Annals of Tourism Research Volume 36, Issue 3, July 2009, Pages 413438

VALUE, SATISFACTION AND BEHAVIORAL INTENTIONS IN AN ADVENTURE TOURISM CONTEXT Paul WilliamsAuthor Vitae American University of Sharjah, United Arab Emirates Geoffrey N. Soutar University of Western Australia, Australia Received 2 March 2008 Revised 12 February 2009 Accepted 23 February 2009 Available online 25 June 2009 Submitted 2 March 2008. Final Version 12 February 2009. Accepted 23 February 2009. Refereed anonymously.Coordinating Editor: Jorge Zamora http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2009.02.002, How to Cite or Link Using DOI Permissions & Reprints

Abstract The growth in demand for adventure tourism has been significant in recent years. This study applied an existing marketing framework and empirically examined the relationships between value, satisfaction, and behavioural intentions in an adventure tourism context. Four hundred and two respondents provided their perceptions of the value for an adventure tour in Australia. Customer value was conceptualised as a multidimensional construct and indeed three value dimensions had

strong, positive influences on customer satisfaction and behavioural intentions in an adventure tourism setting. Value-for-money was prominent, but also emotional value and novelty value were also significant predictors of satisfaction and future intentions. The present study suggests that researchers should take a broader, holistic view of value in a tourism context. Keywords customer value; satisfaction; intentions; adventure tourism

INTRODUCTION Adventure tourism has grown significantly in recent years, becoming a major niche within the special interest tourism sector, and is said to be the fastest growing outdoor tourism market sector, with an estimated annual growth of fifteen percent (Buckley, 2007, Travel Industry Association, 2005, Cater, 2005 and Burak, 1998). Indeed, approximately a half of American adults (98 million) took an adventure vacation in the last five years of the twentieth century (Tsui 2000) and a quarter of the European package tour market options have an adventure travel context (Keeling 2003). While statistics vary due to the diversity of adventure consumption, it appears adventure travels growth is significant and likely to continue. Most adventure research has been undertaken in the leisure science, adventure education and adventure recreation fields (see for example: Hall and Weiler, 1992, Ewert and Hollenhorst, 1989 and Ewert and Shultis, 1997). In recent years, there have also been a number of notable research contributions specific to adventure tourism (see for example: Buckley, 2007, Page et al, 2005, Swarbrooke et al, 2003, Weber, 2001 and Sung et al, 1997). To date, however, there have been few, if any, research studies into the behaviour patterns of adventure tourists. What are the needs, wants and expectations of adventure tourists? What do they want from their adventure experiences? What motivates them? How often do they want to undertake such experiences? What gives them satisfaction? What makes them come back for more? What are the marketing implications of adventure tourism? The present study was an attempt to answer some of these questions and used a recognised services marketing framework to examine the relationships between adventure tourists perceptions of value, satisfaction and future intentions. From a services marketing perspective, customer value is a critical element in consumers consumption and decision making behaviour (Zeithaml, 1988, Bolton and Drew, 1991 and Sweeney et al, 1999). However, it has received considerably less attention than service quality or satisfaction (Woodruff 1997). While customer value research has emerged as a broad and dynamic body of knowledge (Woodruff 1997), much of the research to-date has focussed on consumer retail products (e.g. Bolton and Drew, 1991, Dodds et al, 1991, Chang and Wildt, 1994, Sweeney et al, 1999 and Jayanti and Ghosh, 1996). In these situations, a utilitarian perspective of customer value

