I.

(i) Gurukul System is the age-old system adopted in ancient Indian, where the student resides with the teacher , doing service and simultaneously gaining knowledge. The Guru (teacher), was a guide, father and role-model. The Gurukul system was followed in India. This system of education has existed from the Vedic-Age. In olden days, the Gurukuls were supported by public donation. All Gurukuls follow a systematic way of teaching as designed and developed by Gurukul central committee. Detailed attention is paid to every aspect of Gurukuls, starting from the construction of the building to the operation of the school. While maintaining the academic standards and due importance to extracurricular activities, the Gurukuls stands out from the crowd because of its emphasis on other aspects of life. The student is prepared for real life. Gurukuls follows exercise that includes Pranayam, Yogasan and Meditation. This coupled with activities to promote team spirit and self reliance makes sure that students become an asset for the country. A child can become what he wants and his wants are developed from the environment he lives in. The origin of the history of education in India can be traced to the Vedic Age, the age in which the sacred scriptures such as Rgveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda, Atharvaveda,

Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanisads revealed the highest knowledge to mankind through our ancient rsis. Our rsis who imparted the knowledge to seekers, evolved methods by which this knowledge could be acquired, conserved and transmitted to the posterity. And from these methods was evolved a system of education. As S. C. Ghosh observes: The highly developed state of civilization among the people of the Indus Valley presupposes existence among them a system of education(Suresh Chandra Ghosh, The History of Education in Ancient India 3000 BC to AD 1192, New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 2001, p.1)

This ancient system of education was aimed at moulding the young pupils into individuals capable of living a perfect and full life based on the principles of Dharma. As Chidambara Kulkarni has briefly put it, The ancient Indian system of education was a comprehensive scheme of perfecting the individual personality in all its facets physical, moral, intellectual, religious and spiritual(Vedic Foundations of Indian Culture, Bombay: Shri Dvaipayana Trust, 1973, p.107). Knowledge in this system is not confined to the intellect, it is actual realisation and it must reveal itself through thought, word and deed. Brhadaranyaka Upanisadprescribes three steps of learning sravana, manana, and nididhyasana:

Atma va are drastavyah srotavyo mantavyo nididhyasitavyo maitreyi atmano va are darsanena sravanena matya vijnanenedam sarvam viditam. (II 4.5)

O Mythreyi, it is the Self that should be seen, heard of, reflected on, and meditated upon. Verily by the seeing of, by the hearing of, by the thinking of, by the understanding of the Self, all this is known.

The following verse too pertains the means for acquiring knowledge:

Tameva dhiro vijnaya prajnam kurvita brahmanah.

Nanudhyayadbhahunchabdan, vaco viglapanam hi tat iti.

(Brhadaranyaka Upanisad, IV. 4. 21.)

Let a wise Brahmana after knowing him alone practise (the means to) wisdom. Let him not reflect on many words, for that is mere weariness of speech.

Thus the Vedic education aims at perfection and freedom. And this is the import of the well-known sruti Sa vidya ya vimuktaye (That is real education which liberates).

Our ancient sages also envisaged the need for ecological balance for the welfare of human beings as well as the inanimate things. A life based on Dharma is aimed at by Vedic education. Dharma is described as a set of values that sustains the creation without which very existence of it would be threatened.

Subject of study:

Brahmanas and Upanisads mention a wide range of subjects that were taught in the Vedic period. Hymns of the four Vedas were given the prime importance. Other important subjects were Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanisads, Vedangas, the six systems of philosophy Nyaya, Vaisesika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta. V. M. Apte in his brief account of education in the Vedic age, observes:

With the development and elaboration of the institution of the sacrifice and the growth of a vast literature connected with it, the problem of the preservation of this literature became very acute, particularly because during the age under discussion the whole of it (the Samhitas and Brahmanas, including the Aranyakas and Upanisads appended to them) was looked upon as Sruti or revealed literature. The Vedic literature must therefore have formed the chief subject of instruction and the vital part of education.

