LATIN GRAMMAR.

ELEMENTARY

LATIN GRAMMAR.
BV

^)

JAMES DONALDSON,

LL.D.,

RECTOR OF THE HIGH SCHOOL OF EDINBUECiH.

-1/

LONDON:
T.

NELSON AND

SONS,

PATERNOSTEE EOW;

EDINBURGH; AND NKW YORK.

1872.

PREFACE.

The aim

of this

Grammar

is pi'actical.

Tlie difficulty in teach-

ing Latin is so to impress the form aud the meauiug at the same time ou the memory, tliat the one will at once suggest the other, either in trauslatiug from Latiu iuto English, or from
iu this book for words that form the iuflectiou are separated from the stems, aud thus special prominence is given to them. Secoud, the meaning that these inflectional words have iu the sentence is brouglit out as cleaily as possible ; so that as the pupil is advancing, he is learning more aud more of the structure of sentences, and the peculiai- nature of the Latin language as compared with that of Euglish. Thirdly, an attempt is made to make use of a kiud of repetition which will

Euglish iuto Latiu.

The coutrivances adopted

this pur})0se are these: First, the

not be wearisome.

In employing comparative philology in this book, I have always kept in view the practical natui-e of tlie woi'k, aud
therefore have given only so much as I have deemed suitable. In most cases I have stated doubts where doubts exist but iu
;

a few I have said nothing of the matter. Thus I have marked the stems of the verbs in , e, and i of the fourth conjugation

long

imperfect

have made the e of eba part of the word denoting the I have assumed the i in the present of the third
;

conjugation as a euphonic vowel, though beeu doubted.

I

all

these points have

have found some

difficulty in the use of

The names

of the pai-ts of speech

:

grammatical terms. may, unfortunately, be used

for three jnirposes

to deuote the function of the

word

iu the

VI

PREFACE.

sentence, to denote a division of words according to the of their inflections, and to denote a division of words
accoi'ding to
sense.

mode
partly

their inflections and partly according to their great deal of the difliculty has arisen from the ajijili-

cation of grammatical terms appropriately used in an inflected language, like Latin, to a language that has almost no inflec-

There seems to me no doubt that tl)e ti(jns, like English. sentence should always be taken as the unit and that conse;

<piently grammatical names should be given to the functions of words in the sentence, not to classes of words by themselves.
all the functions of words will be words being either subject or predicate, or adjuncts to the subject or adjuncts to the predicate. I have once or twice alluded to this division of functions but I trust that it will be soon worked out more fully in an Enghsh (Iraramar. For my opinions on this subject I think it but right to state that I am under great obligations to Mr. Thomas Nelson, the publisher of this little book who, it seems to me, has seen far into this subject, and who I hope will yet give a

Fr(nn this i^oint of view,

;

found to be four

all

full exposition of his opinions.

In compiling this
cent

Grammar

have used most

of the

i-e-

Blume, Meiring, MoUex-, Scliweizer-Sidler, Dorschel, Gossrau, Neue, and Merguet. I hope soon to publish an Exercise and Eeadiug Book, adapted to this little Grammar, and peihai^s a larger Grammar on the same plan.
especially

German works, but

CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION,

PART I. THE INFLECTED PARTS OF SPEECH.

1.

The Verb,

..

.,
. .

..
. .

..
. .

..
.

.,5
.

The Indicative Mood, The Imperative Mood,

II.

5 24 26

. .

. .

. .

. .

The Noun,
The The The The The The The

..

..
..
. .

..
..
. .

.. ..
. .

..
..
. .

..

Nominative,
Accusative,
Genitive,

,.28
. .

3tJ
-11

..
..

.. .. ..
. .

.. ..
..
.

.. ..

.. ..

Dative,
Ablative,

.. ..
. .

43

..
. .

..45
. .

Vocative,

48

Five Declensions,
..

..

..

..

..

III.

The Adjective,
Numerals,

..

..

..

..

..50 ..55
..

IV.

..

..

..

..

..

CS

V. Pkonouns,

..

..

..

..

..

..

C6

PART
I.

II. INDECLINABLE
..
..

PARTS OF SPEECH.
..

Adverbs,
Prepositions,

..

..

II.

,.

..

..

..

..

III.

Conjunctions,

..

..

..

..

..

..72 ..74 ..75

PART
1.

III.VERBAL

NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS.

.,
.

Noun Forms of the Verb,

The
Infinitive,
. .

..
.
.

..
.

..77
. .

77

The Supines, The Gerund,

. .

. .

79
80

..

..

..

..

..

..

Vlll

CONTENTS.
Adjectival Parts of the Verb,
Participles,
..

ir.

81

31
of the Verb,
.
.

Compound Tenses
The Gerundive,

83

PART IV. NOUN CLAUSES.

I.

The Accusative and

Subjunctive,

Infinitive,

..

87

II.

83

PART V

LATI]^

GRAMMAR.

INTRODUCTORY.
1.

of

Latin language was the language spoken by the peojile As a Latium, and consequently by the people of Rome.

The

spoken language
so far as

it

we know, become

existed at a very early period, but did not, the language of literature till the

The first play exhibited at Eonie third century before Christ. was written in 240 B.C. The period of Roman literature exis generally called tending from this date till about 80 B.C. the Ante-Classical. The Classical period extends from about 80 B.C. to 20 B.C. and the principal writers are Cicero, Cjesar,
;

in verse. prose, and Horace and Virgil The Latin language continued to be used for literary purposes the Middle throughout the period of the Roman Empire and
Sallust,

and Livy in

Ages, and
treatises.

is still

sometimes employed in learned and scientific Throughout the long time during which Latin has
it

been used,
its

has varied in

its

alphabet,

its

modes

of spelling,

and constructions, pronunciation, and its grammatical forms To present all these in an Elementary at various periods. Grammar would confuse the learner accordingly, the fonns of
:

the Classical period are selected, and the grammar of the Latin language as it was used by Cicero is given.

The Latin language belongs to the class of languages The English also belongs to this class but its inflections are not so marked as those of Latin, and have a inflected language tendency to fall away. The peculiarity of an
2.

called inflected.

2
is,

THE NATURE OF INFLECTION.

that a few important words can in a uniform manner be added to roots so as to modify the meaning of the roots. Thus, in English, "lovest" is composed of two words "love," the " that so which means tkou and ; "lovest," by itself, st," root,

])ropex-ly

means thou
is

love, or,

as

we now

say, thou lovest.

two words "he," root, and composed again, "m," probably meaning to, or towards; and "him," therefore, " means he-toioards, or he-wards, like bad-wards that is, to or " " I am I love him," means in the direction of him." Thus,

"him"

of

So,

in a state of love
it

towards him," or

"

do the act

love so as that

go Sometimes it is impossible to explain the meanings of the little words which have been added to the roots, because these words have undergone so great changes by frequent use that
3.

shall

to him."

But in many cases we can make identify them. out their meaning without any doubt and we know in all others that they must have been distinct words, and had a dis-

we cannot

tinct meaning. least two parts

words are therefore composed of at and the word which modifies Even the uninflected words will be the meaning of the root. found to be forms of inflected words, and to be compounded. Eoots seldom occur by themselves, and then only accidentally. The root is that portion of the word which cannot be divided into two intelligible parts. From the root are formed nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions. Thus, from am, love, are formed the words amor, love amo, I Each of these words love amahilis, lovely atnator, a lover.

the

Inflected

root word,

is

said to have a stem.

The stem

is

that portion of a noun,

adjective, pronoun, or verb, to

inflections are added.

which the words producing Thus amor is the stem of amor; ama, of

amo;

amahili, of amabilis.

ALPHABET.
4.

alphabet.

Cicero says that there are twenty-one letters in the Latin These letters are as follows
:

Large A,

B, C, D, E, F, G,
b, c, d, e,
f,

H,

I,
i,

K, L, M, N, 0, P, Q, R,
k,
1,

S, T,

V, X,

Small a.,

g, h,

m,

n, o, p, q, r,

s, t,

u, x.

THE ALPHABET.
The consonants were probably prononncerl

6
in the

as they are usually pronounced in English except that ff was always pronounced as y in game; and c was always pronounced as c in can, and q in the same way. There were thus three
letters

same manner

very rarely used,

and

and qwith the same sound x a compound thus: dux = dues; rex=reg-s.
c,

k,

but the

letter

/-

was

is

lettej-,

composed

oi c or g,

The vowels were pronounced thus

a, as a in father, fat. e, as ay in hay, or e in hd.

i,

0,

as ee in been, or i in bin. in bone or lot. as

u, as 00 in boon.
i.

of

_?/,

and u were also used as consonants ^ had then the sound as eius was pronounced fy;; and u had the sound of iv,
:

as uideo, pronounced wideo. now print this consonantal i as J (ejus), and pronounce it as our own/; and we print the consonantal u as v {video). The pronunciation which we give
to the consonantal
i

We

is

unquestionably wrong.

Some

scholars

maintain that
consonantal
?<

right, or partially right, in giving the the sound of v. But this is doubtful ; and no
ai-e
it

we

one doubts that in the Classical period if not always, the sound of w.

had most frequently,

5. The Latin letters were derived from the Greek alphabet. The Greeks borrowed their alphabet from the Phenician and in adopting it, they transferred the Phenician names of the The Romans named the letters letters to fcheir own language.
;

As the vowels can be sounded by themselves, their sounds. to the consonants they added a they required no addition the true Latin pronunciation, we get vowel. Adopting single the following as the names of the lettere
by
: :

a, be, ce, de, e, ef, ge,

ha,

i,

ka,

el,

em, en,

o, pe,

qu, er, es, te, u, ix.

The

lettei-s

Y y,

and

z,

other authors of the same age

occur in the writings of Cicero and but they are found only in
;

genuine Greek words, and they were regarded as foreign letters. 6. The Romans used six diphthongs; only three of wluL-h
occur in

many words

ae and

oe,

being amalgamations of ai

4
aud
are

QUANTITY.

aud sometimes printed ce and ce; and au. The others ei, and ui. 7. The Latin consonants and vowels undergo changes according to certain hiws. Thus we have in English manly, manli-

eu,

oi,

ness; swim,

sw&m:

so the Latins said

scvih-o,

but scri^-him

These changes will come into consideration j&ci-o,J6ci, in-jicio. in the course of the book but at present only two need be
;

noted.

The Latins frequently interchange s and Thus eram is part of a verb whose root is es. The Latins very frequently interchange
other.
8.

r with each other.

and

with each

It is often
;

very important
is,

in

Latin to

know

tlie

quantity

sjdlables are long or short. ~ over it ; thus, in creCivi the a is long syllable has the mark " short syllable has the mark to be pronounced long. thus

of syllables

that

whether the

dmor has the a

short.

Aud

sometimes a syllable

may

be pro;

nounced long or short, according to the caprice of the speaker in which case it receives both marks. Thus amo has the o sometimes long and sometimes short, according to the caprice of
the speaker.
doubtful.

The quantity

of the syllable

is

then said to be

THE VERB.

PART

I.

INFLECTED PARTS OF SPEECH.

9.

The Eomaus had two

One
set

sets of

words which they added to

;

roots.

they added to verbs

another set to nouns,

adjectives,

and pronouns.

CHAPTER
10.

I.

-THE
;

VERB.

In
:

poses tense

case of verbs, they added words for three purto give the person second, to give the time, or third, to give the passive voice.
tlie
first,

PERSONAL TERMINATIONS.
11.

The mode

in

which the Romans united the root and

:

tlie

personal termination may be represented in English thus Instead of "I love, thou love, he love;" they said, " love-I, loveIf we were to love-he, love-we, love-ye, love-they." c<jntiuue to say these words rapidly, we should corrupt them,

thou,

probably, into something like this

loveye, lovey."

"
:

lovi, lovou, lovee,

lovewe,

what was done in Latin. 12. The words which were added to mean the personal pronouns have come down to us in the following forms, which are

Now,

this

is

exactly

carefully to be committed to

memory

SINGULAR.

THIRD PERSON.
he, she,
t.
it.

they,
nt.

The

first

person appears also in the form of o ami

/,

by the

TEXSE TERMINATIONS.
oue tense the peifect the second pei'son singular appears as sti, and the second person plural as stis. The full table of the personal endings is therefore^
oniissiou of the vi;
in

and

PRESENT INDICATIVE ACTIVE.

present.

So " the mau rose every morning," means that the

in the habit of rising every morning. And the future means, not that the sun will be rising at a particular time of which we are thinking, but that it will rise regularly every

man was

morning.
15.

The Latin
is

present, imperfect,

and future tenses have

this meaning.

There

a third use of these Latin tenses.

We
;

say, in

" I did I do love English, when we wish to be emphatic, love ; I %vill love." The Latins express this meaning also by

their present, imperfect,

and

future.

THE PRESENT INDICATIVE ACTIVE.

16. The Present tense of the active voice is formed in Latin by taking the stem of the verb and adding the personal terminations. The termination for "/" is o. These personal terminations are for the most part simply added but in some
;

cases a vowel
out.
17.

is

inserted, or the last letter of the

of verbs

stem

is

struck

The stems

end in

a,

e, i,

u,

and consonants

and

this circumstance leads to the division of verbs into the fol-

lowing conjugations the a conjugation, the e conjugation, the 1 conjugation, the i conjugation, the u conjugation, and the consonantal conjugation. 18. In the present active of the d conjugation, the personal
terminations are added to the stem without any change, except In the first person the vowel a of the stem in the first person.
is

omitted before the termination

SINGULAR.
re(/7m-t

o.

PLURAL.
it

he, she, or

reigns.

regnd-TxX,

they reign.

rcynd-s
reyn-o

you

reign.

reynd-i\B
reynd-VD.TXS

you

reign.

I reign.

we

reign.

From
things

he

sections 13, 14, 15

is

reigning
;

we know now or, he

;

that regnat

may mean
;

three

reign, emphatically and the English takes three ways of expressing.

reigns regularly or, he does the Latin expresses in one word what

19. Form the present indicative active from the following stems of the a conjugation, and give the meanings specta, look ; vola, fly ;
:

8
pwina, fight;
;-(tc//rt,

PRESENT INDICATIVE ACTIVE.

sta,

stand; penetra, penetrate; triumplut, triumph;

rebel

migra, remove; inipera,

command;

conjura, conspire.

20.

])ersonal

lu the pi-eseut indicative active of the e conjugation the terminations are added to the stem without any
Thus, stem Jace,
SINGULAR.
lie

change.
jac^-t
j(ice-B

down

PLURAL.
jnce-nt
jace-tis

he, she, or it lies do^vn.

yon
1 lie

lie

do\vn.

they lie do-vvn. ye lie down.

jacS-0

down.
:

Jdce-mxia
sit
;

we
hid
;

lie

down.
see
; mane, be strong ;

21. Stems for exercise sede, remain pate, lie open ; sile, be silent
;

late,
;

lie

vide,
;

J{o7-e,

flourish

vale,

time, fear

ride, laugh.

The present indicative active of the I conjugation is formed by adding the jiersonal terminations to tlie stem, without any change, excei)t inserting u before nt. Thus
22.
:

SINGULAR.
audl-t
audl-a
he, she, or it hears. you hear. I hear. for exercise
:

PLURAL. audi-u-nt they hear.

audi-tis
aitdi-ravLS

ye hear.

audl-O
28.

we

hear.
;

Stems
apcri,

rcni,
;

come
sci,

puni, punish; vinci,

bind

senti,

feel

open

reperi, find

know.
i

24.

The present
I is

indicative

active of the
a.s

conjugation
I

is

formed exactly in the same way

only that the
SINGULAR.
cnpt-t

that of the
:

conjugation,

short throughout, as

PLURAL.
it

capl-i

he, she, or you take.