has been accepted, as value is measured as a trade-off between benefits and sacrifices, (Zeithaml, 1988 and Dodds et al, 1991). The current study, however, had a services focus, in which perceptions of value differ due to the risk and uncertainty consumers face when considering services (Murray and Schlacter, 1990, Zeithaml, 1981 and Petrick, 2002). Consequently, a multidimensional customer value framework, which included utilitarian and socio-psychological perspectives (Sheth et al, 1991, Sweeney and Soutar, 2001 and Woodruff, 1997), was used to capture the complexity of adventure tourism experiences. The study recognised the importance of customer value from a services marketing perspective and examined the construct in an adventure tourism context. ADVENTURE TOURISM AND VALUE RESEARCH The Nature of Adventure Tourism A number of research studies have investigated the rapidly growing adventure tourism domain. More specifically, research has focussed on adventure tourism definitions (Weber, 2001, Sung et al, 1997 and Hall and Weiler, 1992); the structure of the adventure tourism industry (Buckley, 2007, Hudson, 2002, Davis et al, 1997, Beedie, 2003, Swarbrooke et al, 2003 and Cloutier, 2003); the impacts of adventure tourism on the environment (Williams and Soutar, 2005, Ewert and Jamieson, 2003, Tabata, 1992 and Cloke and Perkins, 1998) and the health and safety of adventure tourists (Page et al, 2005, Wilks and Page, 2003 and Bentley and Page, 2001). While many conclusions can be drawn from these studies, they have tended to ignore the tourism consumption dimension, which includes consumers being away from a home environment, often paying a commercial operator to guide the tour and providing specialised equipment (Buckley, 2007 and Buckley, 2006). Similarly, little empirical research has examined the relationships between value, satisfaction and behavioural intentions in tourism contexts (Baker and Crompton 2000). In tourism, like most other services, the consumption experience is complicated by intangibility, dynamism and subjectivity (Botterill and Crompton, 1996 and Jayanti and Ghosh, 1996). Tourism consumption experiences include a complex mix of functional, objective and tangible components (e.g., travelling, eating, drinking, and recreating), as well as subjective, hedonic, emotional and symbolic components (e.g., enjoying an experience, laughing, socialising and having fun). Several studies have researched the heterogeneous nature of tourism consumption experiences (Ryan, 1997, Botterill and Crompton, 1996 and Urry, 1990), but there is a lack of understanding about the nature of these experiences or their relationship with marketing constructs, such as service quality, customer value or satisfaction. Adventure tourism consumers tend to be young, educated, affluent, active thrill seekers who spend significant sums of money in their pursuit of adventure (Swarbrooke et al, 2003, Tsui, 2000 and Christiansen, 1990). Adventure travelers are often demanding and discerning consumers while on holiday, and often travel to some of the most remote, extreme environments of the world to satisfy their needs for emotional highs, risk, challenge, excitement, and novelty (Zuckerman, 1994, Christiansen, 1990, Bello and Etzel, 1985 and Crompton, 1979). A better understanding of the sociopsychological dimensions of such consumption would help marketers target such consumers more effectively. From an industry perspective, many new adventure destinations and tourism products have evolved to serve the discerning needs of adventure consumers. For example, Bentley, Page and Laird (2003) found there were more than 400 adventure tourism operators in New Zealand and that 11% of

