Energy and Buildings, 18 (1992) 65-75

65

Two-dimensional simulation of airflow and thermal comfort in a room with open-window and indoor cooling systems
J. Niu a n d J. v a n d e r Kooi
Laboratory for Refrigeration and Indoor Climate Technology, DeO~ University of Technology, Mekelweg 2, 2528 CD, De02 (Netherlands)

(Received September 8, 1991; accepted December 1, 1991; revised paper received February 4, 1992)

Abstract
This paper presents the two-dimensional numerical simulation results of the ventilation rates, indoor airflow fields and temperature distributions in an office room with open windows and auxiliary cooling devices. The standard k - e turbulence model is used for flow pattern and temperature predictions. Possible comfort problems are analyzed in terms of the percentage of dissatisfied (PD) people due to draught, as well as vertical temperature difference. The simulation results show that open windows can give a high ventilation rate due to the stack effect alone, and that good thermal comfort can be achieved when the outdoor temperature is moderate. However, thermal comfort analysis in terms of vertical temperature stratification and the PD value shows that discomfort can arise due to draughts near the floor and the too-large vertical temperature gradient in the occupied zone when the outdoor temperature is too low, and that a cooling radiator located below the window presents the same problems. The results also indicate that a lightly cooled ceiling makes the air temperature more uniform in the room. It is also shown that both of the cooling systems, when combined with open windows, can have a good energy efficiency.

Keywords: numerical simulation, thermal comfort, open-window ventilation

1. I n t r o d u c t i o n
Since a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f p e o p l e in m o d e r n s o c i e t y s p e n d m o s t o f t h e i r t i m e indoors, t h e i n d o o r air quality in r e s i d e n c e s , offices a n d o t h e r i n d o o r non-industrial environments has be en an issue of i n c r e a s i n g c o n c e r n [1 ]. I n d o o r p o l l u t a n t s a r e norm a l l y at h i g h e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s t h a n t h e i r o u t d o o r c o u n t e r p a r t s . T h e r e f o r e , v e n t i l a t i o n is n e e d e d to remove the contaminants and odours from the indoor e n v i r o n m e n t s . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , v e n t i l a t i o n m a y cost energy during heating or cooling seasons. The p o t e n t i a l o f e n e r g y saving in v e n t i l a t i o n t h e r e f o r e comprises a reduction of the amount of ventilation air s u p p l i e d a n d t h e a d o p t i o n o f t h e b e s t s t r a t e g y f o r s u p p l y i n g this q u a n t i t y o f air in o r d e r t o a c h i e v e m a x i m u m v e n t i l a t i o n p e r f o r m a n c e in t h e o c c u p i e d zone without the discomfort of draughts or the creation of zones where the minimum ventilation r a t e is n o t a c h i e v e d . T o realize this goal, o n e o f the major design strategies that should be considered

is to c o n t r o l the flow p a t t e r n s o f the s u p p l i e d air [2]. F o r m e c h a n i c a l ventilation, for e x a m p l e , this c a n b e d o n e b y a p p r o p r i a t e l y locating t h e p o s i t i o n s o f the air s u p p l y a n d e x h a u s t in a r o o m [ 3 - 7 ] . In contrast, the airflow r o u t e in a r o o m w i t h n a t u r a l ventilation is difficult to c o n t r o l since n a t u r a l ventilation is s u b j e c t t o the v a g a r i e s o f w e a t h e r . V~rmd s p e e d a n d direction, a n d the t e m p e r a t u r e difference will n o t only affect the r a t e o f f r e s h air s u p p l y b u t will also d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r a n y o p e n i n g will a c t as an inlet o r outlet f o r t h e air s p a c e , a n d h e n c e the p a t h t h e air t a k e s within the building [7]. To r e d u c e the v a r i a t i o n s due to w e a t h e r , a p o s s i b l e w a y is to m a x i m i z e t h e b u o y a n c y effect a n d m i n i m i z e t h e wind effect [8]. This c a n b e d o n e b y m a x i m i z i n g the height between the purpose-provided openings. To e n s u r e t h a t the individual r o o m s h a v e a d e q u a t e ventilation, it is p o s s i b l e to p r o v i d e dual u p p e r a n d l o w e r v e n t o p e n i n g s o n t h e s a m e floor. S u c h a w i n d o w c o n f i g u r a t i o n is a n i m p o r t a n t c o m p o n e n t in a p a s s i v e i n d o o r c l i m a t e s y s t e m d e v e l o p e d b y

0378-7788/92/$5.00

1992- Elsevier Sequoia. All rights reserved

66

P a a s s e n [9]. Year-round simulation b y Lute a n d P a a s s e n [ 10] h a s s h o w n t h a t r e a s o n a b l e i n d o o r t e m p e r a t u r e s for t h e r m a l c o m f o r t c a n b e m a i n t a i n e d for the m o d e r a t e Dutch climate with this s y s t e m , but t h a t m e c h a n i c a l cooling will be n e e d e d for a w a r m e r climate, higher internal h e a t or light building structures. H o w e v e r , f o r fully u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e i n d o o r therm a l - c o m f o r t a s p e c t s of natural ventilation, as well as the p o s s i b l e e n e r g y savings in the s e a s o n s w h e n the o u t d o o r air c a n b e u s e d f o r free cooling, the airflow p a t t e r n s a n d t e m p e r a t u r e distributions within the v e n t i l a t e d r o o m n e e d to b e fully investigated. Also, c o m b i n i n g i n d o o r cooling s y s t e m s s u c h as cooling r a d i a t o r s with o p e n - w i n d o w ventilation to improve indoor thermal comfort needs estimation of t h e e n e r g y p e r f o r m a n c e s c o n c e r n e d . T h e m o s t widely-used o n e - p o i n t m o d e l f o r c a l c u l a t i o n of natural ventilation r a t e is o b v i o u s l y n o t a d e q u a t e for these purposes. Further investigations may need full-scale i n s i t u m e a s u r e m e n t s o f the detailed flow p a r a m e t e r s . On t h e o t h e r hand, the d e v e l o p m e n t of c o m p u t a t i o n a l fluid d y n a m i c s h a s e n a b l e us to p e r f o r m ' n u m e r i c a l e x p e r i m e n t s ' a b o u t airflow details [6, 11, 12]. T h e r e f o r e , n u m e r i c a l s i m u l a t i o n s of several typical o p e n - w i n d o w situations w e r e cond u c t e d p r i o r to full-scale i n s i t u m e a s u r e m e n t s . In this p a p e r , details of t h e s e p r e l i m i n a r y s i m u l a t i o n s are r e p o r t e d .