(Social and Economic Conditions The Age of the Later Samhitas, The History and Culture of the Indian People: Vol. I The Vedic Age, ed. R. C. Majumdar et.al., Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1971, pp. 458-459)

But the main emphasis was on Atmavidya because once it is mastered, all other subjects can be mastered easily. The Vedic system of education imparted knowledge at two levels or stages one about the world of senses science, humanities, arts and crafts of the times; and two, about Brahman the eternal pure consciousness which is the higher stage of education called para-vidya. Education was considered complete only when both the stages were completed. The higher knowledge teaches that one universal soul permeates all beings and that the individual soul is a part of this universal soul, and hence the individual and the society are not separate entities but one whole. Subsidiary subjects such as Siksa, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chanda, and Jyotisa were also taught as they are aids to the study of the Vedas Vedangas. Other subjects developed in the Vedic age were Philosophy, Yoga, Physiology, Arithmetic, Geometry, Algebra, Astrology, Astronomy and Music, because these had significance in the life of the age.

The Teacher

The teacher or acarya in the Vedic age was responsible not only in imparting knowledge religious as well as secular, but also in moulding the character and personality of the pupils of his asrama. The acarya of the gurukula system was an affectionate father, an effective teacher, and a person of high moral and spiritual qualities. He maintained discipline by the influence of his personality. He was sincere and honest to his work. He taught with his heart and soul. He also performed the functions of a householder performing the five daily yajnas and observing vows. He led a disciplined life.

The Student

The student in the Vedic school was called brahmacarin. He had to dedicate his life for the sake of gaining knowledge, leading an enlightened life. In his formative life he must lead an austere and disciplined life. He had to strictly abide by the rules of conduct and behaviour stipulated by the rsis. The Upanisads clearly describe the qualities required for a brahmacarin. A student had to be calm, patient, self-restrained and self-denying. The students prayer included his longing for the realization of a full life. Sayana prescribes four processes sauca (purity), santosa (contentment), tapas (penance) and

swadhyaya (self-study) for the realization of a students aims. In the gurukula system the teacher always instructed the pupils to speak the truth, and practice virtue.

As for the methods of teaching, recitation, dialogue and self-study were the three stages. The pupils were taught to consider pursuit of knowledge as the highest yajna in their life.

Thus the main aim of the Vedic educational system was to produce a rational individual, free from passions, full of universal affection, continuously self-educating and striving to reach the highest goal. His rationalism, his attitude of universal love, his entire personality had their roots in experience. His learning must reveal itself through his thought, word and deed. He must cheerfully fulfil his obligations to his family, caste, village and country. He must be emotionally alert to sacrifice his good for the good of all.

(Chitambara Kulkarni, Vedic Foundations of Indian Culture, p.119)

Conclusion:

Vedic age had, thus, a system of education in which hearing, chanting and memorizing, played a great part, assimilation of idea took place through a well- planned life of service to teacher, contemplation, all under his guidance. Thus the educated ones in that system were men who had not only knowledge but also character. (Swami Gauthamananda, Values in Our Education, Values: The Key to a Meaningful Life, Madras: Sri Ramakrishna Math, 1996, p.84). Education was not mere scholarship but a tapas pursued through Yoga. As Kulkarni points out: the ancient Indian system aimed at providing the student, in addition to a high degree of intellectual training, with the spiritual and ethical strength so that he would grow to be a full man (Vedic Foundations of Indian Culture, p.114). And the system succeeded in producing men whose sole concern in life was to spread universal happiness and harmony.

LORD RAMA & KRISHNA LORD RAMA In the last class, the Ramayana story was told till the birth of Rama and his three brothers, Bharata, Laxmana and Shatrughna. King Dasharatha was blessed with four handsome sons after successfully finishing the Putrakameshti yagna. The people of Ayodhya were very happy and celebrations were held throughout the Kosala Kingdom. In due course, the princes grew into young boys. All the princes had deep care for each other. However, Laxmana was very close to Rama, and Rama was also close to Laxmana. Similarly, Bharata and Satrughna were very close to one another and practically always together. Their father, the King Dasharatha requested the royal priest, Sage Vasistha to perform the princes thread ceremony. After that, their formal education started. In those days each king had to educate his princes in all aspects (spiritually and mentally) and had to train them in warfare too. First of all, they were imparted training in shooting arrows. They became expert archers. As the princes grew up further, all the four young princes were sent to Vasishta Maharishis gurukula for schooling. Vasishta Maharishi was the Kulaguru (family teacher) of Raghava Dynasty. A guru is one who is regarded as having great knowledge, and wisdom, and who uses it to lead others (teacher). Gurukula means the place of the teacher. Literally, guru means teacher, and kula means family. So gurukula means the place where the student comes to be a part of the family of the guru for some time - and learn the culture of the Indian Vedic Sciences, as well as true knowledge. Sage Vasishta was created by Lord Brahma, the creator. He was a man of peace. He had conquered desire and anger. He was married Arundhati. Sage Vasishta had his gurukula on the banks of the river Saraswati. He had with him thousand of disciples and taught them the Vedas. Arundhati who is the Gurumatha manage the gurukula and treated all the students as her children. The gurukula was a very peaceful place. The plants and trees were full of flowers and fruits. Different kinds of birds sang and flew about in the gurukula. There was regular performance of several holy sacrifices (yagna) for the good of the world. Several hundreds of visitors used to come to the gurukula to meet Sage Vasishta. The gurukula needed great quantities of milk, curds and ghee for the feeding of thousands of disciples, guests and performance of sacrifices regularly. Deva Indra had gifted to Sage Vasishta a divine cow, having admired his generosity and performance of sacrifices. The cow was called Nandini. Since it was a divine cow it had extra ordinary powers. The gurukula got plenty of milk and ghee from this cow. Everyone in and around the gurukula felt that they were living under the care of their own parents and this was made possible by the power of Sage Vasishta's tapas, Arundhati's love and Nandhinis bounty.