1 take.

takes.

capi-Vi-n.t

riiphtis
c'(^^t-muB
:

they take. ye take.

capl-0
25.

we
throw

take.
flee

Stems

for exercise

fadl, dig

faci,

do

jaci,

fiigl,

rapl, snatch,

and u the terminations formed to by joining personal conjugations the stem but wherever the personal termination begins with a consonant, the vowel i is inserted between the stem and the
26.

Tlie present indicative active of the consonantal

is

termination, except befoi'e

nt,

when m

is

inserted.
is,

The reason
the

of the insertion of this euphonic vowel

tliat

Eomaus

always avoided such combiuatious as cads, cadt,fings,fingt.

PRESENT INDICATIVE ACTIVE.

SINGULAR. he

PLURAL.
falls.

cad-i-t cad-i-s

cad-n-nt
cfftM-tis

cad-0
metu-l-t metu-i-B

j^ou fall. 1 fall.

they fall. ye faU.

cad-i-mu s
metu-yji-nt

we

fall.

he

fears.
fear.

you

metu-l-tis
TJieto-i-mus

they fear. ye fear.

metu-o
27.

I fear.

we
;

fear.
;

Steins ending in consonants and in u : vert, turn ger, wear tribu, give ; scrib, write ; leg, read ; add, add ; caed, kill; claud, shut
viinu, diminish
;

Jlu, flow.

28.

Comparison of the formatiou of the present indicative

:

active in all the conjugations t {he, she, or it) is added directly to the stems of the conjugations in d, e, I, I; as vola-t, time-t, audi-t, and capi-t. The

vowel i is prefixed to it before it is added to the consonantal and stems as cad-i-t, metu-i-t. nt {thei/) is added directly to the stems in a and e ; as vola~nt, time-nt. u is prefixed to it before it is added to stems in I, i, u, and consonants as avdi-M-nt, capi-n-nt, cad-vi-jit, metu-xi-nt. S (thou) is added directly to the stems in a, e, I, and i; i-s to the stems in u and consonants as vola-a, times, andi-a, capi-s;
^(,
;

but

metu-i-8, cad-i-a.
is

tis (ye)

added

stems in u and consonants

tis
;

directly to the stems in a, e, I, and i ; i-tis to as vold-tis, time-tis, aiidl-tia, capi:

but

metti-i-tis, cad-i-Ha.

o (/) is added directly to stems in e, ^, i, u, and consonants, as time-o, audi-o, capi-o, metVrO, and cad-o but stems in d lose
;

the a before

o,

as vol-o.
in d,
e,
I,

mus

{we) is
^^

stems in

added directly to stems and consonants: as

i;

i-mus

to

10

IMPERFECT INDICATIVE ACTIVE.

THE IMPERFECT INDICATIVE ACTIVE,

30.

seen

The Imperfect ludicative Active meaus as we have " was doing the deed at some particular time," or, " was

in the habit of doing the deed," or, emphatic, " did do the deed." The original word which indicated this has now the form of ha

or eba, and was probably j^art of a word which is the same as the English word he. Thus t (he), ha (was), vola (flying), became, united backwards, vola-ha-t; literally, flying was he.

The personal termination for /in the imperfect is m. The imperfect indicative active is formed by adding ha to stems in and e, and eha to stems in l, i, u, and consonants.
31.

32.

thus

Stem.

Tenseword.

regno,

-ba -ba -eba -eba

jace

audi
capi

metu -eba cad -eba

was reigning. was lying clown. was hearing. was taking. was fearing. was falling.

These two words, ba or stem of the imperfect.

33.

eba,

and the stem

of the verb foi-m the

The personal terminations are added

;

directly to the

stem

of the imperfect of the imperfect

t, he,

i.e.,

to the
:

stem of the verb

+ the tense- word

were reigning.

thus
or
it.

SINGULAR.
she,

PLURAL,
nt, they,

he,
regnd-'ba.-t... i

she, or it

was

regnd-'bii-at ..they

reigning.

yace*ba-t
audi-e\)a,-t

cpi-eba-t mctu-ehsi-t
cac^-eba-t

he was lying down. he was hearing. he was taking. he was fearing. he was falling.
or pou.
reigning. lying dowii.

jace-ha-nt

they were lying down. Mc?i-eba-nt..they were hearing.

ca^i-eba-at...they were taking.

ietM-eba-nt..they were fearing.

cacZ-eba-nt. ...they

were falUng.
were reigning,

s, thou,

tis, ye.

were you were jacc-ha.-3 aMc/i-eba-s...you were ropj-eba-B ...you were jnetu-eba-S...y<iu were cad-ehh-s ...you were
regnd-laa-s...yovL
.

regnd-'b&-tiB..you

^ace-ba-tis

hearing.
taking.
fearing.
falling.

.you were Ijang down. aMdi-eba-tis..you were hearing.

.
. .

were taking. were fearing. cn(i-eba-tis...you were falling.

cflr^i-eba-ti8..you metu-eba,-tia .you

FUTURE INDICATIVE ACTIVE.

SINGULAR.

11

m,
regnd-ha.-m.
jace-ha.-m.

/.

audi-ehii-m

capi-eba-m
metu-eha,-m cacJ-eba-m

was reigning. was lying down. I was hearing. I was taking. I was fearing. I was falling.
I
I

PLURAL. mus, wc. rcr/nd-hei-mus .we were reigning. we were lying do^\'n. /ace-ba-mus awt^i-eba-mus.we were hearing. fj3i-eba-mii8..we were taking. metu-eba,-m\is .we were fearing. cad-eba-miis...we were falling.

THE FUTUEE INDICATIVE ACTIVE.

34. The Future means that an event will be taking place at some time or other, or that it will regularly take place. 35. The future is formed in two ways. The first method is found in verbs with the stems ending in a and e. In these bi is the tense-word of the future. Thus t (he), bi (will), reffna (reign), joined backwards, give us regna-bi-t, he wUl reign. 36. is the termination for /, and the i of bi disappears before it, the two together making bo. The i before nt becomes Thus u, the two together making bunt.
:

SINGULAR.
re9na-hl.t....\^^'
(

PLURAL.
^^iU

she, or it

regnd-'bn-nt
regnd-hi-tis

they wiU reign.

ye wiU reign.

regnaAi\-B

regnd-h-5

reign. you will reign. 1 shall reign.

it

rema-bi-mus. ...we shaU reign.

will

jace-Vi-t
jace-hi-s

ite,she, or I he down. do

jace-bu-ut
iace-bi-tis

they will ye will

lie

down.

you

will lie
lie

jace-b-6

1 shall

down. down.

lie

iace-bi-mus

we

shall lie

down. down.

The imperfect is, therefore, bd-t, bd-s, ba-m; ba-nt, ba-tis, ba-mus: the future is, bi-t, bi-s, bd; bu-nt, bi-Us, bi-nms. 37. The second form of the future is found in verbs haviuaand consonants. The vowel a is the tensevowel e is the tense-word before all the other pronominal words. Thus
, ^,

stems ending

u,
;

word before

(I)

tlie

SINGULAR.
audi-e-t
awrfi-e-s

PLURAL.
audi-G-nt
audi-Q-tis

he, she, or it will hear. you will hear.

...I

they wiU hear. ye will hear.

awdi-a-m

shall hear.

audi-e-mus

we

shall hear.

12
SINGULAR.
capi-e-t

PERFECT TENSES.
PLURAL.
Crtpi-e-nt

capi-e-B

he, she, or it ^vill take. you will take.

...I

capi-e-tia

they will take. ye will take.

capi-a-m.
metu-e-t

shall take.

capl-e-mMa
nutu-e-nt
metu-e-tis
metu-e-jniis
falL

we

shall take.

metu-e-a

he, she, or it will fear. you will fear.

. .

they will fear. ye will fear.

metu-a.-m
cad-e-t
cad-e-S

.1 shall fear.

we

shall fear.
fall.

he, she, or

it ^vill

cad-e-n t
cad-e-tia

th ey will

you

will falL

ye will

fall.

cad-a-m
38.

I shall fall

cad-e-mvia

we

shall

fall.

sees the

This form creates a difficulty for the learner. When he words timet, cadet, he cannot tell from the form whether

they are the present indicative of the e conjugation, or the future He must know the indicative of the consonantal conjugation.

stem of the verb before he can determine.

Thus

timet

means

"he

fears;" but cadet,

"he

will fall."

COMPLETE OE PERFECT TENSES.

We found that the present, imperfect, and future exbut the an action which is, was, or will be going on press form of speech says nothing as to the conclusion of the act. Other forms mark out distinctly that the action is, has been, or These tenses give completed time. The word will be, ended. for "comj^leted" in Latin is perfectum; and so these tenses are
39.
;

called the perfect tenses.

fect,

and Future

Perfect.

Their names are the Perfect, PluperWe may thus compare them with
:

the imperfect or incomplete tenses

ACTION INCOMPLETE.
PRESENT.
Pres. I

ACTION COMPLETE.
Perf. I

am

falling.

have

fallen.

PAST.

Imperf. I was falling.

Perf. I

fell.

Pluperf. I

had

fallen.

FUTURE.
Fat. I shall
40.
fall.
|

Fut. perf. I shall have fallen.

The expression

"

I fell

"

implies that the action took place

PERFECT TENSES.
iu

13

some past time, but leaves the time entirely indefinite. This form is therefore called the Perfect Indefinite. It is called in Greek the aorist, which means indefinite and so we may speak
;

The exin Latin as the perfect in the sense of the aorist. " " I have fallen implies that the action has just taken pression
of
it
is completed, but has been just comand the effects of it still remain and belong to the present. The form is called the Perfect Definite. " I have While in Greek and English the perfect definite are "I indefinite and the fell," expressed in fallen," perfect different ways, the Latin perfect is used for them both and the reader of a Latin work has to find out from the sense or context whether the Latin writer means to express by the form of

place; that the action

pleted,

the perfect the perfect definite or the perfect indefinite. The English language, on the other hand, does not always clearly distinguish between the imperfect and perfect inde" He rose I at seven I
finite.

"VVlien

say,

every day

o'clock,"

mean
rose
"

that he
is

was

in the habit of rising every

day

and so

"

he

imperfect. exactly, when a translation is made into Latin, whether the English perfect indefinite means that the event took place once

Care must be taken,

therefore, to notice

and was completed, in which case the Latin perfect is or that the event took place regularly at fixed times, or that the doer of the deed was in the habit of doing it, in which
for all

used

case the Latin imperfect

is

used.

THE PERFECT INDICATIVE ACTIVE.

41.

The

Pei-fect Indicative

Active

is

formed

in three ways.

(L) In very many verbs the letters ui are the remnant of the word that indicated the perfect time or tense. The letter u was,
as

we have
it is

seen,

sometimes a vowel and sometimes a consonant.

When

a consonant,

we now

write

it v.

Thus

re[ina-\idele-vi-

reigned, or have reigned. destroyed, or have destroyed.

audl-yi-

heard, or have heard.

14

PERFECT INDICATIVE ACTIVE.

the u
is

When

treated as a vowel, the stem vowel

it
;

expelled before

as,

is

generally

dom-...tame.
latelie hid.

c7oOT-rii-... tamed,

or have tamed.

lat-ni-

lay hid, or have lain hid,

(2.)

The

letters si are the I'cmnants of the

word which
:

in-

dicated the perfect time. Before these letters are added, howThus ever, a change is often made in the stem.
mane-.
.

.remain.

man-siclau-ai-

. .

claud- ...shut.
sc7ibreg^vl-ite.

.remained, or have remained. shut, or have shut.

.wrote, or have written. ruled, or have ruled.

scrip-si-

. .

rule.

re-xi-

lu this
5 to

last case

is=-ffs, of

which

ff

belongs to the stem, and

the tense-word.

(3.)

The

perfect seems to have been formed at first

by

repeat-

ing the word ; thus sta would become stasti. This resulted in a jirocess called reduplication, in which the first letter is doubled

with a vowel placed between.

Thus

cad- becomes ce-cidi.

This process also accounts for a foim of the perfect which

is

analogous to our
f'u.gi-

see,

saw; run, ran.

/i/i-

Thus:
fled,

flee.

or have

fled.

42.

The formation

of the jierfect is so various

and irregular

that no systematic rules can be given for forming it from the The perfect must therefore be learned from the dictionstem.

And therefore it is always ary, or from some other book. given to the scholar. He must not imagine that he can form it for himself. He must commit it to memory.
There are four
pai'ts of

a verb the knowledge of which en-

ables one to form all the other parts of the verb. These four parts are, the Present Indicative Active, the Perfect Indica-

Supine, and the Present Infinitive Active. give these parts of a verb is to conjugate it. These parts are to be learned by memory.
tive Active, the

To

PERFECT INDICATIVE ACTIVE.

43.
Pbes.

15

Stems

of the perfect

16

PLUPERFECT INDICATIVE ACTIVE.

pupil must take care to hold firmly in his miud the stem forms the pluperfect he has to
:

The
form

of the perfect before he think of nothing else. The

conjugation to which the verb

belongs
Perfect.

is

now

a matter of no consequence.
s/jfc^a-vi-.
steti-.

Thus

regnd-Yi-.
rer/na-v-era-.
cepi-.
ce/>-era-.

jacni-.

Pluperkect.
Perfect.

specta-v-era,-, sttt-era.-.
gessi-.

jacu-eraaddicO.-.

fluxi-.
Jiitx^exa.-.

Pluperfect.

gess-era-.

addid-eT&-.

46. The personal terminations for the pluperfect are the as those for the imperfect. Thus
:

same

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

had vegna-v-eTa-nt. .they had reigned.

. .

reigned.
regna-v-era.-tis...ye
rc'jna -

re(7na-v-era-s...you had reigned. 7-fir>ia-v-era-m. I had reigned.

had reigned.

v - era

mus
ce7>era-t
cep-ersL-s

we had reigned
they had taken.

^^^'
-f^^'
(

^*

^^'^

cep-hxa.-nt

taken
c?/:i-era-tis

ce/J-era-m

you had taken. I had taken.

ye had taken.

cci3-era-mus

we had

taken.

THE FUTUEE PERFECT INDICATIVE ACTIVE:

SOMETIMES CALLED THE SECOND FUTURE.

The Future Perfect perfect, by striking ofi" the

47.

parison of ; as being over or past in the future before the other is accomplished is called future perfect that is, future past. Like the
pluperfect,
Perfect.
it is

formed from the stem form of the and adding eri. It implies a comtwo future events and the one which is represented
is

formed directly from the

regna-W;
rcgnd-v-hxispectd-vi-.

perfect.

Thus

smi:
strt-eri:

jacui-,

Future Perfect.

spectd-w-exi-.

Jacu-exi-.

48. The personal terminations for the future perfect are the same as those for the future of verbs in a and e; that the

vowel

remains before
(I).

nt,

and
:

is

only not changed into m.

The

vanishes before o

Thus

FUTURE PERFECT INDICATIVE ACTIVE.

SINGULAB.
_>. 4.

17

PLURAL.
it

regna-veri-t....
regiia-Yeri-s

( (

or he, she, ' '

.

will
.

have reigned.

regna-veri-nt.
(

they

wiU.

have

reigned.

you will have, &c.

I shall have, &c.

regrno-veri-tis

rcgna-veT-o
i

regna-veTi-viua

ye will have, &c. .we shall have, &c.

<

he, she, or it will

..-

x>;

cep-evi(

( (

they

will

have

have taken.

taken.

cep-erl-s

cep-er-6

you will have, &c. 1 shaU have, &c.

cep-eri-tis

ye will have, &c.

cep-eri-mus

we shall have, &c.

49.

We

have now found six tenses

three complete

three incomplete, and corresponding to each other. Thus

:

INCOMPLETE ACTION.

18

PASSIVE VOICE,

PASSIVE VOICE.
50.