2. C a s e set-up
The s i m u l a t i o n r e s e a r c h w a s c o n d u c t e d for an office r o o m as illustrated in Fig. l ( a ) , 4.5 m long, 2.7 m high a n d 4 m wide. The f a c a d e h a s a glazing

a r e a o f a l m o s t the whole width a n d a height of 1.5 m. The l o w e r a n d u p p e r p a r t of the glazing c a n b e o p e n e d s e p a r a t e l y , e a c h with a m a x i m u m o p e n i n g o f 0.5 m in height. This configuration of the r o o m is similar to the t e s t cell r e p o r t e d in refs. 9 and 10. It is a s s u m e d t h a t t h e r e a r e two office w o r k e r s a n d two c o m p u t e r t e r m i n a l s p r e s e n t in the r o o m . T a k i n g into a c c o u n t lighting a n d solar radiation, the overall internal h e a t in the p r e s e n t situation is a s s u m e d to b e 45 W / m e floor area. F o r simplicity, the w h o l e situation is simplified into a t w o - d i m e n sional issue, as illustrated in Fig. l ( b ) . The t h e r m a l effect of the o c c u p a n t s a n d electric a p p l i a n c e s are lumped together and represented by a rectangular b l o c k a g e , with 2 0 0 W c o n v e c t i v e heat. Since the 2-D simplification m e a n s t h a t the width c o n s i d e r e d is one m e t r e , t h e 2 0 0 W internal h e a t c o r r e s p o n d s to 45 W / m e floor area. Six different s i t u a t i o n s are s i m u l a t e d a n d analyzed. The d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n the c a s e s are the o u t d o o r t e m p e r a t u r e s , w i n d o w o p e n i n g s a n d internal cooling s y s t e m s . C a s e 1 to c a s e 3 are i n t e n d e d to c o m p a r e the d i f f e r e n c e s at different o u t d o o r t e m p e r a t u r e s . C a s e 4 to c a s e 6 are i n t e n d e d to c o m p a r e the p e r f o r m a n c e s of different i n d o o r cooling devices at high o u t d o o r t e m p e r a t u r e s . In c a s e 4, a cooling r a d i a t o r with a c o o l i n g c a p a c i t y of 100 W is p l a c e d b e l o w the w i n d o w . In c a s e 5 and c a s e 6, the ceiling is a s s u m e d to b e c o o l e d or p a r t l y cooled, with a cooling c a p a c i t y o f 8 0 W a n d 37 W respectively. T h e details a r e g i v e n in T a b l e 1. In s u m m a r y , t h e s e c a s e s m a y r e p r e s e n t a r o o m with m o d e r a t e l y high internal h e a t s i t u a t e d in a m o d e r a t e climate, a n d the o u t d o o r air t e m p e r a t u r e s c o n s i d e r e d are p o s s i b l e for free cooling.

,,-/
/

1 Lower Opening

(a)

(b)

~ g . 1 Sketch of the simulation cases. (a) Configurations of the room. (b) 2-dimensional simplification.

67 TABLE 1. Summary of the simulation cases Case no. Case description Opening size (m) Upper Lower Temperatures (C) Outdoor Wall Simulation results Ventilation rate (ach) 13 4 11 21 23 24 Ventilated heat

(w)
200 170 212 134 120 147

Moderate outdoor temperature Low outdoor temperature High outdoor temperature With a cooling radiator (100 W) With a cooling ceiling (80 W) With a partly cooled ceiling (37 W)

0.5 0.05 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

0.5 0.03 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

20 15 25 25 25 25

22 22 28 25 25 25

3. M a t h e m a t i c a l solution

formulation

and method

of

~u~ _ uj ~x~

1 ~p ___~ [ p ~xi + ~xj L(Vt+

vl) ~ ] + t~(To-T)gi
(2)

3.1. A i r f l o w m o d e l 3.1.1. The turbulence model Numerical simulation of the airflow and temperature distribution in the room involves the numerical solution of the mass conservation equation (continuity), m o m e n t u m transport equations, and the energy transport equation [ 13 [. One special difficulty of the solution of the equations comes from the fact that the flow encountered in rooms is turbulent, i.e., the velocity and temperature at a given point always fluctuate against time at rather high frequency [14, 15]. Therefore, certain turbulence models are developed for the purpose of the numerical solution. In recent years, they have been used for numerical prediction of airflows in rooms. Encouraging results, reviewed by Whittle (1986) and Nielson (1989), have been achieved. Among the models, the standard k - e turbulence model [ 16 ] proves to be economically applicable and acceptable in prediction accuracy for engineering purposes. It should be mentioned that Tsutsumi [ 17 ] has used the large eddy simulation (LES) turbulence model to simulate the natural convection through window openings in a room. However, tremendous computer time and memories are needed for a simulation. In our study, the standard k - e turbulence model is used. In this model, two extra transport equations, in addition to the transport equations mentioned above, the turbulent kinetic energy (k) equation and the turbulence energy dissipation rate (e) equation will also be solved. These equations are:
~u i