The princes were soon told that they were going to the gurukula. They dress themselves in simple clothing and shaved their hair before they left. Under Vasisthas able leadership, all four became masters of the Vedas, horse riding, chariot driving, hunting, and the use of weapons. They had also have been instilled with all good qualities. The skills acquired by the four princes were not used to hurt others, but to guard the world. They always strived to give all beings peace and happiness. The education of the princes having been complete, Sage Vasishta sent message to king Dashratha. I have taught you all I could. You must transform all my teachings into your day-to-day life. You shall be able to prove yourself to be good men. You will be successful leaders also, he said to Rama, Bharata, Laxmana and Shatrughna. The princes lay straight at their teachers feet to pay their respects to him and then they stood up and sai d with folded hands, We the sons of King Dashratha shall never forget your teachings. We beg you to bless us. We have learnt wisdom from you that nobody else could have given us. Sage Vasishtha was indeed very pleased to hear what the princes had said. He remarked, My sons! Go back to Ayodhya and serve your parents as best as you can to earn their blessings. My good wishes shall always be with you.

LORD KRISHNA In Srimad Bhagavatam there is a verse which extols this relationship: Guror anugrahenaiva puman purnaha prashantayae. Sudama and Krishna met each other at Sage Sandeepanis gurukulam and became thick friends. In later years, Lord Krishna became the king of Dwaraka while Sudama was steeped in poverty. Yet both of them enjoyed constant peace of mind and tranquility. Lord Krishna tells Sudama, in the above sloka, that it is verily due to the benediction of their Guru Sandeepani, that despite their outer circumstances, both of them continue to enjoy that invaluable peace of mind. In the same context, while speaking of their gurus greatness, Krishna tells Sudama that it was only because of their gurus blessings that he remembered whatever he had learned at the right time when he needed it. The most important and key element of the gurukulam system is the opportunity for guru seva, for there is nothing that a gurus grace cannot bestow. To understand how the gurukula system changes and improves the nature of its students, it is necessary to understand the conception of human nature the gurukula system is based on. This conception is found in the skhya system of philosophy. According to the skhyamodel, a particular combination of the

three modes of material nature (the guas) determines ones psychological nature. The three modes are goodness, passion, and ignorance (sattva, rajas, tamas), and all three are always present in various proportions in all embodied living beings. Usually, one of the modes of nature is dominant, and the dominant mode will significantly color ones psychological predisposition. And this psychological predisposition will usually determine ones place in society as an intellectual, an administrator, a producer, or a worker (bramhana, kshatriya, vaishya, or shudra). All societies everywhere have these classes. Despite psychological predisposition, the modes of nature in any one person are subject to change. As explained by Lord Krishna in theGita, the modes of nature one possesses change through association: purua prakti-stho hi bhukte prakti-jn gun, kraa gua-sago sya sad-asad-yonijanmasu, The living entity in material nature thus follows the ways of life, enjoying the three modes of nature. This is due to his association with that material nature. Thus he meets with good and evil among various species (Bhagavad-gt 13.22). The important words here are kraam gua-saga, that association with the modes of nature causes ones psychological predisposition. This explains why our petty shoplifters and greedy business leaders simply cannot help themselves. Asat-saga, bad association, predisposes them to immoral habits of thought and action. Classroom instruction in ethics alone cannot help them. The remedy for asat-saga is sat-saga, or good association. Earlier in the Gita, Lord Krishna introduces this truth by saying, sagt sajyate kmafrom association develops desire (2.62). This is where the concept of satsang comes from. The gurukula system takes advantage of this principle by making mandatory the residence of students at the acharyas ashram. Because the acharya is a brahmana and therefore in the mode of goodness, or sattva-gua, his close assocition will improve the students own nature. According to the Gita (18.42), the qualities of a brahmana are peacefulness, self-control, austerity, purity, tolerance, honesty, knowledge, wisdom and religiousness. Other members of society should adopt these qualities as far as possible. Politicians and military leaders should be wise and self-controlled. Business leaders should be fair and equitable in their business dealings. And workers should be honest, dilligent, and not given to stealing. Through the principle of satsang, the gurukulasystem systematically develops moral behavior to the highest degree possible throughout all sections of society. II. UNIVERSITIES IN THE GUPTA PERIOD (i) Nalanda was an ancient Indian university. It was one of the famous universities of the world. It was the first Indian residential university.