The Passive Voice

is

used

when

the statement

is

made,

in

regard to the subject spoken of, that the action is done to it. " John is struck," it is said of John that Thus, in the sentence
the action of striking is done to John. 51. At the time that the various words were combined so as

form what are now called inflections, the people combining the words thought of all things as having life and as having feeling; just as children of the present day imagine tljat dolls So they had no passor chairs feel the blows given to them.
to

"John gets himself ive; but they spoke of the matter thus " John feels himself struck," or " John strikes himstruck," or
self."
s

Tlie Latin

word for hiinselfis se; but in the Latin language

signifying self

frequently appears in the form of

of a

remnant

voice with all

the sign of the passive the pronouns, except the pronoun for you, plural.
is

word

r.

And

this letter

the

Thus

BINGDLAB.
t
s

PLURAL.
nt becomes ntur. tis becomes mini.
or.

m
52.

becomes tur becomes ris or re. becomes r o becomes

;

mus becomes mur.

in a,

The present indicative passive of verbs having their stems and I, is formed from the present indicative active by making the changes set down in section 51. Thus
e,
:

ore a-, create:.

ACTIVE.
creort he, she, or !t creates.
crea-tur.
.

PASSIVE.
j he, she,

or

it is

being

created.

crert-nt

they create.

crca-ntur.

...
) '

crea-s

you

create.

c7'fa-ris,or

you

they are being created. are being created.

OTo-re..
crert-tis

ye create.
I create.

creft-mini...
c?"e-or

crc-o

crctZ-mus

we

create.

creo-mur.

. . .

ye are being created. I am being created. we are being created.

PRESENT INDICATIVE PASSIVE.

dele-, destroy.

19

ACTIVB
deK-i
he,
I
(

PASSIVE.
or
it

she,
^

de-

dde-iux
(Zc?c-iitur

jhe
(.

she, or it

is

being

stroys.

deh-ut
dele-i

they destroy,

destroyed. they are being, &c.

you destroy.
ye destroy.
I destroy.

deU-xis, or dffe-re
cZe^e-mini

) 3

you are being, &c.

ye are being, &c.
I

dcU-tii
dele-o

dele-OT

am

deZe-mus

we

destroy.

dele-mux
audi-, hear.

we

being, &c. are being, &c.

audl-t

he, she, or

it

hears.

audi-tMT

i
.

he, she, or it is being

heard.

audi-n-nt audl-s
niidi-tis

they hear.

you

hear.

awcZi-U-ntur ....they are being, &c, audl-ris, or | ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^_
aiidl-re
)

ye hear.
I hear.

aiidi-minl

ye are being, &c.

I

audi-O audi-mvis

audi-OV
audl-in.\ix

am

we

hear.

we

being, &c. are being, &c.

53.
^

and

u,

In consonantal verbs, and verbs having their stems in the vowel i is changed into e before ris and 7-e.
caed-, cut.

caedi-t

he, she, or it cuts.

he, she, or it caed-i-tnr ....I

cut.

is

being

caed-Vi-nt

they cut.

caed-i-S

you
ye

cut.

caed-M-ntur ...Athey are being cut. caed-e-vis, or ) Q^ ^^.^ ^^^^ ^^^^

caed-e-re...

:}
>

caed-l-tis

cut.

caec^i-mini
caed-or

caed-o

I cut.

caed-i-inus...we cut.

cacd-l-mur

ye are being cut, I am being cut. we are being cut.

capi-, take.

capi-t

he, she, or

it

takes.

.tmcanj-iur
capp-M-ntVLT cape-vis, or

;
(

he, she, or it

is

being

taken.

capi-u-nt
capi-s

they take.

they are being, &c.

I
)

you take.
ye take.
I take.

yo^ are being, &c.

ye are being, &c.
I

cape-re
cojpt-tis

capi-mlni
capi-or

capi-O

am

Toeing, &c.

ciqn-mvLS

we

take.

capl-mvir

we

are being, &c.

20

PKESENT INDICATIVE PASSIVE.

minu-,
ACTIVE.
lessen.

PASSIVE.

mmw-i-tur
t

^^'
. . .

'^^^'

^^ >*

^^

ens.

|
(

^^^"S

lessened.

m?.2i-u-iit ...they lessen. 7nin u-i-s you lessen.

mmi*-u-ntur....they are being, &c.

'

you are being, &c.

I

?ni)n/-i-tis....ye lessen. itiimi^o I lessen.

??!i7?M-i-mmi....ye are being, &c.

7?!iM-i-mus..we lessen.

minu-or ?mM-i-mur

am

we

being, &c. are being, &c.

54. The time of the present indicative passive is the same as the time of the present indicative active. But in English various ways are adopted to express the present indicative

passive

indeed,

it is

said

by some not

to

have any representawritten

wi-iting

I avoid the passive form. writing a letter Some use the form, " the letter is being written ;" and for grammatical purposes we may adopt this form, but it is rarely
is
:

tive in English. now, I prefer to " he it, and say,

when I speak of a letter being mention the name of the person who is
Thus,
"

sometimes in English use the employed in good English. present indicative active form with the meaning of the present " indicative passive the ship is building ;" which means as, "the ship is being built." Great care must be taken to see
:

We

whether the words imply that the subject is getting the action done to it; and whether that action is now taking place, or takes place habitually. Thus " John is fighting " is active
"
;

the house

is

present passive "the letter is wi'itten" perfect passive, for the action is finished and complete.
is

making"

is

55.

Stems for exercise

;

Crea, create
;

spolia, strip
;

monstra, point out

terre,

scrm, save

juva, help

habe,

have

crema, burn ; tene, hold ;

frighten; mom, wa,rn;find, cleave; mitt, send; sum, take; spern, despise; fodl, dig; rapt, snatch; stru, build; custodi, \va.tch ;fini, finish;

muni,

fortify.

THE IMPERFECT INDICATIVE PASSIVE.

56.

of

The Imperfect Indicative Passive is formed from the stem the imperfect by adding the personal terminations of the
ntur, they; ris or re,

passive ;r, he; Thus mur, we.

:

you; mim, ye;

r,

I;

IMPERFECT INDICATIVE PASSIVE.

crea-ba.

21

SINGULAR.
crm-ba-tur..
crea-ba-ris,
(

PLURAL.
or
it

he,

she,

was
cj-m-ba-ntur

they

were

being

j
> '
)

being created.

^^^^^^j

or -re
cTca-ba-r

you were being, "' &c.

I

CT'ca-ba-mini ...ye

were being, &c.

was being, &c

crcrt-ba-mur....we were being, &c.

dele-bahe, she, or
(Zcfe-ba-tur
...{
it

was
dele-h^-ntuT.

they were being de^^^^^^^^_

being destroyed.

defe-ba-ris,or

>

you were being, &c.

I

rfe^e-ba-mini. ...ye
dele-ha,-m}iT

were being,

&c.

dele-ha-r

was being, &c.

we were

being, &c.

audi-eba-.
,
.

-, -

awcZ*-eba-tur
{

he, she, or it

was
i*(Zi-eba-ntur

they were being

j^^^^^^

being heard.

-j

McZi-eba-ris, oj. .re

aitcii-eba-r

[you
I

were being, &c.

aM(ii-eba-mini.ye were being, &c.

a(Zi-eba-inur..we were being, &c.

was being, &c.

caed-eba-.

caed-eh^-tur
cae(Z-eba-ris, or -re

., .

(he, she, or
\
>

it

was

cac cZ-eba-iitur. they were being cut.

.

being cut.

you were being

I

cut.

caccZ-eba-mini .ye were being cut.

caerf-eba-r

was being

cut,

me(i-eba-mur..we were being cut.

capi-eba-.
( he, she, or it c^i-eba-tur. I being taken.
.

., .

was
mpt-eba-ntur..

they

were being

-J

^^^^^^

capi-eba-ris,
. or -re

>
)

you were being, ' &c.

'

capi-eba-mini..ye were being, &c.

capi-eba-T

was being taken.

cpi-eba-mur..we were being, &c.

57. The imperfect indicative passive is of the same time as the imperfect indicative active, and the observations made in regard to the translation of the Latin present indicative passive

into English, hold in regard to the translation of the Latin imperfect indicative passive into English.

22

FUTURE INDICATIVE

PASSIVE.

THE FUTURE INDICATIVE PASSIVE.

58.

The Future

Judicative Passive

is

formed from the stem

of

the future indicative active, by appending the passive personal In verbs which have hi as tlie tense sign of the terminations. the future, i^ersonal terminations are added as in the present
:

in the other verbs as in the imperfect.

Thus

SINGULAR.
(

PLURAL.
c?'ca-bu-iitur
. . .

be,

crm-bi-tur...|
crca-be-ris, or -re
\

she, or it will i^^ ereated.

...
.

they will be created,

> ^
J

vou

Avill

be created,

crca-bi-mini. ...ye will be created,

crea-b-or
(

I shall be created.
tie, he,

crea-bi-mur
f

we

shall be created.

she,

or

it will

cff?e-bi-tur
cfc?e-be-ris,
-re.
f?fZe-b-or>

...

<

-^ be destroyed.

f/c?e-bu-ntur.
(
.

they

will

be

de-

or
\

you

will be, &c.

stroyed. dele-hi-mini ...ye will be, &c.

dele-hl-mvir
will

I shall be, &c.

he, she, or it

we

shall be, &c.

aMfZi-e-ntur

they will be heard.

.

aM(7-e-tur...| audi-G-x\s, or
>

be heard.
audi-e-mini
...ye will

be heard. be heard.
ciit.

-re.

you

will be beard.

audi-a.-T

I shall be heard.
(

audi-e-mviT

we

shall

he, she, or

it

will

cacf^e-ntur
caed-e-mini

they will be

caed-e-tuT....\ caed-e-iis, or )
>

^e cut.

you

will be cut.

ye will be

cut.

caed-a.-r

I shall be cut.
(he,

caed-e-mur
c^i-e-ntur

we

shall be cut.

...
capi-e-ris, or

they will be taken. ye wUl be taken.

cain-e-tMV....]^
i

betaken.

>

you

-n will

t, i be taken.
4.

capi-e-miui
capi-e-mvir

capi-a-r

I shall be taken.

we

shall be taken.

59. The i^erfect, pluperfect, and future perfect indicative and are therefore omitted till passive are compound tenses we come to the elements of which they are composed. One " I of these elements is the vei'b swm, am." This verb is irre;

gular, as in English ; but as it continually occurs, indicative and imperative moods here.

we

give the

SUM.
INDICATIVE.

23

60.

INCOMPLETE TENSES.
PKESENT.
SINGULAR.
est
es he, she, or
it is.

PLURAL.

sunt
estis
I

sum

you are. I am.

they are. ye are.

siimus

we

are.

IMPERFECT.
?ra-t
et'd-s

he, she, or it was.

era-nt
era-tis

you were.
I was.

they were. ye were.

era-m

ej-a-mus ....we were.

FUTURE.
^ri-t
h'i-3

he, she, or it will be. you will be.

Sru-nt
eri-tis

they will be. ye will be.

er-0

1 shall be.

M-mus
COMPLETE TENSES.
PERFECT.

we

shall be.

J.

f.
.

c
.. .<
(^

he, she, or it has been,

JWl-Xi

or was.

/i-sti. ...you

fui

have been, or were. I have been, or was.

/M-erunt, i they have been, or were. or /m -ere) ye have been, or were. /iti-stis we have been, or were. /at-mus

PLUPERFECT.
/it-era-t

he, she, or it

had been.

/M-era-nt....they
/tt-era-tis. ...ye

/w-era-s
/it-era-m.

you had been. ...I had been.

had been, had been. /M-era-mus..we had been.

FUTURE PERFECT.
i
!<.; +
(

he, she, or been.

it

will

have

/w-eri-nt ...they
.

wiU have been.

/M-eri-s

you

will

fu-ei-o

I shall

have been. have been.

/M-eri-tis....ye will have been. /M-eri-mus..we shall have been.

IMPERATIVE.
First Form.

es

be thou.
Second or

este

.be ye.

Emphatk Form.
estote

esto esto

thou shalt be. he shall be.

sunto

ye shall be. they shall be.

24

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

THE IMPERATIVE MOOD.

is used wlieu the subject of the do or get something done to it. In English we generally use the simple verb for the second person without expressing the nominative as, " do this." "We make the third person by let " let him do this ;" or by the emphatic

61.

The Imperative Mood

is

sentence

oi'dered to

shall, or

by must" he

shall

do this

he mv^t do

this."

Latin has two forms of the imperative.

FIRST FORM OF THE IMPERATIVE.
62. Tlie fii'st form of the imperative has only the second person singular and the second person plural. The second person singular of the first form of the imperative

active in a,
e,

is

the same as the stem

I;

and

when the stem of the verb ends and the second person plural is formed by addPLURAL.

ing

te.

SINGULAR.

ama
dele

love (thon).

anm-te
dele-te

love (ye).

destroy (thou).

audi

hear (thou).

audi-te

destroy (ye). hear (ye).

passive

The second person singular of the first form of the imperative is formed by adding re to the stem and the second
;

person plural

is

the same as the second person plural present

indicative passive.

amd-re
dele- e

audi-ie

SINGULAR. be thou loved. be thou destroyed. be thou heard.

PLURAL. be ye loved. dele-wlni be ye destroyed. aitc^i-miai be ve he rd.

ma-inini

The first form of the imperative active and passive of verbs having their stems in a consonant or in ^ or u, is produced in but in all the consonantal and ^c verbs the the same way vowel e is added in the singular and the vowel i in the plural
:

and

in verbs in

t,

the

of tlie

stem

is

changed into

4 in the

second person singular.

Thus

EMPHATIC FORM OF THE IMPERATIVE.

SINGULAR.
caed-e
caed-e-ve

25

PLURAL.
ecrf-i-te

cut (thou).

cut

(ye).

be thou cut.
lessen (thou). be thou lessened.

caeci-i-mini

be ye cut.
.

minu-B

minu-i-ie
??iwm-i-mini.
capl-tQ
capi-vavax
.

mmw-e-re
caps
cape-re

.be

lessen (ye). ye lessened.

take (thou). be thou taken.

take (ye). be ye taken.

THE SECOND OR EMPHATIC FORM OF THE IMPERATIVE.

In the emphatic form of the imperative, to is added to the stem to form the second and third persons singular of the active, and tor to form the second and third persons singular of
63.

the passive ; tote to form the second person plural of the active ; nio to form the third person plural of the active, and ntor to
of the passive. There is no form for the second person plural of the passive ; but the secojid person plural of the future indicative passive may be used

form the third person plural

instead.

The vowel

i is

inserted after stems in

u and in conso:

nants, except before nto and ntor, when tt is inserted u is also inserted before nto and ntor in verbs with stems in I or i.

Thus:

SECOND PERSON.
ama-to amo-tor
dele-to
dele-tor.

SINGULAR. thou shalt love. thou shalt be loved. thou shalt destroy. ( thou be deshalt
l

PLURAL.
ama-tbte
c^fe-tote

ye shall love. ye shall destroy.

audl-to

audi-iox
caed-i-to

caed-l-tor
minur-i-to

thou thou thou thou thou

. .

stroyed. shalt hear.

shalt be heard.
shalt cut.

audi-tote

ye shall hear.

caec-i-t6te...ye shall cut.

shalt be cut. shalt lessen.

HiOTM-i-tote ..ye shall lessen.

minu^l-tOT
capl-to

.thou shalt be lessened.

capi-tox

thou shalt take. thou shalt be taken.

Cftpi-tote

ye shall take.

THIRD PERSON.
ama-to
mrt-tor
dele-to

he shall love. he shall be loved.

am((r-Tito

anuv-ntor
dele-nto
rfde-ntor... i
I
:

he shall destroy.
he shall be destroyed.

dele-tOT
(338)

they shall love. they shall be loved. they shall destroy. ^^ '^^*h^y

^^f^

stroyed.