0H u~ ~x~
0

~ ~xj
_0

~'t +

(3)
+ +

+ ul

Oui ut ~ ( T - To) -- -e+/3 gi Oxj (rH Oxi

(4)

Uyoxy

~XyL\O-2

~ k~

(ou

~]

I
(5)

~u___ t e2 e "t O(T- To) axj - C 2 - ~ +C3~[3 ~. --Oxj gy

where the turbulent viscosity is given by: ,~ = C, k ~/e

(6)

Ox~

=0

(1)

where the emp~ic~ c o n s ~ t s ~ e : a~= 1.0, ~,= 1.3, ~ = 0.9, C~ = 1.44, C~ = 1.92, C~ = 1.44 ~ d C . = 0 . 0 9 . With the s t ~ d ~ d k - e t ~ b ~ e n c e model, speci~ b o ~ d ~ conditions have to be specked to t ~ e ~ t o a c c o s t the ~iction effect ~ d heat t r ~ s f e r ~om a solid w~l. In the p r o g r ~ PHOENICS, the l o g ~ i t ~ c w~l ~ c t i o n is used [16]. It must be noted that the convection heat transfer thus c ~ c ~ a t e d ~ depend on the d i s ~ c e of ~ e ~ s t ~ d - n o d e from the w ~ , ~ d ~erefore, the ~ s t gid-node dis~nce from the w~l needs to be o p t ~ e d . Accord~g to R e ~ et al. [18], the ~ c t i o n ~ d heat t r ~ s f e r from ~ e wM1 thus predicted ~ e ~ good a g e e m e n t ~ t h meas~ements. For convective heat ~om the ~temM heat so~ce, ~ e d f l ~ b o ~ d ~ conditions ~ e set for the a~acent a~. It is ~ s ~ e d that 80 W ~ e convected ~ t o the

68 air from the top and 60 W from each of the two vertical sides of the block. t h e r m a l e n v i r o n m e n t " . T h e r e f o r e , both thermal env i r o n m e n t and p e r s o n a l variables influence thermal r e s p o n s e and comfort. In m o d e r n offices, the occ u p a n t s t e n d to be in a m o d e r a t e activity level. It was f o u n d that p e r s o n s with lower activity levels are sensitive to draughts [23[, an u n d e s i r e d local cooling o f the h u m a n b o d y c a u s e d by air m o v e m e n t [24, 25]. F a n g e r et al. [ 26 ] d e v e l o p e d a m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l to quantify the draught risk in t e r m s of the perc e n t a g e of dissatisfied people. In this model, the p e r c e n t a g e dissatisfied p e o p l e due to draughts, PD(%), is calculated f r o m

3.1.2. Model of the openings The calculations are r e s t r i c t e d to the d o m a i n inside the room. The influence of the o u t d o o r conditions on the i n d o o r climate is r e p r e s e n t e d by an a p p r o priate b o u n d a r y condition at the openings. In the p r e s e n t simulations, only the influence of the i n d o o r and o u t d o o r t e m p e r a t u r e difference is investigated, t h e r e f o r e the b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n will reflect this nature. It m u s t be n o t e d that, in the m o m e n t u m e q u a t i o n (eqn. (2)), the p r e s s u r e p only stands for the relative p r e s s u r e due to the n a t u r e of velocity variation, and that the gravity effect is c o m b i n e d in the b u o y a n c y t e r m f l ( T o - T)gi in the same equation [ 19 ]. T h e r e f o r e , the outside p r e s s u r e s n e a r the two o p e n i n g s are a s s u m e d to be the same and equal to the a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e Po = 0, i.e., the variation of the absolute static p r e s s u r e due to gravity at the different height is (and m u s t be) omitted for the b o u n d a r y conditions at the openings. F u r t h e r m o r e , in the lower opening, w h e r e inflow is e x p e c t e d , the stagnation p r e s s u r e of the c o m p u t a t i o n grid-nodes t h e r e is a s s u m e d to be equal to the a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e , i.e.,
-

P D = ( 3 4 - T~)(V-O.O5)62(3.14 + O.37VI)

(8)

for V < 0.05 m/s insert V = 0.05 m/s, and for PD > 100 let PD = 100, w h e r e Ta is the local air t e m p e r a t u r e (C), V is the m e a n velocity (m/s), and I is the t u r b u l e n c e intensity (%), which is defined as the v e l o c i t y fluctuation over the m e a n velocity. The t u r b u l e n t intensity can be calculated f r o m

I = 100(2k)5/V

(9)

+Pi =P0

(7)

and the t e m p e r a t u r e o f the inflow air is o u t d o o r t e m p e r a t u r e ; while the static p r e s s u r e at the h i g h e r opening, w h e r e outflow is e x p e c t e d , is a s s u m e d to be equal to the a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e Po. This boundary specification is b a s e d on the Bernoulli equation, and friction at the o p e n i n g s is neglected. Details a b o u t h o w this is d o n e in the numerical s c h e m e s can be f o u n d in ref. 20.