Nalanda University was located at Bihar. It was about 88 kilometers away from Patna.

Nalanda University was established during the Gupta Dynasty. It remained as a best university for a long time until Bakhtiyar Khilji destroyed it.

The information about Nalanda University is known to us because of Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang (Hiuen-Tsang). He visited the university and left much information about the university in his writing.

About 10,000 students and 2000 teachers were there in the university. Students were come from all over the world (Korea, Japan, China, Tibet, Indonesia, and Persia). The admission process of the university was very strict. Students have to go through different tests to prove their ability.

The university covered a large area about 14 hectares. University had 10 temples, many classrooms and meditation centers and a big library. Many people even today get astonished by the architecture of the building.

Library of the Nalanda University was divided into three buildings- Ratnasagara, Ratnadadhi and Ratnaranjaka. Among this building, Ratnasagara was nine storeyed building. The library did not only contain religious manuscripts but it had a large collection of books on literature, astrology, astronomy, and medicine. Vastness of the library can be understand from the fact that it took three months to burn down when invaders set fire to it.

The Nalanda University had a great influence of Buddhism. Many Buddhist taught at Nalanda. It is believed that Buddha was stayed at the university many times.

It is reported that India with other countries planning to revive the university and A P J Abdul Kalam is helping in that.

It is a historical fact that the first university in the world was established sometime in the 7th century B.C. at Taxila (then in India and now in Pakistan). The original name of the place was Takshashila which means carved stone. Taxila is its corrupted version followed by the second university founded in Nalanda in India in the 5th century B.C. However, when questioned Which is the oldest University in the world, most people turn towards Bologna initiated in 1088, to Paris founded in 1091, and name the other ancient citadels of learning as Oxford University founded in 1167 and Cambridge University in 1209. Where does Nalanda fit into this picture? Nowhere is the short answer if we are looking for an university in continuous existence. Taxilas glory ended with its total destruction by the Huns after functioning as a great educational centre for more than ten centuries. It taught some of the most illustrious students like Chanakya, well-known Sanskrit grammarian Panini and Patanjali, the great Yoga exponent. Nalanda was violently destroyed in an Afghan attack in 1193, shortly after the beginning of the Oxford University and shortly before the initiation of the Cambridge University. Had Nalanda not been destroyed and had it managed to survive to our time, it would be, by a long margin, the oldest university in the world. Between Taxila and Nalanda, Nalanda which came into existence subsequently still possesses the