26

THE NOUN.
PLURAL.
audi-VL-nto

audi-to audl-tOT

SINGULAR. he shall hear. he shall be heard. he shall cut. caed-i-to he shall be cut. cec?-i-tor he shall lessen. minu-i-to minu-i-tor ...he shall be lessenerlhe shall take. cajn-to he shall be taken. cajjT-tor

.they shall hear. nMcZt-u-ntor..they shall be heard.

. .

caec?-u-iito. ...they shall cut.

cffccZ-u-ntor...they shall be cut. ?)MnM-u-nt0...they shall lessen.

ww)iM-u-ntor they shall be lessened,

crtjn-u-nto. ...they shall take.
ci>i-ii-ntor ..they shall

be taken.

is to 04. simple mechanical rule for forming these parts take the third person singular present indicative active, and add o for the second and third persons singular active, or for the second and third persons singular passive, and ote for the

second person plural active

and add

o to the third person

the third pereon plural plural present indicative active for third for the and or person plural imperative imperative active,
passive.

CHAPTER
65.

II. THE

NOUN.

There

The one

are, in reality, only class consists of verbs,

two classes of inflected words. and the inflection is produced

by adding a word alone,

consists of

word and a pronominal word, or a pronominal The other class of inflected words nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and participles. The
tense
to the root.
;

words consists also in adding a elepronominal element to the root and the same pronominal ments are used in the inflection of all the nouns, adjectives, and participles, and in most of the pronouns.
inflection in the case of these

For the purposes

of

grammar

nouns and adjectives for every probetter comprised in two noun is in usage either a noun or an adjective, and every
;

these four parts of speech are

participle is
66.
it

an

When
itself,

a word

adjective. is so used that

an assertion can be made of

;

by

that

"
sentence,

/ is

used as a noun as, for instance, in the " I" is used as a noun. The name a pronoun,"

word

is

norm, however,

is

which given generally only to those words

GENDER.

27

are most frequently used as nouus. These words denote persons or things that exist by themselves, or are conceived to exist by themselves.

the other hand, a word or phrase is used adjectively when used to give the quality of or to describe that about which an assertion may be or is made as, " the eagle, king of birds,
it is

On

flies

swiftly"

where king of birds

ap^jly the

is

added adjectively to

eagle.

words that are most frequently used as adjectives and these words denote qualities, or in some way go along with nouns to mark out some feature of the objects which the nouns denote. In other words, nouns are fixed in form they denote a definite object they have a definite gender and they can with a verb make a complete sentence.
adjective to a set of
;

But we generally

word

An adjective, on the other hand, is always added to a noun It depends for which, however, need not be always expressed. its form on the noun to which it is added and thus is vari; ;

able,

according to the nature

of

the noun with which

it

agrees.

So if pronouns stand by themselves, and are fixed and definite, they are noun-pronouns and if they go along \ni\x nouns, pointing to them and defining them, then they are adjective;

pronouns.

GENDER.
their gender fixed ; but as adjectives may have to go with nouns belonging to any of the three genders, they must have forms to suit these difiei'ent genders.
67.

The nouns have

In English the law in regard to gender is quite simple. All nouns denoting males are masculine, and all nouns denoting
females are feminine

neuter

that
So

nouns denoting things without

life

are

is,

neither.

But

this is not the case in Latin.

At

the early stage of the Latin language, when genders were given to nouns, people were like children who believe that everything

has

life.

We still speak
dour
;

objects were divided into males and females. sun in his glory, and the moon in her splenbut this mode of speaking was then api>lied to everything.
all

of the

But in

process of time people

came to think

of

some things as not

28
having
there
life
;

NOMINATIVE CASE.
aud
so neuter

nouns

ai-ose.

is

a considerable

number

of neuter

Accordingly in Latin words but many

;

words which are neuter in English are either masculine or feminine in Latin. Things, for instance, which were strong and vigorous like males, were thought of as males such as the winds and the nouns denoting them were made masculine and other things which were weak and j^atient as trees were thought of as females, and the nouns denoting them were made feminine. Accordingly in Latin we have this rule All nouns denoting males are masculine, and all nouns denoting females are feminine but nouns which are neuter in English are not necessarily neuter in Latin, but may be masculine or feminine. Often the gender of the noun has determined the termination of the word, and so we may learn from the termination what

the gender

is.

NUMBER.
68.

There are two numbers in Latin as

in English

singular

and

plural.

NOMINATIVE CASE.
69.

If

we

can be divided into two parts

in regard to

take any sentence in any language, we find that it the one part gives us the subject
:

which an assertion is made that person or thing of which we speak; and the other gives us the statement in that which we say about it. regard to the subject of our talk The word which makes the assertion, or which makes the essenThe word which contial portion of the assertion, is a verb.

tains the subject is a noun in the nominative case, or a word used as a noun in the nominative case. The case should there-

fore be called the subjective case.

Thus

in the sentences

which
;

we have

had,

we have always had

fight
;

at least

two parts

as in

pugnat {pugna,
70.

t,

he),

where

t,

a pronoun, acts as a noun

in the subjective or nominative case.

In English
:

we

before the verb

generally put the nominative, or subject, the verb then follows and if the verb is a
;

NOMINATIVE CASE.

29

transitive verb, the woi'd expressing the object comes after it. " Thus in the sentence John strikes William," we know that it
is

John that

strikes

we were to change the John," we alter the sense

If
:

William because the word John is put first. " William strikes order, and say entirely, and make William the

The ancients did person striking, and John the person struck. not follow this plan in fact, this plan could occur only to a people that has long existed in the world. The English order If we saw John strike WUliam, the is not the natural order.
first

thing

we should

we must
William.

see

see would be either John or William, and them both before we can say that John strikes

should therefore say, following the order of our " John William strike." But here we should be in observation, a difiiculty as to which struck and which was struck; so, to make this always clear, the ancients adopted the following
:

We

They added a word to the noun to the word denoting plan which indicated that he was the doer .the doer of the action of the action; and they added a word to the word denoting

the receiver of the action, which indicated that the action fell on him. may represent this method in English thus: " doer" to the word denoting the Suppose we put the word " he" as many think was doer, or suppose we put the word

We

the meaning

of the

nominative case indicate him towards

"

word attached to the noun to make the " towards" to and suppose we add the word

whom

the action goes, then

we

could say,

John-doer (or John-he) William-towards is striking." This words in any plan has this advantage, that you may place the
order you " Is
that
like,

and they

will

striking William-towards John-he :" the

always mean the same thing. " he" indicates

John

is
;

the action

and

the doer, the "towards" that William receives " John strikes so the sentence must mean,

William."
are formed

They by adding small words to noun-stems to point out some connection which the word has with the other words of the sentence. These case-words have been worn down to a very great extent, and there is great discussion as to what they But though we cannot settle what was the originally meant.

From

this illustration the true nature of cases is seen.

30

NOMINATIVE CASE.

purposes they
to do.

exact form of these woi'ds originally, we know very well what now serve ; and it is with this we have specially

Each case- word or case-ending has a special meaning or meanings of its own, wherever it be in the sentence and hence the vast importance of knowing these most accurately.
;

PERSONS.

There are three persons. / and we are the first person, and no other words are of the first person. So thou, you, and ye are of the second person, and no other words are of the second And, consequently, all other words nouns and properson. nouns are of the third person. "When a noun is put to a verb as subject, the pronoun of the third person, t, is added to the Thus Dominus regnat means " the Lord reigns;" but if verb. we translate it fully, it means " the Lord-he reigns-he." "We
71.

The word reigns means "reign-he;" and when we say "the Loixl reigns," it " the Lord reign-he :" and in some old ballads we really means " the Lord he reigns.'' find such constructions as
have something of a similar nature in English.
ARTICLE.
72.

There

is

no

article in

tence,

Dominus

Lord
have

a Lord reigns," or " Lord reigns." reigns," or to find out from the connection which of these the writer
to say.

regnat, "

Latin hence when we get a we do not know whether it means

:

sen"

the

We

meant
73.

according to the terminations of the stem.

a,

"We divide nouns into the same number of classes as verbs, The stems end in

u and consonants. e, i, 0, The case-words have undergone most change when added to stems in a and o. Indeed, the change is so great that if we
were not assured, by the existence of earlier forms, and by the cases of cognate languages, we might doubt whether the same case-words were added to these as to stems ending in consoThis great change has arisen from the amalgamation of nants.
the vowel of the stem with the vowel of the case-word.

NOMINATIVE CASE.

31

On the other hand, the noun-stems ending in a consonant have undergone great changes when combined with the word which gives the meaning of the nominative to it and therefore it is often impossible to learn from the nominative of these words what is their stem. In other words, the nominative in consonantal stems is the most corrupt, and therefore most difficult, case, 74. Generally speaking, the nominative singular of masculine and feminine words is formed by adding s to the stem and the nominative plural, by adding es. But as these words are moditied to a large extent, it is necessary to go over each form of stem particularly. 75. Stems in a have the stem for the nominative singular. For the nominative plural, e is added to the stem; and the vowels a and e are combined so as to form a diphthong. Thus
;

Stem.

32
78.

NOMINATIVE CASE.
Stems
for practice
:

agno-,

lamb anno-, year

;

asino-, ass

caiwpo-,

plain; fumo-,

smoke;

liipo-,

sound; agro-, field; a2yro-, law; socero; father-in-law.

79.

wolf; oculo-, eye; ramo-, branch; sono-, boar; magistro-, master; genero-, son-in-

The nominative singular

e,
i,

of

masculine

words having stems in

the stem.

and

u, is

and feminine formed by adding s to

The nominative plural is formed by adding es to the stem. But the vowels amalgamate ee becomes e, ie becomes e, and ue becomes u. Thus
: :

Stem.

re,

thing.

NoM. SiNo. NoM. Plujk.

80.

re-a.

navi, ship. navi-&,

fructu, fruit.
fructu-s.

res.

naves.

fructus.

Stems

for practice: die-,

api-,

day;

fide-,

faith; facie-, face; serie-,

row; auri; ear;

bee;

classi-, fleet; oi;t-,

sheep;

jpe^Zi-,

skin;

valli-,

valley; curru-, chariot; exercitu-,

versu-, line; vultu-, countenance.

army;

metu-, fear; sensu-, sense;

81. Stems ending in consonants are very irregular in the formation of the nominative, and most regular iu the formation of

the other cases.

The nominative singular of masculine and feminine nouns having consonantal stems is formed by the addition of s to the stem. Sometimes this combination takes place without any change sometimes the s amalgamates with the previous consonant sometimes the previous consonant is omitted before the s; sometimes the s disappears; and frequently the vowel before
;
;

the final consonant or cousonaats

is

changed, and especially

i is

changed into e. Consonants are divided into two classes miites and liquids. The mutes are divided into three classes, accordinf to

the organs used in pronouncing them

(3) t,d.
(1.)

(1)

ji),

h;

(2)

c,

cj;

Wlien

s is

place, or only
Stem.

added to a ^tem in ^j or b, no change takes he vowel i is changed into e. Tluis

:

urh, city. urb-s.

princip, chief
pi-incep-s.

man.

NoM. Sing.

NOMINATIVE CASE.
(2.)

33
ff-

When
Stem.

s is

added to a stem iu
due, leader.
reff,

or

cs

or gs becomes x.

Thus:
king.

pac, peace.

NoM.

Sing.

dux.
is

rcX.

pax.

Sometimes the vowel

chauged

as

Stem.

apic, point.

NoM. Sing. apBX.

(3.)

When
:

s is

added

to

or d, the

or

d vanishes before

the

s.

Thus

Stem.

pont, bridge.
Sing. pons.

gland, acorn, aetat, age.

glans.
aetas.

vad, surety.
vas.
dot,

NoM.
Stem.

quid, quiet.

pcd, foot,
pes.

lapid, stone,
lapis.

dowry,

NoM. Sing, quiea.

Stem.

dos.

KoM. Sing,

custod, guardian, salut, safety, pahid, marsh. salua. custos. palua.

Very frequently the vowel

Stem.
equit,

i is

changed into

e; as

horseman.

NoM. Sing, eques.

The
(1.)

liquids

are (1)

I; (2)

m;
I.

(3)

n;
:

(4) r.

The

disappears after
sal, salt.

Thus
sol, sol.

Stem.

sun.

consul, consul. consul.

Nom.
(2.) s is

Sing.

sal.

added to m.
Stem.

Thus

Aicm., winter. Nom. Sing. hiem-S.

(3.)

Wlien

s is

added to
o.

n,
:

both

and n disappear, and the

nominative ends in
Stem.

Tlius

NoM.

Sing.

ordin, order. ordo.

lean, lion.
IcO.

In one word the nominative

Stem.

is en.

Thus

pectin, comb.
piect^n.

NoM. Sing,

34

NOMINATIVE CASE.

(4.) The letters s and r are continually interchanged in liatiu. Accordingly in the nominative singular the s disapjjears after /,

or

it

stands instead of
tor, lar.

r.

Thus

Stem.

household god.

o?'dto?',

orator.

rz<?i',

vulture.

NoM. Sing.
Stem.

orator.

vultur.
glir, glis,

NoM.

Sing.

mar, male. mas.

Cerer, Ceres, CereB.

dormouse,

mor, manner. mos.

e

Veiy many nouns that have their stems Thus the t and r in the nominative.
:

in tr insert

between

Stem.

patr, father.
ptat^r.

NoM. Sing.

matr, mother. mattr.

fratr, brother.
frater.

In a few cases v and

form the

final letter of

the stem.

Thus

Stem.

hov,

ox or cow.

niv,

snow.

ass,
as.

a coin.

NoM. Sing.

60s.

nix.

These rules do not cover

all

the nominatives of the third

declension, but they apply to most.

The nominative plural Thus

:

is

formed by adding

es to

the stem.

Stem.

NOMINATIVE CASE.
CONSONANTAL STEMS.

35

36

ACCUSATIVE CASE.

The nominative in es may be from a stem in e, a stem in i, a stem in d, a stem in t, and a stem in r. The nominative in is may be from a stem in i, a stem in d, a stem in t, and a stem in r. The nominative
stem in
83.
t,

in as or os
r.

may be from

a stem in d, or a

or a stem in

The nominative

ject of the sentence

case
or, in

is

properly used to denote the subother words, of the verb; but it is

sometimes used as an adjective.

And

it

may be used

and thereadjective either to describe more fully the subject fore it agrees with the subject or it may be used to fill up the assertion. Thus Joannes, pater, regnat, " John, the father,

as

an

where the word pater describes Joannes more fully, and jmter is therefore put in the same case as Joannes. Or we may say Joannes est p>ater, "John is father;" where pater is part of the predicate, and refers back to Joannes just as if it were an adjective, and therefore agrees with it.
reigns
;

"

THE ACCUSATIVE
84.

CASE.
to

The

original

meaning

of the
is

word which was added

called the accusative case, seems to have pointed out direction to or toioards. And a remnant of this appears in the circumstance that, with names of " to a place" is expressed by the accusative. towns, Thus, if I were to say in Latin, " I went to Kome," I should put " to

the noun-stem to foim what

now

Rome" in the accusative and the Latin words seem really to have meant, " going- was-I Eome-towards (or Eome-to)." From this first meaning of the accusative- word theie followed another, which is now by far the commonest. "We now divide verbs into transitive and intransitive. We call " sit" an in;

transitive verb, because when I say I sit," I require to say " I kill" is transitive, because nothing more to make sense ; but

"

add the name of some person or animal that I am But originally all verbs seem to have been intransitive. Thus I kill" seems to have meant " I am in the act of killing ;" and if I wished to state to whom my act was directed, I should
I require to
killing. "

ACCUSATIVE CASE.
" have had to say I

37

am in the act of killing towards the lion," or, " kill-I lion-towards." The accusative came in the Latin form, in this way to be tlie mode of stating the person or thing on whom the action of the verb falls to whom the action of the

verb passes over.