3.2. N u m e r i c a l schemes a n d algorithms f o r solution T h e g o v e r n i n g differential e q u a t i o n s are discretized b y finite-volume m e t h o d ; u p w a r d differencing is u s e d to reflect the physical n a t u r e t h a t c o n v e c t i o n is an a s y m m e t r i c p h e n o m e n o n [13, 21]. The stagg e r e d grids are u s e d to l o c a t e the discretized gridn o d e s for velocity c o m p o n e n t s , e n t h a l p y and pressures, which is k n o w n as the SIMPLE p r o c e d u r e . In PHOENICS, the SIMPLE m e t h o d is e n h a n c e d a n d an e x t r a e q u a t i o n is solved for the evolution of p r e s s u r e [22 ]. 3.3. M o d e l f o r the a n a l y s i s o f t h e r m a l comfort in r o o m s T h e r m a l c o m f o r t is defined as " t h a t condition o f mind in which satisfaction is e x p r e s s e d with the

The values of Ta, V and k can be o b t a i n e d f r o m the airflow calculation, and t h e r e f o r e , the PD distribution can be calculated. In m o s t cases in buildings, the air t e m p e r a t u r e normally increases with height a b o v e the floor. If the gradient is sufficiently large, local w a r m disc o m f o r t c a n o c c u r at the h e a d a n d / o r cold d i s c o m f o r t can o c c u r at the feet, although the b o d y as a w h o l e is t h e r m a l l y 'neutral'. The few e x p e r i m e n t a l investigations that have b e e n c o n d u c t e d to e x a m i n e the influence of the vertical t e m p e r a t u r e difference on h u m a n c o m f o r t are reviewed in the ASHRAE handb o o k [27]. It was f o u n d that p e o p l e are m o r e sensitive to the positive t e m p e r a t u r e difference -h i g h e r a b o v e and lower below - and less sensitive to the negative vertical t e m p e r a t u r e differences. In the r e s e a r c h c o n d u c t e d by Olesen et al. [28], s e a t e d subjects in their p r e f e r r e d average t e m p e r a t u r e s w e r e subjected to vertical t e m p e r a t u r e differences of different magnitude. It was f o u n d that w h e n the t e m p e r a t u r e difference is larger t h a n 3 C b e t w e e n h e a d (1.1 m a b o v e the floor) and ankles (0.1 m a b o v e the floor), the p e r c e n t a g e o f dissatisfied p e o p l e i n c r e a s e s drastically. In the ISO s t a n d a r d [29], it is r e c o m m e n d e d that this vertical t e m p e r a t u r e diff e r e n c e be less t h a n 3 C. In the p r e s e n t study, eqn. (9) will be u s e d to evaluate the d r a u g h t risks in the o p e n - w i n d o w situations investigated. Since the PD i n d e x d o e s n o t take into a c c o u n t the influence of the t e m p e r a t u r e stratification, the overall t h e r m a l c o m f o r t will also be a n a l y s e d f r o m the t e m p e r a t u r e stratifications.

69
4. Results and discussions

The simulated ventilation rates and the heat c a r d e d away by the ventilated air of the six cases are listed in Table 1. The t e m per a t ur e stratifications of all the cases are illustrated in Fig. 2, in which the t e m per atu r es in the section I-I indicated in Fig. 1 are plotted against the height. The graphical forms of velocity vectors, isotherms (contours of temperature), turbulent kinetic energies and the percentage of dissatisfied people due to draught are illustrated in Figs. 3 - 8 . Case 1 Case 1 is to simulate the situation when the o u t d o o r t e m p e r a t u r e is moderate. The out door air t e m p e r a t u r e is assumed to be 20 C. In reality, most people would open their windows to welcome this mild, fresh air. Correspondingly, the simulated results are also promising. With the two windows fully open, a ventilation rate as high as 13 ach is achieved. The average air t e m p e r a t u r e in the occupied zone is approximately 21 C (Fig. 3(c)), while the temperature difference between the heights 0.1 m and 1.1 m is less than 0.5 C, as illustrated in Fig. 2. In the occupied zone, the air velocities are lower than 0.1 m/s (Fig. 3(a)), and the turbulent kinetic energy (k) is lower than 10 -4 J/kg (Fig. 3(b)). The draught risk, calculated from eqn. (9) is illustrated in Fig. 3(d), which shows that, in most of the region in the room, the PD value is nearly zero. It indicates that there is little risk of draught. Looking at the flow patterns illustrated in Fig. 3(a), it is clear that the thermal plume formed around the internal heat source plays a dominant role. The entrainment of the thermal plume produces
2.5

the recirculation flows in the upper space of the room. Similar to the flows in a displacement ventilation situation [3[, the recirculation flows appear above a certain height, at which the entrained flow rate is equal to the supplied flow rate from below, and this height depends on the supplied flow rate. In this case, it can be seen from Fig. 3(a) that part of the fresh air is entrained into the hot plume directly, while the other part tends to flow downward. The overall flow pattern is thus formed. Case 2 Now that it has been shown that open-window ventilation has a positive effect in every aspect concerned with com fort when the o u t d o o r temperature is moderate, Case 2 is to simulate the situation of opening the windows at a relatively lower out door temperature, at 15 C in this case. The lower and u p p e r openings are assumed to be 30 m m and 50 nun wide slots, respectively. A ventilation rate of 4 ach is obtained, at which the average air t e m p e r a t u r e in the occupied zone ranges from 20 to 24 C, as illustrated in Fig. 4(c). The temperature difference between the height 0.1 m and 1.1 m is as large as 3.2 C, which is greater than the r e c o m m e n d e d value 3 C [29]. The air velocity near the lower opening is about 0.3 m/s (Fig. 4(a)), and the generated turbulence is m u c h higher than in case 1. The m axi m um value of k is about 2 10 -~ J/kg (Fig. 4Co)). Consequently, it can be seen from Fig. 4(d) that the local PD due to draught near the floor is rather high, which indicates that occupants may feel t oo cold at their ankles and/or knees. The flow pattern illustrated in Fig. 4(a) shows that the fresh air com es downward towards the floor

-~ Ca~ 4
~

[~

? []
[] []
O" ~ ~

~
O~

~,
~

Case 5

[]

~
~E~_~1.5 v t.~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
(~ ~ Case

~[]
3 r~
[]
[] []

o~
~ ~ ~ ~

Case 2

1
~ 0.5

[]
[]

A /%

/k

,& ,& ~ ,~
~t~
i o i o o

oo

[]
[] /%

/%

0 18
F~.

t 19

% 20
of ~e

[] A [] .~, . Dr[] ~ , ~ , , _ ~ t 21 22 23 a~ temperatures

t 24
vs, heLOt

,~ ~ ~t~ , 25 L~ ~ e

BI

26

27

28

29

Temperature( o C)
2. Ya~at~ons

s e ~ J o ~ ]-L

70

=-_.
~ . l i ' . . " . . . " -~ ~

~"~

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~,~=
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~. . . . . .

