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English Test 96

Directions for Questions from 1 to 3:

The passage given below is followed by a set of questions. Choose the best answer to each question.

Passage

As Popper represents it, the central problem in the philosophy of science is that of demarcation, i.e., of distinguishing between science and what he
terms ‘non-science’, under which heading he ranks, amongst others, logic, metaphysics, psychoanalysis, and Adler’s individual psychology. Popper is
unusual amongst contemporary philosophers in that he accepts the validity of the Humean critique of induction, and indeed, goes beyond it in
arguing that induction is never actually used by the scientist. However, he does not concede that this entails the scepticism which is associated
with Hume, and argues that the Baconian/Newtonian insistence on the primacy of ‘pure’ observation, as the initial step in the formation of theories,
is completely misguided: all observation is selective and theory-laden — there are no pure or theory-free observations. In this way he destabilises
the traditional view that science can be distinguished from non-science on the basis of its inductive methodology.

Popper, then, repudiates induction, and rejects the view that it is the characteristic method of scientific investigation and inference, and substitutes
falsifiability in its place. It is easy, he argues, to obtain evidence in favour of virtually any theory, and he consequently holds that such
‘corroboration’, as he terms it, should count scientifically only if it is the positive result of a genuinely ‘risky’ prediction, which might conceivably have
been false. For Popper, a theory is scientific only if it is refutable by a conceivable event. Every genuine test of a scientific theory, then, is logically an
attempt to refute or to falsify it, and one genuine counterinstance falsifies the whole theory. In a critical sense, Popper’s theory of demarcation is
based upon his perception of the logical asymmetry which holds between verification and falsification: it is logically impossible to conclusively verify a
universal proposition by reference to experience, but a single counter-instance conclusively falsifies the corresponding universal law. In a word, an
exception, far from ‘proving’ a rule, conclusively refutes it.

Every genuine scientific theory then, in Popper’s view, is prohibitive, in the sense that it forbids, by implication, particular events or occurrences. As
such it can be tested and falsified, but never logically verified. Thus Popper stresses that it should not be inferred from the fact that a theory has
withstood the most rigorous testing, for however long a period of time, that it has been verified; rather we should recognise that such a theory has
received a high measure of corroboration. and may be provisionally retained as the best available theory until it is finally falsified (if indeed it is ever
falsified), and/or is superseded by a better theory.

Thus, while advocating falsifiability as the criterion of demarcation for science, Popper explicitly allows for the fact that in practice a single conflicting
or counter-instance is never sufficient methodologically to falsify a theory, and that scientific theories are often retained even though much of the
available evidence conflicts with them, or is anomalous with respect to them. Scientific theories may, and do, arise genetically in many different
ways, and the manner in which a particular scientist comes to formulate a particular theory may be of biographical interest, but it is of no
consequence as far as the philosophy of science is concerned. Popper stresses in particular that there is no unique way, no single method such as
induction, which functions as the route to scientific theory, a view which Einstein personally endorsed with his affirmation that ‘There is no logical
path leading to [the highly universal laws of science]. They can only be reached by intuition, based upon something like an intellectual love of the
objects of experience’. Science, in Popper’s view, starts with problems rather than with observations — it is, indeed, precisely in the context of
grappling with a problem that the scientist makes observations in the first instance: his observations are selectively designed to test the extent to
which a given theory functions as a satisfactory solution to a given problem.