Hence

jective case ; and we put in the accusative case.

in English the case is called the obsay that the object of a transitive verb is

is the remnant of the word that denoted to 85. The letter " him." Accordor towards^ and is found in the English word and feminine nouns of masculine accusative the singular ingly, to vowel is formed by adding em to consonantal stems and

stems.

The

accusative plural
s to

is

formed by adding

es

to con-

sonantal stems and

Stem.

vowel stems.

Thus

38
tiuctly.

ACCUSATIVE CASE.
This was done by means of words which are

now

called prepositious. Thus the sentence, "I removed towards or in the direction of the town," does not say distinctly whether " I went into the town or not ; and so tlie Latins said, migi-avi

removed-have-I into of motion was implied in the migmvi: it was a removal " into." The m of the accusative points out that towards which this motiou-into
literally

in

oppidum," which

means,

"

towii-towards."

The word

in tells really

what kind

was

directed.

are properly adverbs, and the

Therefore " into" in English, and the in in Latin, of the accusative retains its

say that in is a preposition, and " governs the accusative in the sense of into." 87. There are about thirty-four words of this nature whicli
are followed

own meaning; but we now

by the accusative
:

those most frequently used

are the following

ad, to
in, into

apud, with or at
contra, against

migravi ad urhem, I removed to the cit}'. migraviin wrfeem, I removed into the city. habitavit apud considem, he lived with the consul that is, at the house of the consul, .pugnavit contra rcgem, he fought against

the king, extra, without, outside of. .^)W5ri-/ extra portaa, he fought outside of the gates.
intra, within
infra, beneath

pugnavit intra porta,a, he fought within the

gates,
situs est infra

portam, he

is

buried below

the gate.

superand supra,
inter,

above.... swi>ra

lunam omnia sunt

all
ct

aeterna, above the

moon
between
place

things are eternal.

hie locus inter u7-bem.

is

Tibcrim

est,

this

ante, before

between the city and the Tiber. Hannibal est ante par tB.s, Hannibal is before
post

post, behind, after

the gates. Ciceronem. erat Aegina, Aegina was behind Cicero ; 2^ost paucOB dies, after a

few days.
per, through

jacent 2xr herba,m, they He along the grass; per multOB annos, during many years.

88.

"We also find the accusative used to denote the time

place,

during which an event took

or the

amount

of space

ACCUSATIVE CASE.
through which a person or thing went.

39

"the king reigned

regnavit.

ten years;"
till

reigned ten years-towards (or

say in English, the Latins said, "the king " ten years) rex decern annos

We

" say in English, he travelled a mile;" the Latins niille passes meaning a thousand said, iter fecit mille passus " the river is a hwidred paces-towards. say in English, broad the Latins est centum passu% latus ;" said, Jiuvius paces

We

We

the space, centum passus, being in the accusative.

NEUTER NOUNS.
supposed that, when things began to be conceived as being without life, these things were spoken of in the accusaThere is no doubt tive, and that they had no nominative.
89.

It is

that this would have been a natural

way

of looking at things

for a thing without life cannot really do anything it has no real activity in it. So the mode of thought would have been thus for instance, instead of saying, as we now say, " the " as to the temple building went temple was built," they said,
;

on." Be tills as it may, there is no doubt that the nominative and accusative of iieuter nouns are always the same. The nominative singular of neuter nouns is either the accusativeform or the pure stem. The pure stem may remain unaltered, or it

may undergo slight alteration, but we can see that nothing is added to it. The nominative and accusative plural of aU neuter nouns end in a. There are no neuter nouns with stems ending in a and e. Stems in o have the neuter in the accusative form Mm. Thus:
Stem.
temj^lo,

temple.

NoM. AND Aco. Sing. NoM. AND Aco. Plur.

tevi2d\xn\.,

tcmpla,.

Words with stems

Stem.

in

u have the stem

for the neuter.

Thus

cornu, horn.

NoM. AND Ace. Sing. co?*nu. NoM. AND Ace. Plur. cornu-k.

Genuine Latin words with stems two forms.

in i

have their neuters

in

40
(1.)

ACCUSATIVE CASE.
Sometimes the stem forms the neuter, with the change
S.

of

the final i into

Thus

Stem.

mari, sea.

NoM. AND Ace. SiNO. mavB. NoM. AND Aco. Plur. mari-B,.
(2.)

In stems of three or more syllables ending in

cut
off.

all

and an,

the

i is

Thus

Stem.

NoM. AND Aco. SiNQ. NoM. AND Ace. Plur.

animali, animal. animal.

anunali-a,,

calcari, spur.

calcar.
calcari-a..

The endings of the consonantal stems are numerous but in some there are only two or three words having these endings. Stems in t and d ai'e exceedingly few. One neuter word is the simple stem with the change of the vowel that precedes the
;

final letter.

Thus

Stem.

capit, head.

NoM. AND Aco. SiNO. capUt. NoM. AND Acc. Plub. capit-&.

This

is

the only

Another word

noun whose nominative ends in Thus loses the t of the stem.

lact,

t.

Stem.

milk.

NoM. AND Aco. Sing.

lac.

(No

plural.)
c.

This and another are the only nouns whose nominatives end in There is only one neuter word with the stem in d. It is

Stem.

cord, heart.
cor.
coixl-a,.

NoM. AND Acc. Sing. NoM. AND Acc. Plur.

AH the

other words which are neuter have their stems end-

ing in a liquid.

Thus
Stem.

KoM, AND Aco. Sing.

Stem.

mel, honey. mel.

carmin, song.
carmeii, song. carmln-B,.

fulgur, lightning.
fulgur.
fulgur-a.

NoM. AND Acc. SiNo. NoM. AND Acc. Plur.

GENITIVE CASE.
Stem.
gencr, race, kind.
</c>ius.

41
corpor, body.
corjjViS.

NoM. AND Acc. Sing. NoM. AND Acc. Plue.

corpft'-a.

Most of these words make their simple stem the nominative and accusative singular. Those whose stems end in in have en in the nominative and accusative singular. Some whose stems end in er and &r have us for the nominative and accusative singular.
90.

ablative.

The other cases that remain are, the genitive, The words which went to form these
to the
of the nouns.

dative,

and

cases were

added

stem in the same way, whatever might be the In other words, the genitive, dative, and gender ablative singular and plural are formed in the same way, whether the nouns be masculine, feminine, or neuter.

THE GENITIVE CASE.

genitive singular is formed by adding is to the stem. But with stems in a, e, and o, the s was lost and in stems in a and o the i amalgamated with the vowel, ai becoming ae diphthong, oi becoming ^. Nouns having the stem in u contracted the uis into us ; and nouns having the stem in i
91.

The

simply added

s.

STEM IN

A.

42

GENITIVE CASE.
CONSONANTAL STEMS.
Stem.
Giaj.

urb.

virtut.

sermon.

Pluk. Mr6-i-um.
cajnt.

virtut-um.
corpor.

sermon-um.
gener.

Stem.

Gen. Plur. capU-Mm..

corpSr-um.

gener-um.

It will be noticed that there is an i inserted between the stem and the iim of terbium. The insertion of this i takes place

in a number of words, especially those which are monosyllabic and some have been inclined to j^lace these words amongst words that have the stem in i. Which consonantal stems have i-um in the genitive plural, and which have um only, can be leai'ned from observation of the usage in classic writers, and by rules and lists made to embrace all the instances. 93. There can be no doubt that the is of the genitive singular in words in the consonantal stems is the real remnant of the word which was originally used to combine with the stem.
;

Some think
;

that the

of the is is inserted simply as a connect-

ing vowel but all agree that the s is part of the word which gave the idea contained in the genitive case and in the Latin writings and inscriptions of an early date, there are instances of
;

nouns with stems ending in a and e, having the genitive case in s. The oi'iginal meaning of this s is uncertain. In Latin, it connects the word to which it is attached with another noun, and implies that the notions expressed by these words are somehow or other What the nature of related to or connected with each other. this connection is, must be found out from the context or the Thus in the sentence Joannes est pater nature of the case.
Jacobi,

you the person to whom In the sentence Joannes

father of James," the genitive, Jacobi, gives John stands in the relation of father. " John is the son of est Jilius Jacobi, the the person to whom John James," genitive, Jacobi, gives In the sentence habes librum stands in the relation of son. " Joannia, you have John's book," the genitive, Joannis, exis

"

John

presses that the

is

mm,

that of possession. " we fear the

book belongs to John. The kind In the sentence ivjiinas

of connection
kostiuva. time-

expresses that the

injuries of the enemy," the genitive, hostivLva, enemy are the doers or active agents in pro-

DATIVE CASE.
diicing the injuries.
If

43

we

take the sentence, injurias amico-

rum punimus, the meaning is ambiguous, as the last really was There are two notions too, as far as the form was concerned. " " and " friends " {amici). The connection behere, injuries tween these may be twofold, " the injuries done by friends," and " the injuries done to friends ;" and we cannot determine which is meant excei)t by the context or general sense. Most " the injuries done likely in the sentence given it would mean to friends," because it is more natural that we should punish
the injuries done to friends, than the injuries done by friends. So also, amor Dei may mean three things at least " the love
:

which God has or love which people

"the love which God produces," "the In fact, the genitive simply feel to God." intimates a connection with some other noun but the nature of that connection must be ascertained from the context
feels,"
;

is said that the genitive is to be translated by But care must be taken to get hold quite true. of the thought that is expressed by the genitive, and then it is no matter how the thought be expressed, provided that it be

"

of."

Generally This

it

is

should be rendered " injuries done

adequately expressed. Other prepositions may be used as well as "of." Thus in the sentence quoted above, injurias amicoxuva.
to

friends," or

"
injuries

done by friends," according to what the writer really meant. So we say, mediclna doloris, " a cure for pain ;" fuga periculi, " flight /rom danger;" via morti%, "the way to death ;" joes^/s " a plague to men " Jidiicia viri-am, " confidence in hominviva.,
;

strength;" opinio virtutia, "an oi^inion that some one is virtuous ;" error cursuB, " an uncertainty as to which way to go ;" ira Virginia, " anger on account of the virgin."

THE DATIVE
94.

CASE.

The dative singular is formed by adding i to the stem, and the dative plural by adding bzis or ibus to the stem. But with stems in a, the i of the dative singular amalgamated with the a, and ae diphthong was formed the i of the dative singular of stems in o vanished and i of stems in i combined with the
; ;

44
i

DATIVE CASE.

and made one I. Stems in a and o had origiuthem for the dative plural as filid-\iMS, c^MO-bus but there ai-e only a few words that now retain this termination. The dative plural in stems in a and o is formed by striking off the vowel of the stem and adding is. Thus
of the dative,
ally

hus added to
;

ABLATIVE CASE.

45

" I the book," means gave the book to John or for John, so " " " therefore John is in the dative case that John might enjoy it " this book is useful to So again, in the sentence in Latin. " me," "to me" means for my benefit ;" and accordingly in Latin it is put in the dative.
:

very frequently use the objective case in English where the Latins use the dative, because actions may be conceived in Thus I say in English, " I favour John," where two ways.
" But in Latin favour." in the objective after " I am in a favourable state ;" and so I faveo seems to mean " What say Joanni faveo, I am in a favourable state for John." verbs are thus joined with the dative and what with the accusa"

We

John "

is

tive,

must be ascertained by practice and committed

;

to

memory.

Some general rules can be given but there are no rules without many exceptions, because so much depends on the mode of
thought, which
is

different in difi'erent nations.

Thus

in Latin
;

they said stultura. risi, where risi is joined to an accusative " If I wish to I laughed at the fool." but we say in English " say I laughed to the fool," I use the dative, stidto risi.
It will be seen that the
is to

most common translation of the dative

or for.

THE ABLATIVE
96.

CASE.

ablative singular was originally formed by adding d This d has completely vanished in the Classical to the stem.

The

period

and accordingly the ablative singular is simply the stem lengthened where the stems end in a vowel, and the stem with the addition of e where the stems end in a consonant.
;

Thus

Stem.

ala.
al2L.

re.

nam.
navl.
corpor.

fructu.

Abl. Stnq.
Stem.

re

fructu.

domino.

sermon.
sermon-e,

Abl. Sino.

domino.

corpor-e.
i

The

i of

the ablative of words having their stem in

was
or

frequently changed into e: thus the ablative of 7iavis nave. In many words the form in e alone occurs.

is 7iavi

The

ablative plural

is

exactly the same as the dative plural.

46

ABLATIVE CASE.
shall find that the

We

meanings

of the ablative

and dative run

into each other sometimes,

97. The meaning of the word of which the d of the ablative was the remnant, vfa&from; and this, therefore, is the meaning " motion from that which is denoted by the of the ablative noun in the ablative." But, just as in the accusative, so in the ablative, the meaning of the word making the ablative soon became forgotten, and it is almost only in names of towns that the meaning is fully retained. Thus we say, Rom& migravit, " he removed from Rome." In the case of other words we

insert prej^ositions along with the ablative to express exactly what is meant ; as ex urbe migravit, " he removed out of the
city."

The prepositions that govern the ablative are fourteen in number; but of these the principal, in the true sense of the de, from, concerning, down from a, from, by ablative, are
:

e or ex, from, out of.

from the virum de virum ex from the

city" that is, urbe misit, "he sent a man down from the city;" urbe misit, "he sent a man from the city" that is, " he is loved by a inside of the city ; a viro amatur,

As virum
:

" ah urbe misit, he sent a man from the neighbourhood of the city;

man;" librum scripsit de morte, "he wrote a book on death;" " poma pendent ex arbore, apples hang from a tree." 98. The words which combined vath the noun-stems to make what are now called cases must have been originally small words and they became by firequent use smaller and smaller,
;

until, as in the ablative singular,

they vanished altogether.

As

this corruption of the little words become more like each other, and

would sometimes they would be "We have already found this in domino for dative identical. and ablative singular, and dominis for dative and ablative In this way two cases which are found in some cogplural. nate languages quite distinct have been absorbed in the ablaThese cases are the instrumental and locative. tive.

went

on, the cases

THE INSTRUMENTAL CASE. The instrumental case is the case in which a word is put when it expresses the manner in which, or the means by which,
99.

ABLATIVE CASE.
:

47

" an action is done. Thus vir carriB alitur, the man is fed on " he lives after the manner of wild fiesh ;" more ferarum vivit, " he strikes the man with a beasts ;" hominem scipione ferit,
staff."

THE LOCATIVE CASE.

100.

The
is

mination

locative case originally ended in i, and this terretained in a few words of frequent occurrence.
is

" in the country." So also when we say that a thing takes place in a town or city, and mention the name of the town or city, we use a form or case which

Thus, domi

used for " at home

;"

rwi,

in the a

and

o declensions

the consonantal declension

may be called the genitive may be called the dative

case,

and in

or ablative,

but which

is

the locative.

properly a case different from them all, namely Thus Roma,e habitat, "he dwells in Eome;"
" "

he dwells in Corinth;" Carthagini or Carhe dwells in Carthage." There are no names When the names of towns of towns with stems in e or u. " occur in the plural only, as Athenae Jiorent, Athens flourishes," is then used to express in the the form of the dative or ablative
Corinthi habitat,

thagine habitat,

place, as Athe7iia habitat,

"

he dwells in Athens."
is

But

in other

used with the prepoIn urbB habitat, "he dwells in a city;" in campo sition in. " " " he lies down in a in lacvi latet, he lies concealed plain jacet,

words

exjiressing locality the ablative

in a lake."

omitted

In a few instances the preposition in may be " he conquers by land and by terra, marique vincit,

sea;" aequo loco pugnat,

"he

fights

on favourable ground."

ABLATIVE OF TIME.
101. Just as the accusative
is

used to point out extent of space

and duration of time, so the ablative is used for point of space and point of time. But the ablative of time requires no preposition: octavo die fecit, "he did it on the eighth day;" Plato uno et octogesimo anno decessit, "Plato died in his one and
eightieth year.''

48

VOCATIVE CASE.

THE VOCATIVE
"

CASE.