= -~

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g~x . . . . .. .. . . . .. . . . .~ . ~ . . r ~ ~

. _ _ ~ ~ , : :~ . . ~ t~, , :~- ~ ~'-'~

--:~
.. .. .. .. ~ ~

i~.~ - - ~

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~ ~ ~ : ~ ~ :--~.-~ i?~_~ ? ~ ~ . . . . . . Z~ ~
~ . ~ * .
~ . .

. .
.

.
.

.
.

. .
~

. .
~

.
~

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ =

Z~. . . . . .
. :

~
0.20

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ i ~
m/s.

= ~ ,A 2

~2 2 2 2 ~ ~
(a)

2 2 222222.
~

~ ~ ~ . ~ z ~ _ ~

__ '

~ : ~.2~ ~/~.

(a)

Co)

(b)

~
~

21 f - 7 ~ r ------------~-_~____~

21

(c) ~ _ ~ _ ~ . ~ -~--~'-/~_~, ~ - ~

(c)

~ ():)~ ,~(ZS~
~( ']
]~ r - ~

t~
~
(d)

~ (;
~

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-

~--~Z/

25 Fig. 3. S i m u l a t e d field d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f c a s e 1. (a) Velocity v e c t o r s . (b) C o n t o u r s o f k ( 1 0 - s J/kg). (c) I s o t h e r r a s (C). (d) P e r c e n t a g e d i s s a t i s f i e d p e o p l e (%) d u e to d r a u g h t . Fig. 4. Siraulated field d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f c a s e 2. (a) Velocity v e c t o r s . (b) C o n t o u r s o f k ( 1 0 -~ J/kg). (c) I s o t h e r m s (C). (d) P e r c e n t a g e dissatisfied p e o p l e (%) d u e to d r a u g h t .

71 i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r a d m i t t e d , b e c a u s e of its l o w t e m p e r a t u r e . This p h e n o m e n o n is r a t h e r different f r o m t h a t in c a s e 1 (Fig. 3(a)). It is b e c a u s e of this c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the flow t h a t t h e t e m p e r a t u r e stratification is m o r e s e v e r e , a n d w o r s e f r o m the p o i n t o f v i e w o f t h e r m a l c o m f o r t . To a v o i d this, o n e p o s s i b i l i t y is to r a i s e t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f the o u t d o o r air in o n e w a y o r a n o t h e r b e f o r e it is a d m i t t e d into t h e o c c u p i e d s p a c e a n d also to i n c r e a s e the airflow rate. This m a y i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e m i n i m u m t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e o u t d o o r air t h a t c a n b e u s e d for free c o o l i n g s i m p l y t h r o u g h n a t u r a l v e n t i l a t i o n is limited by, a m o n g o t h e r things, t h e r m a l c o m f o r t requirements.
Case 3

-~ $ * * . . . . . . . .
'

/ Z ~

L
. - ~ ' ~

"

" . .

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. : . :. . . .

: : ~ ~.~,
-

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. . . . .
.

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. . .

--,

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::~

[~,
i ~

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_

.
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~=

~=

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" , " ' ~ / / z i : . : - ' ' z ] . / 1 . . . . . .- - ~ / ]

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: 0.20 m / s . (a)

This c a s e s i m u l a t e s a ' s u m m e r ' situation: t h e o u t d o o r air t e m p e r a t u r e is 25 C a n d t h e internal wall s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e is a s s u m e d to b e 28 C. C o m p a r e d with c a s e 1, the i n d o o r - o u t d o o r t e m p e r a t u r e difference is 3 K i n s t e a d o f 2 K, while all the o t h e r c o n d i t i o n s are t h e s a m e . T h e r e f o r e , t h e s i m u l a t e d Ilow p a t t e r n , t u r b u l e n t kinetic e n e r g y distribution (Fig. 5(a) a n d (b)), as well as t h e t e m p e r a t u r e stratification (Fig. 2) a r e similar to t h o s e in c a s e 1, a n d only the a v e r a g e t e m p e r a t u r e level is higher. T h e v e n t i l a t i o n r a t e is 11 ach, a n d t h e a v e r a g e air t e m p e r a t u r e in t h e o c c u p i e d z o n e is a b o u t 26.5 C. T h e t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n the h e i g h t s 0.1 m a n d 1.1 m is less t h a n 0.5 C. Since t h e air t e m p e r a t u r e is r a t h e r high, t h e PD due to d r a u g h t is v e r y low. H o w e v e r , it is p o s s i b l e t h a t it is t o o w a r m in the r o o m if the r a d i a n t e n v i r o n m e n t is t a k e n into account. T h e r e f o r e , the following s i m u l a t i o n cases, c a s e s 4 - 6 , a r e set u p to i n v e s t i g a t e the possibilities o f auxiliary i n d o o r cooling c o m b i n e d with o p e n w i n d o w ventilation.
Case 4

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(b)

. . . . . . .

