r & VPA = VP = RPA = pje

Link in pure rotation

Vector r can be written as: rei = r [ cos + i sin ]

Multiplying by i gives: irei = r [ sin + i cos ] Multiplying by i rotates a vector 90

If point A is moving (Relative Velocity)

Velocity Analysis of a 4-Bar Linkage

Analytical Velocity Analysis of Fourbar Linkage Numerical Example

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DOF (M) = 3L 2 J 3 G = 3 (L-1) 2 J

L=5 J=6 G=1 M=35-26-3*1=0