102. In the sentence, Marcus Tullius, I appeal to you," the words Marcus Tullius are used to single out the person and to address him. These words are said to be in the vocative

The vocative case is used in addressing a person when, by using his name or some designation, the speaker summons him to attend to the statement or order that is to foUow. In
case.

English
also the

we
is

use the nominative case for this purpose. In Latin nominative case seems to have been used, and so the
the same as the nominative.

vocative

But
e.

in one instance

the nominative singular underwent a change. words having the stem in o, the us passed into
NoM. Sing,
Voc. Sing,

In most of the

Thus

dominus, ventus.

domine,

vente.

In proper names, having the nominative in

ius,

with the
:

i short,

and

injilius

and genius, the us was cut

NoM. Sing.
Voc. Sing.
Vergili, all

off.

Thus

Vergilius, filius.
fili.

"We have found six cases oiominative, accusative, genitive, dative, ablative, and vocative. The vocative we have found identical with the nominative in
103.

We have now

gone over
:

the cases of the noun.

form, except in one set of instances. The accusative singular of neuter nouns is also identical with their nominative. Tlie

and ablative, singular and plural, are formed from the stem, whatever be the gender of the noun. The accusative singular, and the nominative and accusative plural, have different forms, according as the nouns ai'e mascuWhen the nouns are masculine or line or feminine, or neuter. feminine, the accusative singular ends in m, and the accusative when the nouns are neuter, the accusative singular plural in s is like the nominative, and the accusative plural, like the nomigenitive, dative,

directly

native plural, always ends in a. 104. As the words which have given rise to the cases are the links by which the various words in the sentence ai-e connected

with each other,

it

is

exceedingly important to have them

VOCATIVE CASE.

49

smallness of thoroughly fixed in the miud. But owing to the these words and the decay which they have undergone, many of them which were unlike each other have become like or It is therefore necessary to keep clearly in the identical.

memory

the instances in which the same termination occurs in

of the verbs are

different senses.

The personal-terminations
in
t,

seldom likely to

be confounded with the cases of nouns.

The third person ends

and unt,
in t

the singular in at, et, it, and the plural in ant, ent, int, The only noun that ends in oue instance in ere.
in

is capiiX.
s,

The second person ends

the plural in tis. These fore care must be taken.

the singular in as, es,

is,

and

may

be noun-terminations, and there-

It is the sense and the knowledge of words that will enable one to know whether these are noun-

terminations or verb-terminations.

The
of

first

termination

o is a nounperson singular ends in o, or m, or i, is a termination of the accusative singular also,

nouns masculine and feminine also of the genitive plux^al and also of the nominative and vocative singular of neuter nouns with the stem in o. i also occurs in nouns in genitive masculine and singular and nominative and vocative plural of feminine nouns with the stem in o. It is also the sign of the dative singular of nouns having their stems in a consonant, in u, and in e. The first person plural of verbs ends in mus. US may be the termination of the nominative singular of nouns with the stem
;
;

in

and, as far as the letters are concerned,

it

may

also indi-

cate the genitive singular, and the nominative, accusative, vocative plural of nouns having their stem in u ; but the

and

of

mm in first person plural of the verb

tive singular

and nominative and

of the geniaccusative plural of nouns in

is

short, the

is

long.
list

The pupil should draw out a ing where they occur.

Thus a
of
is

of the terminations, show-

found in nominative, vocative, and ablative singular

a,

nouns in

and

in nominative, accusative,

and vocative plural

of all neuter nouns.

50
105.

FIRST DECLENSION.

Wlien one takes the nomiuative and then gives

all

the

other cases singular and plural, he is said to decline the word. There is properly speaking only one declension, because there is only one set of words added to roots to form the cases of all

nouns

but this fact and indeed the nature of case were unto earlier grammarians.

known
fourth,

They accordingly looked

the outward form, and

and

fifth.

arbitrary order
tive,

second, third, They also arranged the cases in the following nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocafirst,

made

five declensions

at

It is usual also in declining to attempt to give the meaning of the cases by means of English prepositions, though, as we have seen, this method is necessaiily defective,

and

ablative.

and the exact translation

service
it

of a case

performs in the sentence

can only be given when the is ascertained. "We shall

give these declensions after this form.

FIRST DECLENSION.
106.

Stem

in

a.

Almost

all

nouns of

this declension are

feminine, except

when

the sense makes them masculine.

SECOND DECLENSION.
SINGULAR.

51
PLUKAL.

NoM.
Gen.

ventu-s, the wind.

ventl, of

ve7iii,

the winds.

the wind.

ventbiTxm, of the winds.

ventls, to or for the winds.
veritba,

Dat.
Aco.
Voc.

vento, to or for the wind.

ventu-m, the wind.

vente,
vento,

the winds.

wind

venfi,

winds

Abl.

with, from, in, or by the wind.

vewfls, with, from, in, or

by the

winds.

NoM.
Gen. Dat.
Ace.

puer, a boy. pueri, of a boy. puerb, to o?' for a boy.

pitei'M-m, a boy.

pueri, boys, pwerorum, of boys.

puerls, to or for boys.

puerbs, boys.
pueri,
2JMcris,

Voc.

puer,

O boy

boys

Abl.

puerb, with, from, in, or by

with, from, in,

or

by

a boy.

boys.

NoM.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.

liber,

a book.

libri,

books.

?i6n, of a book. librb, to or for a book.

librbvMm, of books. libriB, to 0?' for books.

librba, books.
librl,

libru-m, a book.
liber,

Voc.
Abl.

book

O books

librb, with,

from,

in,

o?'

by

?i6)is,

a book.

with, from, books.

in,

or

by

NoM.
Gen. Dat.
Ace. Voc.

templu-va.,

a temple. tempR, of a temple. templb, to or for a temple.

tew^plu-m, a temple.

templb, temples.
templbxMxa., of temples.

templia, to or for temples.

templa, temples.
!

templu-m,

temple
from,

templa,,
in, or
tenij^lis,

temples

Abl.

templxt, with,

with, from, in, or

by

by a temple.

temples.

THIRD DECLENSION.
108.

Stems in cousonants and

e,

i;
x.

Nominative,

o,

c,

I,

n, r,

s,

t,

monosyllabic stems in u. No rules can be given for

the gender which have not

many

exceptions.

Nouns

in o,

er.

52
or,

THIRD DECLENSION.
;

and os are generally masculine and e, c, I, n, r, and t, neuter.

SINGULAR.

as,

is,

aus,

and

x,

feminine

PLURAL.
consM-e%, the consuls. consuUnva., of the consuls.

NoM.
Gen.
Dat.
Acq.

consul, a consul.

consUlAs, of a consuL
consul-i, to or for a consul.
consul-Qva.,

consMWbus, to or for the consuls.

consul-fs^,

a consul.
!

the consuls.
consuls
!

Voc.

consul,

consul

consul-^s,
co)zsiiZ-ihus,

Abl.

consul-e, with, from, in, or by a consul.

with, from,

in, or

by the

consuls.

NoM.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.

virffo,

the virgin.

OT?'^m-is, of the virgin.

virgtn-es, the virgins. vi7-gin-Vim, of the virgins.

virgi7i-ibus, to or for the virgins.

virgm-l, to or for the virgin.

virgin-em, the virgin.

virgo,

virgin-ea, the virgins.

Voc.

virgin

virgin-es,

virgins

Abl.

virgin-e, with, from, in, or

mrgrift-ibus, with, from, in, or

by the
NoM.
Gen.

virgin.

by the

virgins.

pater, the father. ^3a<r-is, of the father.

jja^r-i, to or for

patr-es, fathers.

patr-um, of fathers.
2Mtr-ibns, to or for fathers.
j?ja<r-es, fathers.

Dat.
Aco.

the father.

patr-eva., the father.

2xiter,

Voc.

father

2xitr-ea,
o?

fathers

Abl.

patr-e, with, from, in, by the father.

2)air-ibus, with, from, in, or

by

fathers.

NoM.
Gen.

rex, a king.
?'er/-is,

reg-ea, kings.

Dat.
Ace.

7-cg-i,

of a king. to or for a king.

reg-vim, of kings. reg-ihus, to or for king?.

rfr-es,

rcg-em., a king. JT X,

kings.

Voc.

king

reg-ea,
in,

kings

Abl.

reg-e, with,

from,

oj'by

9'e.7-ibus, %vith,

from,

in,

or

by

a king.

kintrs.

NoM.
Gen. Dat.
Ace.

carmen

(neut.), a song. carmin-is, of a song. carmin-i, to or for a song.

carmln-a,, songs.

carmhi-um, of songs.
carmi7i-ibus, to or for songs.
carmhi-a., songs.

carmen, a song. carmen,

Voo. Abl.

song!
in,

carmhi-a,,

songs

carmm-e, with, from, or by a song.

carmin-ibvLB, %\dth, from, in, or

by

son^s.

FOURTH DECLENSION.
SINGULAR.

53
PLURAL.

NoM.
Gen. DAT.
Ace.

mare

(neut. ), the sea.

sea.

mari-k, seas.
mari-Mxa., of seas,
wiaj-i-hus, to or for seas.

maris, of the

man,
murS,

to or for the sea.

mar^, the sea.

sea!
wwiri, with,

mari-k, seas. mari-k,

in,

Voc. Abl.

seas

from,

orby

?nart-bus, with, from, in,

seas.

w by

the sea.

NoM.
Gen. Dat.
Ace.

animal

(neut.),

an animal.

animdli-S, of an animal. animdli, to or for an animal.

animali-a,, animals. aHimali-:xm, of animals.

animal, an animal. animal,

for animals. animall-'bus, to animali-k, animals.

Voc. Abl.

animal

animali-k,
in,
o?*

animals

animdli, with, from, an animal.

by

a??i/Ha?t-bus, with, from, in, or

by animals.

NoM.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.

calcar (neut.), a spur.

calcari-s, of a spur.

calcari-a,, spurs.

calcari, to or for a spur.

calcar, a spur.
calcar,

calcari-vim, of spurs. calcari-hus, to or for spurs.

calcari-a,, spurs.

Voc. Abl.

spur
spur.

calcari-a,
calca7'i-bvis,

spurs

calcari, with, from, in, or

with, from, iu, or

by a
NoM.
Gen.
Dat. Ace. Voc. Ael.
su-S, a

by

spurs.

su-is, of
sw-i,

boar o?' sow. a boar or sow. to or for a boar or

SM-es, boars or swine,

stt-um, of boars or swine. -ibus, or sM-bus, to or

for

sow.

boars or smne.
SM-es, boars or swine. su-es,

SM-em, a boar or sow. SM-S, O boar or sow

!

boars or swine

su-e, with, from, in, or

by

a boar or sow.

SM-ibus, or si^bus, with, from, in, or by boars or swine.

FOURTH DECLENSION.
109.

Most nouus in in u are neuter.

All stems in u, except monosyllabic. Nominative, us, u. us are masculine, a few feminine ; all nouns

54

FIFTH DECLENSION.

56

THE ADJECTIVE.

But with our senses we pergreat deal more with good reason. ceive nothing but qualities or activities. If then we were now to
for an object, it would be natural to select one of which strikes us most, and call it by a word indicating that quality. Ajid this no doubt was the case in earliest times so that in fact a noun, an adjective, and a vei'b all express the same thing, but are used for diflfereut purposes, or perform
its qualities
;

create a

name

different functions in the sentence.

If I fix that
plat,

and

is

word a noun

to a definite object, it "

;

Take the word "green." then means a grassy

If I
is

as,

he plays on the green."

keep

it

movable, so that it may go with any object that " it is an adjective, and I can the green say,
hand."
I

he greened might also make it into a verb, say, meaning he made it green, as the poet Thomson does. And the Latins said, arbor viret, " the tree is green," where is green is a verb. The same root, therefore, may be used as a noun, an adjective, or a verb, according as we fix it down to
this wall,"

green, then " the green apple," " and

express a definite thing,

when

it
;

becomes a noun

leave
it

it

mov-

when time, when

able,

it it

an adjective becomes a verb.

is

or associate with

the idea of

adjective therefore is a movable word, which has to be joined to some word denoting an object. In English, as we have seen, the sense is determined by the order. In the sen" the good father loved the bad son," we know that it is tence,

114.

An

the father
father.

way.

who is good, because the word good is placed before But the Latins did not depend on the order in this The plan they took was to afiix the case-woi'ds to

adjectives as

weU

as to nouns, or, in other words, to decline

adjectives just as they declined nouns, and to give them terminations expressive of gender and then they made the ad;

jective agree

with the noun, and by this agreement they knew

that the adjective qualified the noun. For instance, in the English sentence quoted above, "father" is nominative and " son " is accusative therefore the Latin is jyater and filiuva.. Now the word for " good " must be in the nominative mascu;

line, to

for

"

bad

agree with pater ; therefore bonus 2Mter: and the word " will be in the accusative masculine therefore
;

malum Jilium.

And

having ascertained

this,

we may

aiTange

THE ADJECTIVE.

57

the words iu any order we like, and the word bonus will always go in sense Mvith. j^ater, and malum -with Jilium. Thus we
say, bonus

might

pater filium amavit. This is correct Latin, though the juxtaposition of the words would lead you to conceive the words to mean, " it was the good man that loved the
Ijad,

malum

the father that loved the son."

be, pater bonus filium

would

malum

The usual Latin order amMvit, where though

bonus comes immediately before filium, yet the termination of bonus shows that it goes with pater.
115. The Latins used adjectives in the tw^ofold way in which we do in English. We say, " a good father loves his son ;" and we also say, " the father is good." In the first instance, the

adjective goes directly with the noun, and helps to fill up or complete the notion given in the noun. This is the proper

function of an adjective and an adjective so used is said to be used attributively. In the second instance, father is one notion and good is another, and the two are united by is. The word
;

good thus completes the notion given in is, and is good is conseijuently properly a verb, and the word good supplements the
verb
is.

predicatively.

In this instance we say that the word good It forms part of the assertion.

is

used

iu

These two uses are quite distinct, and the same words used both ways might have been treated differently, according as

they are used for the one purpose or the other. This is the case in German. But in Latin no distinction is made. An adjective agrees with its noun in gender, number, and case, whether it be used attributively or predicatively. Thus pater

may mean he is a good father," or the father is good," and you cannot know which is the meaning except from
bonuB
est

"

"

tlie

context.

Latin adjectives have their stems in a, 0, i, and consoThere are no adjectives with stems in e or u. Adjectives with the stem in a are feminine, and therefore go with feminine nouns only. Adjectives with stems in o may be mascu116.

nants.

line or neuter.

of the three genders.

Adjectives w^th stems in i and consonants are "We thus get three classes of adjectives.

(333)

58

ADJECTIVES OF THREE TERMINATIONS.

CLASS I. ADJECTIVES OF THREE TERMINATIONS.

117.

Masculine and

neiitei-

stem

in o, feminine in a.

Nomi-

native masculine, us or er; feminine, a; neuter, um.

ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS.

59

60
119.

ADJECTIVES OF ONE TERMINATION.

There are twelve of these adjectives that have three

terminations in the nominative, as and acre, neuter. acris, feminine

;

acer

(keen), masculine;

COMPARISON OK ADJECTIVES.
PLURAL. Fem.

Gl

Masc.

Neut.
prudentia,.

NOM.
Gen. DAT.
Ace.

pi'udentea,

prudenta,
prudentiViVa..

prudentiMVU.
prudenti\)M8.

prudenti\xm.

prudentihus.
prudentes,
prudentes.
prude7iti\}\x.B,

prudentibus.
prudentia,. prudentia,.

prudentee.

Voc. Abl.

prudenths.

pradeniVoMS,
filiae

prudentlins.
"

Thus
121.

prudentes matrem amant,

prudent daughters

love their mother."