visitors to the country used these adventure products. For example, Queenstown, New Zealand, markets itself as the Adventure Capital of the World and has a diverse range of adventure products to tempt travelers (Buckley, 2007 and Cloke and Perkins, 1998). The areas most famous adventure product is the awesome foursome which includes white-water rafting the rapids on the Shotover River, jet boating through narrow gorges, a helicopter ride and the Hackett bungee jump into a 134 meter deep canyon (Cloke and Perkins 1998). Adventure tourists can also go skydiving, jet boating, white-water rafting, parasailing, four-wheel driving, scuba-diving and mountain biking in some of the most distant places on the planet. Towards a Multidimensional Perspective of Customer Value Traditional value research has taken a functional, utilitarian view with the value construct measured as the net ratio of benefits to costs (Cravens et al, 1988, Dodds, 1991, Dodds et al, 1991, Sinha and DeSarbo, 1998 and Sweeney et al, 1999). For this notion of value, a buyer and seller infer value if the benefits received are greater than what is given up. In other words, both parties feel they are better off because each receives something more useful to him or her than what he or she has relinquished (Sinha and DeSarbo 1998). It has been argued that the utilitarian functional perspective of the value construct is one of the most salient determinants of purchase intentions and repeat purchase behavior (Chang and Wildt, 1994 and Zeithaml, 1988). A multidimensional value perspective is often considered more appropriate in services contexts (Zeithaml, 1988, Sheth et al, 1991, De Ruyter et al, 1997, Sweeney and Soutar, 2001 and Petrick, 2002) as the sociological and psychological aspects of consumption are more important because of the interaction between producers and consumers, and the heterogeneous nature of the service experience (Holbrook 1994). As noted earlier, in many services contexts, value perceptions differ from those made for goods, due to the greater risk and uncertainty (Murray and Schlacter, 1990 and Zeithaml, 1981). A functional value perspective may be too simplistic for such consumption experiences (Schechter, 1984, Bolton and Drew, 1991 and Baker and Crompton, 2000). Recently, tourism researchers have begun to address the need for a multidimensional value perspective and have examined its relationship with other post-consumption constructs, such as satisfaction and behavioral intentions (Murphy et al, 2000, Petrick, 2002, Oh, 2003 and Gallarza and Saura, 2006). Thus, Gallarza and Saura (2006) used an eight-dimensional value framework, initially developed by Holbrook (1994) (efficiency, excellence, status, esteem, play, aesthetics, ethics and spirituality), to form a three dimensional construct. They found weak or insignificant relationships and acknowledged there were operationalization difficulties with some of the categories. Snchez, Callarisa, Rodrguez, and Molineret (2006) also developed a multi-dimensional value scale for use in a tourism context (GLOVAL) but, to date, their study has not been replicated. Given these issues, it is clear more tourism context information is needed and the present paper used the PERVAL framework developed by Sweeney and Soutar (2001) to measure customer value in such a context. PERVAL was adapted from Sheth et al (1991) model and has been applied to different consumer products. However, it has not previously been used in a tourism context. The PERVAL framework has a functional value component (functional value and value for money), but also includes other value dimensions (social value, epistemic value and emotional value). Functional Value

Functional value is defined as the perceived utility acquired from an alternatives capacity for functional, utilitarian or physical performance (Sheth et al 1991:160) and is seen as a primary driver of consumer choice. It is often conceptualized as the value received for the price paid or as value for money (Zeithaml, 1988, Dodds et al, 1991, Bolton and Drew, 1991, Holbrook, 1994 and Woodruff, 1997). Common functional value attributes include quality, reliability, durability and price. In tourism, the number of attractions seen, the on-time performance of a tour, seat comfort, price and safety record may all influence functional value perceptions. In adventure tourism operations, functional value is important because of safety issues and the planning needed to minimize risk (Williams and Soutar 2005). Tour operators can offer functional value through convenience, contacts, speed, efficiency and administrative help (Christiansen 1990). Emotional Value. Emotional value is a social-psychological dimension that is dependent on a products ability to arouse feelings or affective states (Sheth et al 1991). Emotional responses are likely in adventure tourism experiences and contribute a large, but often ignored, portion of the explained variance in satisfaction evaluations (Otto and Ritchie 1996). In adventure tourism experiences, the emotions that precede and lead to the emotional highs of exhilaration and excitement are often fear, hesitation and apprehension. Emotional value is, thus, likely to be a key factor in the consumption of adventure. Social Value. Social value has been defined as the perceived utility acquired from an alternatives association with one or more specific social groups (Sheth et al 1991:161). Choices involving highly visible products (e.g. clothing, jewelry) and goods or services shared with others (e.g. gifts, products used in entertaining) are often driven by social value. In tourism, factors such as interactions between people on a tour, the relationship between passengers and the tour guide and the individual recognition or prestige obtained from undertaking the trip may create social value. Social value may be strong in small group tours, similar to the communitas and bonding of river rafting participants highlighted by Arnould and Price (1993). Epistemic Value. While epistemic value (novelty value) was not initially included in the PERVAL framework, it is a key component of the adventure tourism experience as it includes the novelty of the activity and the destination (Hall and Weiler 1992). Epistemic value is created when a product arouses curiosity, provides novelty and/or satisfies a desire for knowledge (Sheth et al 1991). In tourism, novelty and seeking new knowledge are significant motives for adventure travel ( Weber, 2001, Walle, 1997, Crompton, 1979 and Bello and Etzel, 1985). Epistemic value is a key factor in many adventure tourism products due to tourists desire for exploratory, novelty seeking and variety seeking behavior (Zuckerman 1994). Tour operators need to change and adapt their product to create new and novel experiences for tourists to ensure they obtain epistemic value. Epistemic value was included in the present study because of its potential importance in an adventure tourism context. Customer Value, Satisfaction and Behavioural Intentions Customer Value. Early studies into customer value focused on the retailing sector, generally measuring pre-purchase value perceptions and their links with purchase decisions or willingness to buy ( Dodds et al, 1991, Liljander, 1994, Zeithaml, 1988 and Sweeney et al, 1999). It was argued by Woodruff (1997) that value concepts differ according to the circumstances in which customers think