~_'~----27.527 ~-~-__~.~

~--~_~

(c) A c o n v e c t i v e c o o l i n g r a d i a t o r with a c o o l i n g cap a c i t y of 100 W is p l a c e d b e l o w t h e window. T h e r a d i a n t effect o f t h e r a d i a t o r is t a k e n into conside r a t i o n b y s e t t i n g t h e wall internal s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e to 25 C. T h e flow p a t t e r n is r a t h e r different in this e a s e (Fig. 6(a)). A s h o r t - c i r c u i t o c c u r s f o r the v e n t i l a t e d flow. A l m o s t all the f r e s h air is e n t r a i n e d into t h e h o t p l u m e directly, a n d t h e n c i r c u l a t e d to t h e u p p e r o p e n i n g i m m e d i a t e l y . Due t o this s h o r t - c i r c u i t effect, t h e v e n t i l a t i o n r a t e is r a t h e r high -- 21 aeh, a n d 134 W o f heat, n e a r l y 7 0 % o f t h e t o t a l internal heat, are c a r r i e d a w a y b y ventilation. The l o w e r z o n e o f t h e r o o m is d o m i n a t e d b y t h e r e e i r e u l a t i o n flow c a u s e d b y the c o o l i n g r a d i a t o r

(d)
Fig. 5. Simulated field distributions of case 3. (a) Velocity vectors. (b) Contours of k(10 -3 J/kg). (c) Isotherms (C). (d) Percentage dissatisfied people (%) due to draught.

72

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.

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. .
.

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.

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,

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":

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~
~

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~

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0120

~.

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~ ~ , ~

m/s.

(a)

and is not m u c h affected by the ventilation air. Due to the b u o y a n c y effect, the c o o l e d air from the cooling r a d i a t o r tends to tlow in such a way that it sticks to the floor. As a result, r a t h e r severe t e m p e r a t u r e stratification exists: the t e m p e r a t u r e difference b e t w e e n the heights 0.1 m and 1.1 m is nearly 2.5 C (Fig. 2). T h o u g h this value is lower t h a n 3 C, this stratification will be e n h a n c e d by the radiant effect of the radiator [27, 30]. T h e r e f o r e , a cooling r a d i a t o r located below the window m a y not be ideal for t h e r m a l comfort. It should be n o t e d that the t u r b u l e n t kinetic e n e r g y n e a r the floor is a r o u n d 0.6 10 -a J/kg (Fig. 6(b)), which, a c c o r d i n g to eqn. (9), will c o n t r i b u t e to the d i s c o m f o r t due to draught. On the o t h e r hand, the cooling e n e r g y f r o m the cooling r a d i a t o r is well p r e s e r v e d in the lower part o f the room, and the ventilation d o e s not c a u s e m u c h loss of this energy. Therefore, the e n e r g y efficiency can be satisfactorily high. Case 5 As an alternative, the whole ceiling is a s s u m e d to be 'lightly' c o o l e d with a c o n v e c t i v e cooling c a p a c i t y o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 18 W / m 2, which is equivalent to the a s s u m p t i o n that the t e m p e r a t u r e diff e r e n c e is a b o u t 5 C and the c o n v e c t i v e heat transfer coefficient ac = 4 W/m 2 K. As in case 4, the radiant effect is t a k e n into a c c o u n t by setting the wall surface t e m p e r a t u r e to 25 C. T h e simulated flow p a t t e r n is illustrated in Fig. 7(a). As can b e seen, two main recirculation streams are formed: one is the c o o l e d d o w n w a r d s t r e a m along the r e a r wall f r o m the ceiling, which is subs e q u e n t l y e n t r a i n e d by the t h e r m a l plume; the o t h e r o n e is the ventilated air stream. T h e c o n s e q u e n t t e m p e r a t u r e distribution is r a t h e r u n i f o r m and the t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e s b e t w e e n 25 C and 25.5 C in the o c c u p i e d zone (Fig. 7(c)). The t e m p e r a t u r e stratification is small. T h e r e f o r e , the t e m p e r a t u r e distribution is ideal for t h e r m a l comfort. However, the t u r b u l e n t kinetic e n e r g y is r a t h e r high, ranging f r o m 0.1 10 -a to 2.1 10 -a J/kg in the o c c u p i e d zone (Fig. 7(b)). The PD due to d r a u g h t is slightly high along the r e a r wall (Fig. 7(d)). This m a y suggest t h a t the ceiling should b e lightly c o o l e d to avoid s t r o n g d o w n w a r d c o n v e c t i v e flows. Still, a high ventilation rate can be maintained, a n d the ventilation air carries away 60% of the internal heat. T h e r e is a fear that o p e n i n g the window while the ceiling is c o o l e d m a y lose energy. In the p r e s e n t simulation, this d o e s not o c c u r since t h e r e is always a t h e r m a l p l u m e in the r o o m . However, it c a n be s e e n that the t h e r m a l p l u m e is slightly c o o l e d b y the ceiling b e f o r e being d i s c h a r g e d (Fig. 7(c)). If the internal heat s o u r c e is l o c a t e d further

(b)

~--,

Z~Z

c,

(d)
~. 6. S ~ a t e d field ~butio~ of c~e 4. (a) gelociW vectors. ~) eonto~ of ~(I0 -a JNg). (e) Iso~e~ (~C). ( d ) Pereen~ge ~sa~fied ~eo~le (%) due to ~au~t.

73

,:.-::

away from the window, the discharged air would be further cooled. This cooling of the exhaust air is obviously a waste of energy.

|]
~.~

; :. :.
~
~ '

:
,

:
.
/

:
~

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~
~

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x
~

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: :,

~ Y x ~ ~

N~

~
'

,
~

l~

i.--~

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~'
~

.... ~ ~ " - " .