In English we occasionally use adjectives as nouns. " the good love the good." This usage is much " a good in Latin. We can say, hoyius boimm amat, " loves woman a bonam man loves a good man ;" bona mnat, good " he gives good things to his son." a good woman ;" datfilio bona,

Thus we say, more frequent

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.
122.

The Latin form

of comparison

is

radically the

as the English. The English er is in Latin ior, est is issimo (nominative, issimus).

same and the English

The comparative degree is formed by adding ior to the consoand by striking off the vowel of vowel-stems and adding tor, Thus:
nantal-stems,
STEM WITHOUT VOWEL.
alius, high.
alt-

COMPABATIVK.
altior.

dulcis, sweet.

dulc-

dulcior.

prudens, prudent.

prudent-

prudentior.
:

The comparative
Masc.

is

thus declined

SINGULAR. Fem.
a^dor.
altioris.
altiovi.

Neut.
altins.
altioiia.
altioTi.
alti\xs.

NOM.
Gen.

altiOT.

altibria.

DAT.
Auc.

a/dori.

a^dorem.
altior,

a^dorem.
a?dor.

Voc. Abl.

aZdus.
aJtibre, or
altioTi.

altiove, or
altibxi.

a^dore, or
altibvi.

62

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.

NUMERALS.
125.
;

63

Many

way such

adjectives cannot be compared in the common as those which have a vowel in the nominative before

the M5, as idoneus. Accordingly the words magis (more) and maxime (most) are used to form the comparatives and superlatives of these as
:

POSITIVE.

COMPARATIVE.
inaffis idoneus, fitter.

SUPERLATIVE.

idoneus,

fit.

maxime

idoneus, fittest.

The u in adjectives ending in icus, ids, Thus possess the force of a vowel.
:

and guns, does not

SUPERLATIVE.

POSITIVE.

COMPARATIVE.
strenuior.
tenuior.

strenuus, vigorous.
tfmiis, thin.

strenuisslmus. tenuisslmus.
aequissh7iu3.

acquits, fair.

aequior.

CHAPTER IV.-NUMERALS.
12(

()+

NUMERALS.
This form
pears in a
of the genitive is

65

number
any
;

of indefinite
uter,

no doubt a very oki form. It apnumerals solus, alone tottis,

whole

ullus,

which
;

of the

two

alter,

the one or the

other of two

neuter, neither

and

alitis,

another.

Alius haa

aliud in the nominative and accusative singular neuter. It appears also in the genitives of other pronouns as ems, cuius, illius, &c. though sometimes the i is written as a j, as in ej^(s.

All these words have

128.

in the dative singular for all genders.

:

Duo, two, and ambo, both, are thus declined

129,

66

PRONOUNS.

CHAPTER V.-PRONOUNS.
131.

We have

that there are only

pointed out that it is generally agreed on now two kinds or classes of roots. The one class
or activities
;

comprehends
us,

all qualities

the other

is

that before

the pronominal.

We

qualities.

have found already that all that a person perceives is At first when a child looks out on an object, he

thinks only on the object. He sees, for instance, a tree before him. He thinks of the tree, and nothing else. But by degrees
feel that there could be no perception of a tree was something else namely, himself and in this way he becomes conscious of himself, of his own personality or This consciousness is expressed by the word individuality. "I." It is sometimes said that a pronoun is a word used instead of a noun but though this may be true of some pro-

he comes to
unless there

" I but that nouns, yet no other word can express the idea of word itself. It is the word used by the person speaking, con"

scious

of

his

own

himself from

all

individuality, and consciously separating So the second personal pronoun other objects.

"thou"
speaker
;

or

"you" marks out

on.

the person addressed

by the

and so

The person speaking makes himself, as it were, the centre in the measurement of space, and he selects two other points. " " " There are thus first I," and the things round the I " this " this thing beside me," pointing to the objects. thing here"
Secondly, there is the person to whom he speaks "you," and the " things beside you." And thirdly, there is the person or there are the persons neither the speaker nor the person spoken to
" those persons there," those things there." Roots expressive the person speaking, the person spoken to, of these subjects and the person spoken about, and the localities connected with "

such

are pronominal elements. Nouns, adjectives, and verbs are formed by the combination Pronouns are formed of a quality root with a pronominal root.

by the combination

of

pronominal

roots.

NOMINAL PRONOUNS.

67

132. Grammatically, pronouns may be divided into two olasses the fixed and the movable or, in o her words, nouns
;

and

adjectives.

NOMINAL PRONOUNS.
133. Fii-st personal

pronoun,

ego, I

SINGULAR,

PLURAL.
DOS, we. nostri, or nostrum, of us. nobis, to us.
iios,us.
in, or

XoM.
Gejj.

ego,

I.

DAT.
Ace.

mei, of me. mihi, to me.

Abl.
134.

me, me. me, with, from,

by me.

nobis, with, from, in, or

by

us.

Second personal pronoun,

SINGULAR.
tu, thou.
tui, of thee.
tibi, to thee.

tu,

thou

PLURAL.
v6s, ye, or you. vestrum, or vestrl, of you.
vobis, to you.

NoM.
Gen.
DAT.
Ace.

te, thee.

vos, you.
in, or

Voe. Abl.

tu,

thou.

te, -with,

from,

by

vos, ye. thee, vobis, with, from, in, or by ymi.

In regard to the third per135. Third personal pronoun. sonal pronoun, the Latins made a distinction which we do not " John inIf I use the words, always observe in English.
vited William to his house," I gather from the sense that it is But if I say, to his oivn house that John invited William. " John saw William and went to his house," the probability is that by his house is meant William^s house. The Latin lan-

guage does not permit this ambiguity. It uses one word for his when it refers back to the subject of the sentence, and
another

when

it

does not.

for the third personal pronoun when it refers back to the subject of the sentence is sui. It of course cannot for it always refers back to the have a nominative case nominative case, and therefore presupposes the nominative case. Sui is called a reflexive pronoun. It is the same for all genders

The word used

and

for both

numbers

6S
Gen.

ADJECTIVAL PRONOUNS.
sui, of himself, of herself, of itself, of themselves.

DAT.
Ace.

Abl.

themselves. or sese, himself, herself, itself, themselves. Be, or sese, from himself, from herself, from itself, from themselves.
Be,

sibi, to himself, to herself, to itself, to

the pronoun does not refer back to the nominative, an adjectival pronoun, ille or is, are used. Here again the nominative is unnecessary. The personal terminations of the verb t and nt sufficiently express the
tlien the cases of

When

nominative
Gen.
D\T.
Ace.

SINGULAR.
ejus, his, hers, its. ei, to him, to her, to
;

it.

Abl.

eum, him earn, her; id, it. eo, from him; ea, from her;
PLURAL. edrum, of them {tnasc. and els, or iis, to them.
eos,

eo,

from

it.

Gen.
Dat.
Ace.

neut.);

earum,

of

them

{ftm.

).

them

[tnasc); eas,

them

(/em.); ea,

them

{nmt.).

Abl.

eis, or iis, with,

from,

in, or

by them.

ADJECTIVAL PRONOUirS.
136.
I.

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.
-um, mine. -um, thine. -um, his owti, her own,
your,

Tneus, -a,

tuMA, -a,

auus, -a,

its

own, their own.

noster, nostra.,

nostrnm, our, or ours.

< jj-ours.

Tester, vesira,, vestrxan.,

II.

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
:

137. Hie, this; demonstrativ^e of the first person

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
138, Iste, that beside

69

you

demonstrative of the second per-

son

RELATIVE PROXOUX.
141. Ipse, self;

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN.
clause.

71
its

Its

number and
is

but

its

case

its gender depend upon determined by its own clause.

q^l^,

antecedent,

The Latin

relative is "

who, which
he."

which

in all pi'oba:

bility originally

meant

and

It is thus declined

72

INDECLINABLE PARTS OF SPEECH.

PART

II.

INDECLINABLE PARTS OF SPEECH.

145,

In Latin there are said

:

to

be four indeclinable

jjarts of

speech adverb, preposition, interjection, and conjunction. The interjection is properly speaking a cry, and does not

form an integral part

})ioperly so called
:

of a sentence.

It is not a part of speech,

it is

common

to

man and

the lower animals.

three pai'ts of speech we place here because they are really nominal, or parts connected with the noun. have already found that a sentence may be analyzed into two

The other

We

pai'ts,

the subject and the predicate and that the subject in its simple form is a noun, and the predicate in its simple form is a now add that every word in the sentence grou})s verb.
;

We

itself either

around the

U(-)uns
it is

or around the verbs.

If

it

con-

nects itself with a noun, tills up the notion given

of the nature of

then

to complete the notion given us by the verb. If we examine the cases from this point of view, we shall find that the genitive is of the nature of an adjective, and fills
it is

of the nature of

by the noun. If it an adverb, and heli)s

an adjective and goes with a verb,

tive,

up the notion given by the noun and ablative, are adverbial

but that the dative, accusa-

in their nature.

The

accusa-

tive, for instance, expresses the end towards which an action is directed, the direction in which an action goes, and extent of

space and time.

The

ablative expresses the point

from which
place,

an action proceeds, the mode in which an action takes the ])i)int of time at which it takes place, &c.

CHAPTER I.-ADVERBS.
14().

The words commonly

as the accusative

called adverbs express the

;

same

iiotiou.s

and ablative cases

that

is,

they ex-

ADVERBS.
press ideas of time, place,

73
;

and mauner

and therefore

it is

not

surprising that, wlien

find most, perliaps elements they are combinations of case-words, or pronominal with roots. This is not a peculiarity of the Latin language, but is common to all languages. Thus in English most of our
:

we examine into all, of them cases

the origin of adverbs, we of nouns or pronouns, or

" " he did this wisely," is he adverbs are adjectives or nouns did this wise like," "he did this like a wise man;" and the word "like" is supposed to have been originally the instru-

mental case of a noun.

Sometimes we use nouns and adjec-

tives together, as "otherwise" means in another wise or way. So in Latin almost all adjectives may be converted into

adverbs in the following ways be of the (1.) If the adjective

:

first

and second declension, the

:

changed into e: as avidvis, greedy; avide, in this way Superlative adverbs are formed greedily. in e is regarded by This form best. the best optime, ojjtimus,
nominative in us
is
;

many

scholars as a

form

of the ablative

instrumental ablative, or ablative of manner, " way ;" optime, in the best way."
(2.)

so that avide is the " in a gi-eedy

We convert adjectives of the third declension into adverbs

:

by adding Uer to the consonantal stem

feliciter.

as

levis, levitev

felix,

Sometimes the accusative neuter

;

is

used as the adverb

as

The accusative singular neuter multiim, much primimi, first. of the comparative of adjectives is used as the comparative of adverbs as bene, well melius, better optime, best leviter,
:

levins, levissime.

Other adverbs of time, place, and manner are for the most sometimes they contain part accusative and ablative forms remnants of case-words which fell into decay. Thus
;
:

ACCUSATIVE.

Jaw, now;
the
first

turn, i\\&n;
;

nunc,

now;

tunc, then
;

prirnvm, for
;

time
;

iterum, for the second time

saepe, often

recens,

lecently

prope, near.
;

Palam, openly
stealthily
1338)
;

perperam, rashly

clam,

secretly

furtim-,

paidatim, by degrees. 6

74

PREPOSITIONS.
ABLATIVE.

extra, without Dextra, on the right haud infra, below mane, in the morning. sponte, of one's own accord
;
;

Many adverbs arise through combinations of adjectives and Thus nouns or prepositions and nouns. quotidie, daily with great toil), greatly invicem, magnopere (for Ttuigno opere, in turn ext&mplo, immediately (from ex and tempulo, diminu:

tive of tempus, time).

CHAPTER

II.-

PREPOSITIONS.

147. Prepositions are adverbs with a noun immediately following them, or as we now phrase it, governing a noun. When " the boat went down," the word down is an I use the words, " adverb but when I say, the boat went down the stream," down becomes a preposition, because it is followed by the noun. " So in the sentence, T came at six o'clock, William came ten " minutes after," after is an adverb but in the sentence, Wil;
;

liam came ten minutes after me," after

it is

is

a preposition, because

followed by the noun-pronoun me. In Latin as in English many of the words used as prepositions are also used as
148. Prepositions

adverbs.

governing the accusative

inter

ad adversum...
adversus

to.

between.
within.

intra
against, opposite
to.

juxta
6b

exadversum
ante
apiid

near to. on account

in the

of. of.

before.

near,

\\\t\\.

penes per

power

""a
circum
cis, citra

}ai3out.
)

pone
(

through. behind.

hard
near

by,
to.

besides,

on this
against.

side.

P'^aeter

g^^gpt_

contra

prope
f

erga extra
infra

towards. without.

secundum.... ^^^^^
ultra

alongside
to,

of,

next

beneath.
luider.

according to. (on the other side,

across.

subter

supra

above.

beyond.

CONJUNCTIONS.
149. Prepositions governing the ablative
a,
:

75

ab, abs

absque

coram

from, by. without. in the presence

with.

e,

ex

out

of.

of.

prae pro
sine

before.

before, for.

cum
de

without.

from, concerning.
150. Prepositions

tenus up to. both accusative and ablative; governing

r

in

into, in.

subter

sub

under.

super

beneath. above.

CHAPTER
as sed, ablative
volo, I
;

III.

CONJUNCTIONS.
nouns or parts of verbs
;
:

151. Conjunctions are either cases of

vero, ablative
;

wish

sive, for si vis, if

autem, accusative you wish.

vel,

part of

LIST OF CONJUNCTIONS.
I.

CO-ORDINATIVE.
; ;

woman " vir

and que, and. Que is an enclitic that is, it is attached to the word which it unites, just as if we were to say in " the man the woman-and," instead of " the man and the English
152. Et,

and; atque or

ac,

mulierque.
not.

quoque and etiam, also; neque and nee, and aut, vel, and sive, or.
autem, atqui, ceterum, verum, but. tamen, yet, not\vithstanding. enim, etenim, nam, namque, for.
at, sed,

ergo, itaque, igitur, therefore.

II.

SUBORDINATIVE.
as
if.
;

Uti, ut, sicut, velut, as

;

tanquam, quasi,
;

quum, when dum, while, until donee, until priusquam, antequam, anteaquam, before; postquam, posteaquam, after; simul ac simul atque, quum primum, as soon as ut, when ubi, when. quum, seeing that, since quoniam, since quod, quia, because. si, if; sin, but if; nisi, if not, unless; dummodo, modo, dum, pro(>?
; ; ;
;

vided that ; ut, granted that. etsi, although ; etiamsi, even if ; quamvis, licet, although. ut, uti, in order that, so that quo, in order that; quominus, in ordrr that not quin, that not ne, in order that not, lest.
;

Though several conjunctions are translated in the same w;vv, there are shades of ditiereuce in the meauino- or usa'^e.

76

CONJUNCTIONS.

INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.
" he is lovhave seen that amat means " he loves," " In English we make our question by lie does love." ing," or " does inverting the order of the auxiliary and the nominative,
153.

We

But the Latins did not use any word corresponding and therefore could not have the English form. Besides, the Latius used the order of words principally to
he loveT'
to

"

does,"

express the order in which the ideas presented themselves to The Latins the mind, and not for grammatical purposes. added the enclitic conjunction ne to the verb, and thus made

an interrogative sentence: amat, "he loves;" <r>rt<iie? "does he love?" amamus, "we love;" anumiusne'i "do we love?" Sometimes they prefixed a conjunction, such as ?i, num: an " amas ? " dost thou love ? " no)in& amas ? " dost thou not love ? " whether are you toiling or playing ?" utrum laboras an ludis? M\)\es? "where are you?" cvccfecisti? "why have you done

it?"

VERBAL NOUN-FORMS.

77

PART

III.

VERBAL NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS.

154. We have now surveyed all the parts of speech, and we have found that there are really only two essential parts nouns and verbs and two modifying parts adjectives and advei'bs but that the adjectives and adverbs belong in their nature to the noun. There are also certain parts now given along with the verb which are really used ;is nouns or adjec;

tives.

