The heat affected zone During welding using a fusion welding process there is a huge temperature difference between

the weld and parent material. Because of this temperature difference, the material immediately adjacent to the weld undergoes microstructure changes. This area, which lies between the fusion boundary and the unaffected parent material, is called the heat affected zone (h.a.z.) The extent of change in microstructure will depend on the following.

1. Material composition, especially the carbon contents.

2. The cooling rate. The faster the cooling rate the harder the heat affected zone,
3. Heat input. The higher the heat input or arc energy the wider the heat affected

especially if the carbon equivalent of the steel is high.

zone.

Arc energy (KJ/mm) =

Volts x amps
Travel speed (mm/s) x 1000

The h.a.z of a fusjon weld on steel consists of upto four separate regions of microstructure; the actual condition will be dependant upon the alloying elements present and the thermal conditions applied during welding. The following grain structures starting from the area immediately adjacent to the weld are typically present on 0.15% carbon steel. 1. A coarse grain region (heated between 11OOC and melting point). 2. A grain refined region (900 to 11OOC). 3. A region of partial transformation (750 to 900C). 4. A region of spheroidization (just below 750C). On C-Mn and low alloy steels the h.a.z of the weld tends to be more brittle than the actual weld. The h.a.z are is therefore more prone to cracking especially when hydrogen induced, although it must be noted that the tensile strength of the h.a.z is normally high in comparison with the weld and parent material. Unfortunately, if a fusion welding process is being used the h.a.z cannot be eliminated, although it can be controlled. Carbon equivalent The carbon equivalent (CE) of steel primarily relates to its hardenabiltiy. If steel has a relatively high CE it will be more susceptible to hardening in the heat affected zones of any weld made, in comparison with welds made on steels of a low CEo Hardenability affects weldability I therefore materials of high CE are considered more difficult to weld. The CE of a given material depends on its alloying elements; typical elements in carbon manganese steel are as follows.

Iron (Fe) Carbon (C) Manganese (Mn) Chromium (C) Vanadium (V) Molybdenum (Mo) Nickel (N)

Silicon (S) Titanium (Ti) Niobium (Nb) Aluminium (AI) Tin (Sn) Sulphur (S) Phosphorus(P)

The CE of steel is usually calculated from the CE formula (given in EN 1011) CE = C + Mn + Cr + Mo + V + Cu + Ni 6 5 15 0.1 % Carbon has the same effect on hardenability compared to 0.6% Mn, therefore the manganese content is divided by 6 because one part manganese has one sixth of the effect on hardenability compared to one part carbon.

Preheat
Preheat is the application of heat to a joint prior to welding. Preheat is usually applied by a gas torch or induction system. Preheat is an expensive operation and therefore only carried out when necessary, i.e. if there is a significant chance that an adverse metallurgical structures and/or cracks could occur. Preheat on steel pipe and many steel structures are arrived by taking into consideration the following: The arc energy. The hydrogen scale requirements Carbon equivalent Combined material thickness.

Example of combined thickness

Joint a Combined thickness = t.1 + t.2

Joint b Combined thickness = t.1 + t.2 + t.3

Thicker materials usually require more preheat than thinner materials, however, for a given CE and arc energy, the preheat temperature is likely to be the same for wall thickness up to 20 mm. A welding inspector would normally find the preheat temperatures from the applicable welding procedure. Conditions for welding steels with defined carbon equivalents
1

Key 1 Combined thickness, mm. 2 Heat input, KJ/mm. 3 Minimum preheating temperature, C. 4 Scale 5 To be used for carbon equivalent not exceeding

Advantages of preheat 1. Slows down the cooling rate of the weld and h.a.z, which reduces the risk of hardening. 2. Allow absorbed hydrogen a better opportunity of diffusing out, thereby reducing the risk of cracking. 3. Removes the moisture in the region of the preparation. 4. Improves overall fusion characteristics. 5. Lowers stresses between the weld metal and parent material by ensuring a more uniform expansion and contraction. Basically the application of preheat improves overall weldability. It must be also noted that if tack welding is to be carried out prior to. welding, the tack welds should also be preheated. Preheat temperatures may be measured by the use of temperature indicating crayons (Tempil sticks @) or thermocouples which should have a valid calibration certificate. The type and method of taking temperature reading should be stated in the applicable specification for the work being carried out. Preheat temperatures are measured at intervals along or around the joint to be welded. The number of measurements taken must allow the inspector to be confident that the required temperature has been reached over the full area to be welded. EN 1011 states that the preheat temperature must be maintained at least 50 mm back form the joint faces. The preheat temperature should be taken immediately prior to welding. If a gas heat source is been used, the temperature should be taken from the opposite surface to which the heat source is being applied. If this is not possible sufficient time must be allowed for the temperature to equalize throughout the thickness of the components being welded, otherwise only the surface temperature will be measured. Time lapses may vary depending on specification requirements. EN 1011 states 2 minutes for a 25-mm wall thickness and a further 1-minute for every 25-mm of wall thickness. If preheat is being applied and tack welding is being carried out prior to the main welding then it should be noted that the tack welds should also be preheated.

Inter-pass temperature

The inter-pass temperature is the temperature of the joint during welding and between passes. It is often specified that the minimum inter-pass temperature must not drop below the minimum preheat temperature. The actual requirements depend upon the requirements of the applicable specification.