1. The author of the passage is most likely to agree with which of the following?
(1) The theory of falsifiability could be applied to statements such as ‘murder is evil’ when the maker
of the statement is seen to indulge in an act of murder
(2) Science starts from observations and leads to theories and problems
(3) Practical falsification may not be enough to discard a theory which is otherwise viewed as sound
(4) No scientific theory can be a good theory because all scientific theories are inherently prohibitive
(5) While the method of falsification is logically asymmetrical , the same is not true of the method of
induction

j The theory of falsifiability could be applied to statements such as ‘murder is evil’ when the maker of the statement is seen to indulge in an act
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of murder
j Science starts from observations and leads to theories and problems
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j Practical falsification may not be enough to discard a theory which is otherwise viewed as sound
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j No scientific theory can be a good theory because all scientific theories are inherently prohibitive
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j While the method of falsification is logically asymmetrical , the same is not true of the method of induction
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2. The idea of ‘falsification’ as used in the passage would apply to which of the following statement(s)?
(1) The ability to conclude whether ‘all ferrous metals are attracted by a magnetic field’ from the
observation of a single ferrous metal that is not attracted by a magnetic field
(2) The ability to conclude whether ‘at least one swan is black’ from observing only grey swans in
repeated testing
(3) The ability to disprove the theory of evolution from the observation of a single fossil rabbit dating
from the era of the dinosaurs
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j 1 and 2
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j 2 and 3
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j 1 and 3
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j 1, 2 and 3
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3. What is the primary purpose of the author of the passage?

(1) To illustrate different ways of demarcating between science and non-science
(2) To highlight the ultimate inability of falsifiability to provide satisfactory corroboration of a scientific
theory
(3) To negate the primacy of observation in the formation or testing of scientific theories
(4) To demonstrate that existing scientific methodologies permit the acceptance of scientific theories
that are at best good approximations of highly universal theories of science
(5) To discuss the reasons why Popper is viewed as unusual among contemporary philosophers

j To illustrate different ways of demarcating between science and non-science

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j To highlight the ultimate inability of falsifiability to provide satisfactory corroboration of a scientific theory
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j To negate the primacy of observation in the formation or testing of scientific theories
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j To demonstrate that existing scientific methodologies permit the acceptance of scientific theories that are at best good approximations of
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highly universal theories of science
j To discuss the reasons why Popper is viewed as unusual among contemporary philosophers
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Directions for Questions from 4 to 6:

The passage given below is followed by a set of questions. Choose the best answer to each question.

Passage

All modern economies are centrally managed, some more, some less. Whether achieved by private enterprise in the main or under central direction,
once established modern technology imposes its own internal logic by which it must be worked. All advanced economies, whether their ancestral
record is capitalist or socialist, act under the common compulsions of the same technology. In the essentials of their operation and their impact
upon the people, the contrast between the two economic systems has therefore lost much of its sharpness. The distinction between capitalism and
socialism has now mainly a historical significance in respect of the methods by which economic advance was pursued in the past. It is commonly
believed that they represent opposing ideologies which have continuing relevance for directing public policy. This belief must be questioned, since
both capitalism and socialism seem to be headed for the same destination of progressive expansion of production and a rising standard of material
attainment for the people. This is a commendable goal, but cannot be identified with the ultimate purpose of organized existence which an ideology
is intended to define and towards which it is meant to inspire action. If capitalism and socialism have ceased to be meaningful models even for
economic action today, it is permissible to suggest that they could never have served to express the larger and more abiding values of man’s
aspiration. Scientific socialism has been professedly concerned with economic ends and claims its supreme virtue and historic destiny to be to lay
down an institutional framework in which the expanding forces of production can have unfettered play. Its opponents have argued that they can do
better in the same respect under their system, but they could do so without eclipse of man’s economic freedom. In fact, the latter are able to fulfill
their promise only by increasing encroachments on this freedom in the interests of the effective functioning of an expanding economy.

Both sides are fighting for the same end and are coming to adopt the same overall strategy, one of them exultantly, the other reluctantly and
haltingly. It is consequently no matter of surprise that they do not represent true alternatives of public policy to the newly independent countries
striving for economic betterment. If anything, the preference of these countries is for the course which seems more straightforward and logical and
promises speedier results. The expression of this preference is tempered in practice only by calculation of favours which may be expected from one
or the other side.