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~

/
I ~

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~I ,~

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, ~/
I

~
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~ ~

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.
~ _ ~ m/s.

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(a)

Case 6 Different from case 5, only the inner half of the ceiling is assumed to be cooled, with a cooling capacity of approximate 16 W/m e (37 W in total). With this small cooling, the temperatures (Fig. 8(c)) can still be m uch lower in comparison with case 3. The flow patterns, turbulent kinetic energy (Fig. 8(a) and (b)) are about the same as in case 5. The PD due to the draught from the ceiling is much r e d u c e d (Fig. 8(d)). The temperature stratification is small (Fig. 2). Most significant is that the cooling energy needed is much reduced, since nearly 75% of the internal heat is carried away by the ventilation air.

5. C o n c l u d i n g

remarks

Co)

(c)

llI l,
(d)
Pig. 7. Simulated field distributions of ease g. (a) VeloeiW

For the r o o m with a moderately high internal heat, the lower and u p p e r dual-window configuration can give a high ventilation rate due to the buoyancy effect alone. At m oderat e out door temperatures, the resulting t em perat ure distribution in the r o o m is good for thermal comfort. However, at relatively low o u t d o o r temperatures, the resulting vertical t e m p e r a t u r e difference can be too large for thermal comfort, though the average temperature within the r o o m is moderate. Therefore, the comfort requirem ent may limit the minimum temperatures at which free cooling by natural ventilation through the dual window openings can function well. When indoor cooling devices are combined with the dual window openings, it is shown that the positions of the cooling surfaces are important both for thermal comfort and for energy efficiency. A cooling radiator situated below the window tends to give a large vertical t e m p e r a t u r e difference in the occupied zone, which is not desirable for thermal comfort. When the ceiling is lightly cooled, the resulting temperature distribution in the whole r o o m becom es rather uniform. As far as energy efficiency is concerned, both o f the cooling systems can be fairly good as long as the o u t d o o r t e m p e r a t u r e is not too high.

6. F u r t h e r s t u d i e s

vectors. (b) Contours of k ( l O - a J / k g ) . ( e ) Isotherms (e). (d) Percentage dissatisfied people (%) due to draught.

The results of the preliminary two-dimensional simulation highlight the possibility of maximizing the b u o y a n c y effect by providing dual window openings. It m ay indicate that, even during windless

74
. . . . . :

~:
~::
~~ t~ 'f % ~

: :
,

;
. . .

: =;~ ; ;~1
. ~

~- /" ~ . ~ 7 I ~ N ~ ~[ ~ x ~

: . ~ ~

. ,,_..,g~,
:.._;
~ ~ _ /

'~~
~ 7
-.

days, a high ventilation rate can be achieved through such a window. Though it can be expected that wind will generally increase the natural ventilation rate, what influence wind will have on the ventilation through the dual window openings will be a point of further investigations.

:,~
: ,~
. ,

. . . . . . ~ . - ~
. : 0.20 m/s.

Nomenclature

~:: ~_~. :....~ ~ ~ ~ ~ .

O)

t k x :~

ach

Cp Cp~ CI~

C2, C3 gi H I k P PD Pi
(b)

Po

.5

6.5

Ui, 7Zj

V
l~i

Xi, X j

(c) A vl
vt

P ~ ~r~ ~

air exchange rate per hour in a ventilated room, defined as the ventilated airflow rate divided by the room volume (1/ hour) specific heat of air (J/kg) empirical constants in the k - e turbulence model gravitational acceleration components in ith direction (m/s e) enthalpy (J/kg) turbulent intensity (%) turbulent kinetic energy (J/kg) relative pressure of air (Pa) percentage dissatisfied people (%) relative pressure at the inlet opening (Pa) relative atmospheric pressure (Pa) t em perat ure of air (K) air t em perat ure (C) reference temperature (K) velocity com ponent s in ith and j t h directions (m/s) mean velocity of air (m/s) velocity at the inlet opening (m/s) Cartesian coordinates (m) thermal expansion coefficient of air 1/ K) dissipation rate of turbulence energy (W/ kg) thermal conductivity of air (W/m K) laminar viscosity of air (me/s) turbulent viscosity of airflow (me/s) density of the air (kg/m 3) turbulent Prandtl num ber turbulent Schmidt number of k turbulent Schmidt number of e

References
1 Air c o n t a m i n a n t s , A S H R A E H a n d b o o k -- 1985 F u n d a m e n t a l s , Ch. 11, p. 11.9. 2 G. W. B r u d r e t t , R e q u i r e m e n t s for ventilation, Proc. CIBS

(d) Fig. 8. S i m u l a t e d field d i s t r i b u t i o n s of c a s e 6. (a) Velocity v e c t o r s . (b) C o n t o u r s of k ( 1 0 -3 J/kg). (c) I s o t h e r m s (C). (d) P e r c e n t a g e dissatisfied p e o p l e (%) d u e to d r a u g h t .

S y m p o s i u m N a t u r a l V e n t i l a t i o n by Design, Londan, Dec. 1980, p. 1 - 7 .