about value (i.e., customers could perceive value different before and after purchase). This is important as, if repeat purchase is sought, post purchase value perceptions must be in line with prepurchase expectations. Woodruff and Gardial (1996) also argued value perceptions are linked to other post-consumption constructs, such as satisfaction and repurchase intentions. Patterson and Spreng (1997) found values impact on re-purchase intentions was not clear, partially because consumers have experience and familiarity on which to base repurchase intentions. However, it seems customer satisfaction is positively influenced by value ( Bolton and Drew, 1991 and Woodruff, 1997) and that value is negatively impacted by perceived price ( Zeithaml, 1988, Chang and Wildt, 1994 and Sweeney et al, 1999). Customer Satisfaction. One of the most frequently raised questions about satisfaction and its relationship with other constructs has been whether it is a cognitive process (through disconfirmed expectations) ( Cronin and Taylor, 1992, Bolton and Drew, 1991 and Boulding et al, 1993) or an emotional state from post-purchase feelings, ( Dube and Morgan, 1996, Richins, 1997, Oliver, 1993 and Mano and Oliver, 1993). Woodruff, Cadotte, and Jenkins (1983) argued customer satisfaction should be defined to reflect the link between cognitive and emotional processes as customer satisfaction or dissatisfaction is an emotional feeling developed in response to confirmation or disconfirmation (which is a cognitive process). In the same manner, Pfaff (1977) suggested cognitive and affective models might be appropriate for describing satisfaction, which justifies the multidimensional approach used in the present study. The cognitively-oriented service quality and value constructs precede the emotionally oriented appraisal of satisfaction ( Bagozzi, 1992, Liljander, 1994 and Oliver, 1997) and it seems value is a more complete antecedent to satisfaction than is quality ( Woodruff, 1997, McDougall and Levesque, 2000 and Gallarza and Saura, 2006). There has been recent empirical interest in the relationships between quality, value, satisfaction and behavioral intentions in tourism (Oh, 2003, Petrick et al, 1999, Baker and Crompton, 2000, Bojanic, 1996 and Oh, 1999). These studies have used different techniques to operationalize variables, different types of multivariate techniques to analyze data and different contexts to apply theories. In particular, the studies have used a range of scales to measure value, often leaning on the utilitarian perspective of quality and the price paid (Gallarza and Saura 2006), despite the need for multidimensionality that was noted earlier. Other weaknesses include the use of single-item scales to measure the constructs of interest (Oh, 1999 and Al Sabbahy et al, 2004). Bibliographic information Citing and related articles Related articles

An Empirical Analysis of Franchisee Value-in-Use, Investment Risk and Relational Satisfaction 2011, Journal of Retailing Show more information

Close Debra Grace , Scott Weaven An Empirical Analysis of Franchisee Value-in-Use, Investment Risk and Relational Satisfaction Journal of Retailing, Volume 87, Issue 3, September 2011, Pages 366380 Original Research Article PDF (481 K)

Experience quality, perceived value, satisfaction and behavioral intentions for heritage tourists 2010, Tourism Management Show more information Close Ching-Fu Chen , Fu-Shian Chen Experience quality, perceived value, satisfaction and behavioral intentions for heritage tourists Tourism Management, Volume 31, Issue 1, February 2010, Pages 2935 Original Research Article PDF (207 K)

Understanding convention attendee behavior from the perspective of self-congruity: The case of academic association convention 2013, International Journal of Hospitality Management Show more information Close Kisang Ryu , Jin-Soo Lee Understanding convention attendee behavior from the perspective of self-congruity: The case of academic association convention International Journal of Hospitality Management, Volume 33, June 2013, Pages 2940 Original Research Article PDF (289 K)