If there is true possibility of a different course of human development, that still remains to be adequately propounded. There are many indications
that such a plea would be timely, because the consequences of allowing technological progress to become the overriding determinant of the
pattern and quality of human living has begun to cause disquiet and concern among the most prosperous nations. This is a significant portent. In
the past, arguments against unrestricted pursuit of material expansion came mostly from the poor or from advocates of an ascetic life. They could
be dismissed as making a virtue of necessity or proceeding from an individual or sectarian idiosyncrasy which had no application to normal
behaviour. Perhaps the only notable exception was the philosophy of the good life preached and practiced by the Athenians of classical Greece. This
was not an ideal of privation or mortification, but of the fullest growth of the human personality by a harmonious development of all its appetites
and faculties. But although the world has continued to retain every admiration for the works of intellect and craftsmanship of that period, the social
organization of the city state based on slavery was considered to have no relevance for the problems of later times. Perhaps this total rejection
was unwise. Perhaps features of the Athenian pattern deserve to be salvaged for reinterpretation in contemporary terms to show the way to
sanity in human growth.

4. According to the author, which of the following statements would be true?

j The Athenians of classical Greece focused on that aspect of life which can prosper only through economic growth and expansion.
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j Human development accepts and acknowledges the presence and relevance of mortification and thus it ceases to depend upon economic
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development.
j In the age of modern technology and human advancement, the artistic faculties of humans are irrelevant and hence remain unfulfilled.
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j Economic development is an indication of fulfillment of all human desires.
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j Human development cannot depend merely on economic and technological progress
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5. According to the author, why is it that neither capitalism nor socialism represents true alternatives of
public policy?
(1) Both sides are keenly interested in the moderate functioning of the economy.
(2) Both sides are, although divided on many relevant issues, narrow and straightforward in their
approach.
(3) Both sides are, naturally, rooted in their ideologies and prefer a course that fulfills the interests of
the public.
(4) Both sides are aiming at similar results; however, their intentions and motives are adulterated by
their respective interests and endeavours.
(5) Both sides are aiming higher and the resultant effect is openly revealing the weaknesses of their
respective strategies.

j Both sides are keenly interested in the moderate functioning of the economy.
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j Both sides are, although divided on many relevant issues, narrow and straightforward in their approach.
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j Both sides are, naturally, rooted in their ideologies and prefer a course that fulfills the interests of the public.
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j Both sides are aiming at similar results; however, their intentions and motives are adulterated by their respective interests and endeavours.
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j Both sides are aiming higher and the resultant effect is openly revealing the weaknesses of their respective strategies
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6. Why is the social organization of the Athenian city considered irrelevant?

j The Athenian city’s infrastructure is a representation of idiosyncratic tastes which is unacceptable in the capitalist set up.
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j The Athenian city’s framework preaches ascetic virtues that are ineffectual in today’s world.
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j The Athenian city’s basis of organization is slavery and one seems to understand that nothing valuable can be achieved from it.
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j The Athenian city, though aesthetically rich and based on slavery, cannot contribute to human history in any other way.
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j The Athenians’ teachings of self discipline and structure to human life cannot exist in a time when technological progress governs mankind.
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Directions for Questions from 7 to 10:

Fill up the blanks, numbered [1], [2], [3], [4], in the passage below with the most appropriate word from the options given for each blank.

At that time the White House was as serene as a resort hotel out of season. The corridors were [1]. In the various offices, [2] gray men in
waistcoats talked to one another in low-pitched voices. The only color, or choler, curiously enough, was provided by President Eisenhower himself.
Apparently, his [3] was easily set off; he scowled when he [4] the corridors.

7. Pick one of the following for blank [4]

j paced
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j strolled
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j stormed
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j prowled
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j walked
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8. Pick one of the following for blank [3]

j laughter
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j curiosity
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j humour
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j temper
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j peculiarity
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9. Pick one of the following for blank [2]

j Quiet
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j Faded
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j Loud
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j Stentorian
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 j Booming
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10. Pick one of the following for blank [1]

j Striking
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j hollow
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j empty
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j white
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j blank
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i Skip this question
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