hearts and minds of Indians whenever education is thought or discussed. Founded by Buddhist monks about 2,500 years ago, Nalanda was an extraordinary centre of excellence for learning and remained so for nearly 700 years between the 6th century and the 13th century A.D. The word Nalanda in Sanskrit is a combination of three words Na+ Alam+ Daa which means no stopping of the gift of knowledge. In other words, it meant that the spreading of knowledge should be eternal. This is exactly what the Nalanda University did for 700 years, attracting prize students from even such far off places like China, Indonesia, Korea, Persia, Japan, Sri Lanka, Tibet and Turkey. At its peak Nalanda played host to nearly 10,000 studentsnot just Buddhists but of various religious beliefs. In its heyday Nalanda had on its role nearly 2,000 world renowned teachers in its faculty. The education was completely free. That is why even while naming the place as Nalanda, the word Daa was used which is a shortened form for Daana which means gift. Nalandas aim was to create the most intellectually and spiritually mature individuals who would become qualified to contribute to every aspect of society for its overall being. Unfortunately, there is no systematic historical account from which we could glean the different stages of its growth. Even to this date, archaeological research has been unable to fully explain how the different aspects of Indian culture were accommodated, assimilated and disseminated from one generation to the other through several centuries. However, for information about Nalanda now available, we ought to be primarily indebted to the Chinese pilgrims Fa-Hien (5th Century A.D.), Hiuen Tsang (7th century A.D.) and I-Tsing (7th Century A.D.). Their recordings give us an inestimable character of Nalanda during its glorious epoch. According to Dr.Ravindra Pant who heads the Nava Nalanda Mahavihara today and who was interviewed by The Hindu sometime in December 2007 Today we know only 10% of Nalanda. We have to find the remaining 90% of the campus. We have to properly map it to rebuild. Right now these mounds are like a jigsaw puzzle. Fa-Hien, was a sincere seeker of knowledge who toured India from 673 A.D. to 687 A.D. and is our foremost recorder since he studied at Nalanda as a student and subsequently worked as a teacher in the University and spent about 6 years there. When he returned to China, he carried several copied texts with him. It is learnt that he took back with him 657 volumes of sacred texts and spent the last years of his life translating and interpreting them. Even today he is highly respected as a great scholar in China and all his works and writings are carefully preserved by the Chinese Government. According to the present Director of Nalanda Campus, China has now agreed to present the resurrected Nalanda University, Hiuen Tsangs Chinese translations and some original volumes that he had taken with him.

Layout The Nalanda University was built in 5th century BC and is recorded as the earliest university of world. It is spread over an area of 14 hectares and has been built with red bricks in the Kushana architectural style. The favourite disciple of Lord Buddha namely Sariputra died preaching at this very place. In 3rd century BC, Ashoka built a grand stupa in honour of Sariputra. The infrastructure of Nalanda University has 3 to 6 storeys along with a college of fine arts endowed by the Gupta Emperor, Kumaragupta, a library comprising of a huge collection of over nine million volumes and 300 apartments. Rows of monasteries, hostels and classrooms form a large part of the structure of this university providing a strong impact of the Pala dynasty. It has a total of one thousand teachers and ten thousand students in its portals. Certain remains have also been excavated from the ruins of this university, which includes a stairway, decorated panels, stupas, dormitories of monks and students, lecture halls etc. The most significant monuments found from here are the monasteries and chaityas. Remains of a temple depicting household scenes, dancers and floral designs are also seen at the site of this university. There is also a small chapel in the place, which has a half broken statue of Lord Buddha. The central walk of this university passes through a complex and it has monasteries on its eastern side while temples on its west. SUBJECTS TAUGHT The courses of study offered by Nalanda University covered a wide range of subjects, almost the entire circle of knowledge then available. They were drawn from different fields of learning, Brahmanical and Buddhist, sacred and secular, philosophical and practical, science and arts etc. However, great emphasis at Nalanda was given to Mahayana learning (the Great Vehicle), along with the study of 18 sects, the Vedas and other books, the Hetuvidya, Sabdavidya, the Chikitsavidya, the words on Magic or Atharvaveda, the Samkhya, and the Sanskrit Grammar etc. After the study was over, the award ceremony was solemnized and degrees were awarded to students, taking into account their merit and social status.

Nalandas site was possibly 35 acres or 10 sq.miles, according to archaeologist Sir Alexander Cunningham who first identified the ruins at Bargaon in 1861-62. His location of Nalanda corresponds exactly with the ancient Pali texts, Jain literature and Hiuen-Tsangs description. Its vast population of around 15,000 lived in seven monasteries and eight great halls, with their upper rooms towering above the clouds like pointed hilltops, according to Hiuen Tsang. As Nalanda was founded by Buddhist monks it was started with the basic purpose of making it a fit place for meditation. At the instance of Lord Buddha various education centers were erected in the premises so as to provide the monks with a congenial and conducive environment for meditation. From such