75 3 P. Kofoed and P. V. Nielson, Thermal plumes in ventilated rooms -- An experimental research work, Proc. 3 r d S e m i n a r on A p p l i c a t i o n o f F l u i d M e c h a n i c s i n E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n 1988, Silesian Technical University, Gliwice, Poland. 4 E. Skaret and H. Mathisen, Ventilation efficiency, Proc. Int. S y m p o s i u m on I n d o o r Pollution, H e a l t h a n d E n e r g y Conservation, Massachusetts, MA, October 13-16, 1981. 5 M. Sandberg, Definition of ventilation efficiency and the efficiency of mechanical ventilation systeros, Proc. 3 r d AIC Conf. E n e r g y Efftcient D o m e s t i c V e n t i l a t i o n S y s t e m s f o r A c h i e v i n g A c c e p t a b l e I n d o o r A i r Quality, September 2 0 - 2 3 , 1982, UK, pp. 13.1-13.22. 6 Q. Chen, J. van der Kooi and A. Meyers, Measurements and computations of ventilation efficiency and temperature efficiency in a ventilated room, E n e r g y Build., 12 (1988) 85-99. 7 J. E. Holt, Problems in commercial and industrial ventilation, Proc. CIBS S y m p o s i u m N a t u r a l V e n t i l a t i a n by Design, Dec., 1980, London, pp. 35-44. 8 D. Etherridge, Domestic ventilation system design -- changes in the wind? W a t s o n House Bull., 46 (3) (1982) 12-16. 9 A. H. C. van Paassen, Passive solar energy in intelligent buildings, A S H R A E Trans., 94 (1) (1988) 1289-1297. 10 P. J. Lute and A. H. C. van Paassen, Integrated control system for low energy buildings, Proc. A S H R A E S y m p o s i u m B u i l d i n g O p e r a t i o n D y n a m i c s , Louis, Missouri, J u n e 9-13, 1990. 11 P. V. Nielson, Progress and trends in air infiltration and ventilation research, Proc. lOth A1VC Conf., Coventry, M r Infiltration and Ventilation Centre, Warwick, UK, 1989. 12 Q. Chen, C. A. Meyers and J. van der Kooi, Convective heat transfer in rooms with mixed convection, Proc. Int. S e m i n a r on A i r F l o w P a t t e r n s i n V e n t i l a t e d Spaces, Liege, The National Fund of Scientific Research in Belgium, pp. 69-82. 13 S. V. Patankar, Convection and diffusion, N u m e r i c a l Heat T r a n s f e r a n d F l u i d Flow, McGraw-Hill, 1980, Ch. 5. 14 A. Melikov, H. Hanzawa and P. 0. Fanger, Airflow characteristics in the occupied zone of heated spaces without mechanical ventilation, A S H R A E Trans., 94 (1988) 52-70. 15 H. Hanzawa, A. Melikov and P. 0. Fanger, Airflow characteristics in the occupied zone of ventilated spaces,ASHRAE Trans., 93 (1987) 524-539. 16 B. E. Launder and D. B. Spalding, The numerical computation of turbulent flow, Comp. M e t h o d s Appl. Mech. Eng., 3 (1974) 269-289. 17 J. Tsutsumi, Numerical simulation of thermal convection in a roo~n with natural ventilation caused by buoyancy, Proc. CIB W 5 7 S y m p o s i u m on E n e r g y M o i s t u r e a n d C l i m a t e i n B u i l d i n g s , R o t t e r d a m , Netherlavwls, Sept., 1900. 18 U. Renz and U. Terhaag, Predictions of air flow pattern in a room ventilated by an air jet -- the effect of turbulence model and wall function formulation, Proc. ROOMVENT'90, E~ujineering Aero- a n d T h e r m o d y n a m i c s o f V e n t i l a t e d Room: 2nd Int. Conf., Oslo, N o r w a y , J u n e 13-15, 1990. 19 D. J. Tritton, Convection, P h y s i c a l F l u i d D y n a m i c s , Clarendon, Oxford, 1988, 2nd edn., Ch. 14, pp. 163-165. 20 H. I. Rosten and D. B. Spalding, The P H O E N I C S R e f e r e n c e M a n u a l , CHAM TR/200, Oct., 1987, Ch. 6, pp. 6.91-6.92. 21 S. V. Patankar, Recent developments in computational heat transfer, Trans. A S M E -- J. H e a t Transfer, 110 (1988) 1037-1045. 22 H. I. Rosten and D. B. Spalding, How PHOENICS operates, The P h o e n i c s B e g i n n e r ' s Guide, CHAM TR/100, Oct., 1987, Ch. 2, pp. 2.10-2.15. 23 B. W. Jones, K. Hsieh and M. Hashinaga, The effect of air velocity on the thermal comfort at moderate activity levels, A S t t R A E Trans., 92 (Part 2B) (1986) 761-769. 24 P. O. Fanger and N. Christensen, Perception of draught in ventilated spaces, E r g o n a m i c s , 29 (2) (1986) 215-235. 25 D. A. McIntyre, The effect of air movement on thermal comfort and sensation, in P. O. Fanger and O. Valbjorn (eds.), I n d o o r Climate, Danish Building Research Institute, Copenhagen, 1979, pp. 5 4 1 - 5 6 0 . 26 P. O. Fanger, A. Melikov, H. Hanzawa and J. Ring, Air turbulence and sensation of draught, E n e r g y Build., 12 (1988) 21-39. 27 Physiological principles, comfort, and health, ASHRAE H a n d b o o k -- 1989 F u n d a m e n t a l s , Ch. 8, pp. 8.20-8.22. 28 B. W. Olesen, M. Scholer and P. O. Fanger, Vertical air temperature differences and condort, in P. 0. Fanger and O. Valbjorn (eds.), I n d o o r Climate, Danish Building Research Institute, Copenhagen, 1979, pp. 561-579. 29 I n t e r n a t i o n a l S t a n d a r d ISO 7730, M o d e r a t e t h e r m a l env i r o n m e n t s -- D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the P M V a n d PPD i n d i c e s a n d S p e c i f i c a t i o n o f the c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e r m a l comfort, Ref. No. 7730-1984(E), August, 1984, p. 5. 30 Radiant heating and cooling, A S H R A E H a n d b o o k -- 1991 H V A C A p p l i c a t i o n s , SI edition, Ch. 48, pp. 48.4-48.5.