conceptual and humble beginnings where the monks spent their earthly existence meditating in the safety of the Viharas, emerged the patent nuclei of the later Buddhist University destined to play its glorious role in the intellectual and spiritual life of India. In course of time, Nalanda expanded the scope from purely being a monastic university to one that included non-monastic students. In addition, the University introduced the study of non-secular subjects and threw open its doors to all philosophical studies and several schools of thought and belief. The admission was open to all seekers of knowledge, irrespective of sect, religion and belief. The rise of the Gupta dynasty in the 4th century A.D. brought royal patronage to Nalanda and heralded the Golden Age of Indian History and Culture. Besides royal patronage, the University was also patronised by several of its enlightened citizens who contributed, both in cash and kind, towards the development and growth of the University. According to Hsuan-Tsang Two hundred villages in and around Nalanda University contributed freely the requirements of ghee, butter, milk and such other daily provisions to the entire population of the University Admission to Nalanda was strictly based on merit and the aptitude of the student. The minimum age of admission was 20 years and the admission was based on a test and oral interview. According to the Chinese pilgrims only 2 or 3 could get selected out of 10 candidates who applied for admission. Before the final admission, every eligible student had to appear before the Chief Examiner called Dwara Pandita (Guardian of the Entrance Gate) and satisfy him. In spite of t his hard and rigid test, at its heyday Nalanda had on its role nearly 10,000 students from all over the world. The teacher student ratio was 1:5. Even ladies were admitted and they stayed in separate accommodation.. According to both Hsuan-Tsang and I-Tsing, even though there were several men and women in the University and belonging to different nations, there was not even a single case of misbehaviour or breach of rules and regulations. This shows the high moral fibre of the students who studied at Nalanda. The curriculum for study included both sacred and secular learning (Para and Apara Vidyas as they are known in Sanskrit).Study of Sanskrit grammar was compulsory. In addition, there were five more compulsory subjects which included: 1.Shabda Vidya (Science of sounds and words; otherwise called Grammar and Lexicography); 2.Shilpasthana Vidya (Arts and Crafts); 3. Chikitsa Vidya (Science of Medicine); 4. Hetu Vidya (Logic), and 5. Adhyatma Vidya (Philosophy). According to I-Tsing, there was an additional compulsory subject namely spinning and weaving since the students felt bored without the use of some handicraft. Hence, they were given access to looms and had to weave their own cloth. Besides, other trades like carpet-weaving, painting, sculpture were also taught. The unparalleled distinction of Nalanda lies in the realisation of its custodians and teachers that the ideal education is a happy and harmonious blend of philosophy and religion. The pervasive notion at Nalanda

was that education was not merely the conveyance of information but the transmission of spiritual, moral, intellectual and aesthetic values combined with the opportunity for full physical development. This notion and the inspiring example set by the holy sages who were their teachers-monks gave the students at Nalanda an ideal, morally oriented and well-rounded education, enabling them to adopt and live the life of a world citizen under the concept Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam (The whole world is one family.) In keeping with the Rig Vedic Mantra Aa no bhadrah kratavo yantu vishwatah which means Let noble thoughts come to us from all directions, (incidentally the motto of Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan), Nalanda welcomed seekers of knowledge from all parts of the world, exhibiting its passion for propagating knowledge and learn in exchange. The Chinese students Xuangzang as also another Chinese student Yi Jing have mentioned in their memoirs what a warm welcome they received when they went to Nalanda. After he finished his studies, when Xuangzang was asked to stay back in Nalanda and join the faculty, he asked who would wish to enjoy all this knowledge alone and to forget those who are not yet enlightened?

Nalanda contributed to Indian thought and culture all through its existence.. By about the 12th century A.D. when there was political instability in the country after the end of the Gupta and Harsha dynasties, Nalandas slow decline started, particularly with the deprivation of royal patronage. Invaders from Turkey, taking advantage of Indias weak political fibre, destroyed many of Nalandas monasteries, burnt most of the libraries and all the books they contained. One of the Chinese pilgrims has written that the soldiers used the books and manuscripts of the library as cooking fuel for six months. With the advent of the Muslim force, some monks fled abroad while some were slaughtered. The Persian historian Minhaz has corroborated in 1243 A.D. his account as an eye witness, to the slaughter of the monks and the burning of the libraries. Nalanda is not completely lost to posterity. Though its libraries and the manuscripts were destroyed, the Chinese and Tibetan translations remain. Plans are afoot to resurrect the ancient University and make it a world-class institution, under an Indo-Chinese Friendship Project. The Archeological Survey of India has already begun excavations to unearth the campus. The first President of Indian Republic, Dr. Rajendra Prasad laid the foundation stone of the Nava Nalanda Mahavihara on 20th November 1951 which was formally inaugurated by the then Vice-President Dr. S. Radhakrishnan on 20th March 1956. This institution is founded on a site close to the ancient Nalanda, about 100 km from Bodhgaya and Pataliputra. For the past six decades, this institution is sparing no efforts to re-establish the glory of Nalanda. It is no wonder that the world famous Hibbert Journal from London which is a Quarterly Journal on religion, Theology and Philosophy, published from 1902, wrote in one of its issues regarding Nalanda

under the title An Experiment in Liberty of Teaching Some day perhaps the great Universities of the West may deem these voices of the dim and distant past from India yet worth attention. They are more than curiosities of literature. They are the witness of the East to the abiding principles that the first condition of the quest of Truth is Liberty. (ii) The Chola Dynasty was a Tamil dynasty, flourished in South India. It was one amongst the most potent and historically important ancient dynasties ever flourished in the parts of southern India and was comparable to theChalukyas, the Pandyas and the Pallavas. In some areas it has also been the longest ruling empire. The Chola Dynasty primarily flourished between the timeframe of latter half of the ninth century and the beginning of the thirteenth century. During this timeframe, for about two centuries, the Chola rulers were able to unite the entire country south of Tungabhadra and rule these lands as a single state. Under the reign of Rajaraja Chola-I and his immediate successor and son Rajendra Chola-I, the dynasty became supreme in terms of economy, military and culture, not only in India but in the whole of South and South-east Asia. At its peak, the Chola Empire was not even confined to the maritime boundaries of India. Between 1010 and 1200 AD, the Chola Empire stretched from the bank of river Godavari in the north to the islands of Maldives in the south. Rajaraja Chola successfully conquered the whole of peninsular South India, islands of Maldives and some parts of Sri Lanka while his son and immediate successor, Rajendra Chola, was able to expand the boundaries of the Chola Empire to the northern parts of India. Rajendra Chola stretched the empires territory till river Ganga in the north, by defeating the Pala ruler of Pataliputra, Mahipala. He is also known to have invaded the kingdoms of the Malay Archipelago. However, synchronous to the rise in the power of the Pandyas the power of the later Chola rulersdeclined and in the beginning of the thirteenth century, this great Tamil dynasty gradually came to an end. The contribution of the Chola Dynasty to Tamil literature and architecture has left a lasting legacy. The Cholas were great builders and constructed temples throughout their empire. In their regime, temples were not merely a place of worship but also served as the centers for economic activities. During their rule, the empire made a remarkable progress in almost every sphere including the culture, economy and polity.

The Great Chola Temples of southern India are an exceptional testimony to the development of the architecture and the ideology of the Chola Empire and the Tamil civilization in southern India. They

represent an outstanding creative achievement in the architectural conception of the pure form of the Dravida type of temple (characterized by a pyramidal tower). The Cholas were the second great historic dynasty of the Tamil Nadu, the Tamil country, which was the home of the ancient Dravidian culture whose influence was so considerable in the whole of south-east Asia. The great temple of Tanjore was built in a few years, from 1003 to 1010, during the reign of the great king Rajaraja (985-1014), true founder of the Chola Empire which spread throughout the whole of southern India, part of Ceylon and the Maldive and Laccadive archipelagos. Richly endowed by the sovereign, the sanctuary, which also bears his name - it is sometimes called Rajarajesvaram - had a permanent staff of several hundred priests, 400 devadasi (sacred dancers), and 57 musicians, according to inscriptions and chronicles. The Brihadisvara's income in gold, silver and precious stones during the Chola period has been precisely evaluated. These vast resources were efficiently managed and provided not only for the upkeep and improvement of the buildings (which was continued until the 17th century) but also for real investments to be made. The temple lent money, at rates which could sometimes reach 30%, to shipowners, village assemblies and craft guilds. Dedicated to Shiva, the Brihadisvara stands to the south-west of the historic city. A first rectangular surrounding wall, 270 m by 140 m, marks the outer boundary.

The quality of the inscriptions of the regime indicates a high level of literacy and education in the society. The text in these inscriptions was written by court poets and engraved by talented artisans. Education in the contemporary sense was not considered important; there is circumstantial evidence to suggest that some village councils organised schools to teach the basics of reading and writing to children,[118] although there is no evidence of systematic educational system for the masses.[119] Vocational education was through hereditary training in which the father passed on his skills to his sons. Tamil was the medium of education for the masses; Religious monasteries (matha or gatika) were centres of learning and received government support.