CHAPTER

I.

-NOUN-FORMS OF THE VERB.

THE PRESENT INFINITIVE ACTIVE AND PASSIVE

155.

The Present
;

the stem
(1.)

re

Infinitive Active is formed by adding re to but this addition takes place in three ways is added to stems in d, e, and I: as anid-, love atnd-re,

to love; dole-, grieve to hear.

(2.)

dole-re, to gi'ieve; audi-, heax-

audl-re,

ere is

cad-, fall
(3.)

cad-ere, to
added

added to consonantal stems and stems in u: as

fall miJiu-ere, to lessen. niinu-, lessen to stems in ^ after the i has been changed
;

re is

into e: as capi, take

156.

cape-re, to take.
and
I: as
;

The Present
stems in
hold

Infinitive Passive is

formed

ri to the
tene-,

a, e,

tene-ri,

amd-, love anui-ri, to be loved to be held avdl-ri, to be audi-, hear

(1.)

By adding
;

heard.
(2.)

By adding

caed-, kill

to the consonantal stems

and stems

caed-i, to

be killed; miau-, lessen

in

w.*

as

minvr-i, to

be

lessened.

78
(3.)

PRESENT INFINITIVE.

The stem
Infinitive

of
:

words having the stem

infinitive passive

as capi-, take

capi, to be taken.

in

is

the present

means unlimited; and a verb is unlimited not limited by pei'sonal terminations or, in other words, when the notion given by the verb is presented by itself, Thus anmre signifies the act of apart f I'om the agent or subject.
157.

wlieu

it is

loving, to love, loving ;

and
of

nominative
is

o)'

accusative.

" human," the act err;" where errare is

may perform the function of the humanum est errare, " to err " is it is human to erring human,"
it

Thus

really the nominative to est. Again: " I " desi}-e to learn," I desire the act of learncupio discere, " I desire learning;" where discere is really the accusative ing,"

after cupio.

The

infinitive differs
its

from an ordinary noun in that

it

governs

verb, and has the idea of time ; as, cupio discere " grammaticam, I wish to learu grammar." translate the infinitive generally by "to," as "to love;" but we also frequently employ the particij^ial form " loving."

the case of

We

it is not a present. The present Its time dejDends on present, past, or future. the finite verb with which it is connected. Thus in the sen" I desire to learn," discere is present, because tence, cuj^io discere, is In the sentence, cupivi discere, " I desired to cupio present.

The name

present misleads

infinitive

may be

is past, and of the same time as cupivi; and in the sentence, cupiam discere, " I shall desh-e to learu," discere is It would have been future, and of the same time as cupiam.

learn," discere

more

correct to have called the present infinitive the contempo-

raneous or synchronous infinitive.

THE PERFECT INFINITIVE ACTIVE.

158.

The Perfect

Infinitive Active is
;

the stem of the pei-fect

as

formed by adding

sse to

StemofPerf. amnvl:
Perf. Inf.
amai'i-sse.

dekvi-.
dclevi-sse.

ctcidi-.

cepi-.

audtvi-.

cccidi-sse.

ccpi-sse.

andivi-sae.

The

perfect infinitive also gives simply the notion of the verb,

SUPINES.

79

combined with the idea of a time verb with which it is connected.

anterior to tliat of the finite

The perfect infinitive passive therefore be given afterwards.

is

a compound tense, and will

SUPINES.
159.

There are two Supines

one in um and the other in u.

and ablative
(or,

They are properly the

the fourth declension). adding turn to the stem
audi-, audl-lMLxa.

accusative

as

some
(or of

think, dative) cases of a verbal noun, with the stem in

But

is generally formed by as ama-, mrt-tuin ; dele-, dele-tMm as there are great irregularities in the

The supine

formation of the supine, the correct form must be committed to

memory. Both supines

rarely occur.

The supine

in

um

is
;

used generas veniuat

ally after verbs of motion, to indicate a " they come to see." spectatum,

purpose

The supine in u is generally used after adjectives to express " difficult to say." the notion of the verb as difficile dictu,
;

160.

Conjugation of Verbs.

^In

conjugating a verb,

its

pre-

indicative active, its perfect indicative active, its first The reason supine, and the present infinitive active are given.

sent

when once these parts are known, all the other Thus I conjugate the stem ama amo, pai-ts amdvi, amatum, amdre. From the infinitive amare, I know that the stem ends in a; and therefore I know ama-bavi, From ainavi I get amaveram and amavero. From aina-ho. amatum I know what the perfect participle passive and the future participle active will be. The mention of the first person
of this
is,

that

can be formed.

but sometimes

singular of the present indicative active is often of no use Thus I conjugate the stem capicapio, it is. From the infinitive I cannot know cepi, captum, capere.
;

whether the verb

is capo or capio, or whether I should say capieham or capeham. From this statement it will be seen that the su2:)iue is a very

80
important part
;

GERUND.

auJ gi-ammars and dictionaries frequently give the supine for the sake of the parts that are formed iu the same way, even when the supine itself is not found.

GERUND.

ndum asawa-, Mirt-ndum;

stems by adding endum
capi-, cffpi-endum.

160. Tlie

Gerund

is

foi'med from stems in a and

as audi-, a^w^^'-endum

dele-, (^t^e-ndum:

e by adding and ffom all other

;

cad-, ct;o?-endum;

The gerund &^

is

a no^^n of the second declension.

a?>iandum, loving.
a?)iandi, of loving.

Thus

NoM.
Ge>j.

Dat.
Ace. Abl.

ajHando, to loving.
a??ianduin, loving.

amaniiO, with loving.

is the same in meaning as the present infinitive. the pi'esent infinitive can be used as the subject to a verb that is, in the nominative case there is no need for the nomi-

The gerund

As

native case of the gerund and some maintain that the gerund has no nominative. There is good reason for doubting this;
;

but the nominative is very rarely used. The infinitive is also used as an accusative, and apparently there would be no need for the accusative of the gerund. But prepositions are never
used with the

We

infinitive, and so they are used with the gerund. might thus decline the infinitive and gerund together
:

NoM.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.

amare, (the act of) loving.

Abl.

amandi, of loving. amando, to loving. amare, or ainavdum, loving. amando, with, from, in, <yr by loving.
pleasant to learn.

Thus

Dulce

est discere, it is

Cupidus est discendi, he is desirous of learning. Charta est utilis scribendo, the paper is useful for writing.
Ciqjio scribere, I desire to wTite.

Ad 2nngendum vianus apta

Implger
est

est,

the hand

is fitted

for jjaintiug.

in scribendo, he

is

active in writing.

ADJECTIVAL PARTS OF THE VERB.

81

CHAPTER II.-ADJECTIVAL PARTS OF THE VERB: PARTICIPLES. 161. A Participle is a word which is generally used as
adjective.
It
ditfei-s

an

from the words commonly called adof time along with that of jectives, in that it gives the notion the quality or activity and in this feature it is a verb. Of course it may act as an adjective in the sense in which that
;

name

is

" a man, loving say, vir, amans vei-itatem, dixit, " truth said ; time loved who at the a man said that is, truth, Or we may say, in which sense amans is a genuine participle. " a man possessing the character of vir veritatis amans dixit,

applied to a special class of words and not to a function.

Thus we may

being a lover of truth said;" in which sense it is an adjective. and iised as nouns Pai'ticiples may also, like adjectives, be
;

many

Latin nouns were originally participles. Participles, then, perform the function of adjectives.

They

have terminations for three genders, and they agree with their nouns, expressed or understood, in number, gender, and case. But they are also verbs, and govern the cases which the other
parts of the verbs govern.

PKESENT PARTICIPLE ACTIVE.

162.

The stem of the Present Participle Active

e

is

formed from

stems in a and

and from

as ama-, amant-; dele-, delent-; by stems in consonants and i and u by adding ent : as

adding nt

cad-, cadent-

audi-, audient-; cajn-, capient-; minu-, mimient.

like prudens.

These are declined

Thus

82
The word
.

ADJECTIVAL PARTS OF THE VERB.

j)/-esent

contains the form of the present participle

active,

and

is itself

an old

participle.

There

is

no present par-

ticiple passive.

The name

2-ese)it is

incorrect.
is

Its time, like that of the pre-

determined by the time of the verb with which it is connected and it should therefore have been called synchronous or contemporaneous. Thus lafe^is sjjemt, "lying hid, he hopes" that is, while he is lying hid, he is " hoping latens speravit, lying hid, he hoped "that is, when " he lay hid, he hoped and latens he will sperabit,
;
;

sent infinitive active,

hope "that

is,

lying hid, while he will be lying hid, he will hope.

;

PERFECT PARTICIPLE ACTIVE.

no Perfect Participle Active in Latin. The a peculiar feature of the The Latins language. could express what we in English express by the perfect participle active ; but they were compelled to do it in a way quite different from the English method.
163.
is

There
is

want

of it

FUTURE PARTICIPLE ACTIVE.

Participle Active belongs to the same class forms as the supine, and the mechanical rule given for forming it is to change m of the supine into rus. Thus
of
:

164.

The Future

Supine.

amdUuvL.

domlivim.

/ n/yi turus.* FuT. Part. Act. J aiatura. V

fdomlXuxMS.

amaturum.
is

^
\

rfomitura.

dom turnm.
;

The English word/wture

]iarticiple of esse, to

be

and therefore can remind one

derived from/wturus, the future of the

form of the future participle. Like the particijjle of the present, its time is dependent on the time of the verb with which it is connected; and so it

may

be in present, past, or future time

*

but

it is

alwuj?. fiUui-e,

Like tonus, bona, bonum.

ADJECTIVAL PARTS OF THE VERB.

83

compared with the teuse of the finite verb with which it is Tims: cenatitrus veai, "being about to sup, I came " that is, when I was going to sup, I came cenaturv.s " " that is, while I a))i about venio, being about to sup, I come to sup, I come cenaturus veniam, " when I shall be about to
connected.

sup, I shall come."

There

is

no future participle

j^assive.

PERFECT PARTICIPLE PASSIVE.

165. The Perfect Participle Passive belongs to the same cla.?s of forms as the supine, and the first supine and the neuter of

the perfect participle passive are identical in form.

SupiNB.
anidtian.

Thus

donutum.
/domitus.

/amdtas*
Perf. Part. Pass. J amdta.

< domita.

\amatum.

\domiium.

The time
with
connected.

of the perfect participle is that of past in comparison the time of the finite verb with which the participle is

Thus amatus sum means I am a person that has been loved;" amatus eram, "I was a person that at that time had been loved ;" amatus ero, " I shall be a person that has by that time been loved."

"

We generally

"having been loved

translate the perfect participle passive, amatus, ;" but in Engliali care must be taken to

gather the time fi'om the sense, as the English forms convey the notions of time very indistinctly. Thus in the sentence,
seeing the boy past time that
"

fall, I
is,

ran to him," the participle seeing" is of the seeing took place before I ran to him.

"

COMPOUND TENSES OF THE VEEB.

166.

The future

participle active

and the

passive are used in forming the " Thus amaturus

compound

perfect participle tenses of the verb.

swm means
*

am

about to love," and comes to

Like

io7t,us,

bona, bmium.

84
be nearly
turus
of the

COMPOUND TENSES.
same meauing as amdbo,
is

"

I shall love."

Ama-

to be about to love," esse, " I love." of the verb amo,

"

the future infiuitive active

167. All the tenses of the perfect passive are

formed by

join-

ing the parts of the verb sian with the perfect

particijjle passive.

Thus amatus sum means,

has been loved"

have been loved;" mnatus eram. "I was a person tliat had been loved" that is, "I had been loved;" and amatus ero, "I shall be a person that has been loved" that is, ' I .shall have been loved." We thus get
is,

that

as said already, "

I

'

am

a person that

168.
Sing,

PERFECT INDICATIVE PASSIVE.

amdtus sum.. ..I have been loved, or I was loved. amoius cs you have been loved, or you were loved. amatVLS est he has been loved, or he v/as loved.
amdti sumtts ...we have been loved, or we were loved. amdti est is ye have been loved, or ye were loved. amdti sunt they have been loved, or they were loved.

Plur.

169.
Sing,

PLUPERFECT INDICATIVE PASSIVE.

amdtrxa eram...! had been loved.

amdtvis eras ....you had been loved. amdtVLS crat

he had been loved.

Plur.

amdti crdmus...we had been loved. amdti erdtls ye had been loved. amdti erant they had been loved.

170.
Sing,

FUTURE PERFECT INDICATIVE PASSIVE.

amdtus
amdtus
ero

I shall have been loved.

will have been loved. he will have been loved.

arndtua eris
erit
. .

you

Plur.

amdti erlmus

.we shall have been loved.

amdti

crltis

ayndti erunt

ye will have been loved. they will have been loved.

171.

PERFECT INFINITIVE PASSIVE.

amatns
esse,

to

have been loved.

is still

In

all
its

these tenses amatvis

with

noun

in

an adjective, and agrees " and case. the wife Thus, number, gender,

GERUNDIVE.
was
loved,"
is

85
"

luade iLvor amata,

"

est;

the temple

was

built,"

the wives were loved," iixores amat&e sunt; "the temples were built," templa aedijicat& sunt: "the " the wife is said to have beeu loved," uxor amata, esse dicitur;

tempi um

aedificat-ava. est:

wives are said to have been loved," uxores

((mata.e esse dicuntur.

THE GERUNDIVE, OR PARTICIPLE OF NECESSITY.

172.

au

The Gerundive has the same stem Thus adjective.

:

as the gerund, but is

amandum. Geruxd. Gerundive, amandus, (onanda, amaiidum.

The exact

origin or original force of the gerundive

is

a matter

originally the present Its form points to this ; and there are some jjarticiple passive. instances iu the classic writers in which it is unquestionably
of discussion.

Some maintain

that

it

was

used as a present participle passive. But this use is rare. In (lid grammars it was sometimes called the future participle futupassive but it will be seen that, though it may indicate
;

does not exhaust its meaning. More recently it has been called the participle of necessity and this name indicates more exactly its force, though it does not indicate its whole
rity, futurity
;

force.

be best given by examples. amandus, may be translated in the " boy is deserving of being loved," the " It to be loveel." the to be may loved," boy ought boy requires " the boy is to be loved." But this last mode of also be rendered
Its exact force will
est

sentence, puer " the following ways

:

The

expression

is

ambiguous

for
it if

if

the sentence

means " the boy

is

is

going to be loved," then lated puer amabitur ; Inxt

is

simply future, and

trans-

it

means

"

the boy ought to be

loved," then the correct Latin is puer anumdus est. The gerundive, then, in the nominative case, means requiring or deserving " to be. Thus petendus, deserving or requiring to be sought ;"
:

speruiiexpectandus, "deserving or requiring to be exjsected " that ought to be hoped for." But when we come to the (ht,s,
;

"

use genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative cases, we find the somewhat different, or at least we do not translate in the same

86

GERUNDIVE.

" he way. translate, gave me an opportunity to buy tlie mihi occasionem dedit emendi librvLm. Emendi is here book," the genitive of the gerund or, as we found we might have

We

called

it,

the genitive of the infinitive

after

since
it.

occasio is a noun,

and must have a genitive case

the gerund,
its

we can

use the

But instead of using gerundive, which must agree with

So
:

noun

thus, mihi occasionem libri emendi dedit.

;

Paper useful for writing a letter charta utilis epistol&B scribend&e. He was fit to write a letter idoneus fuit ad epistola,va. scribendam.
;

He He

is is

employed employed

in writing a letter; in epistola. scribenda. versatur. in writing letters; in epistolis scribendia versatur.

NOUN CLAUSES.

87

PART
NOUN

lY.

CLAUSES.

173. The Latiu language is much more careful than the English in expressing the relation of one clause to another. Thus in the sentence, " Cicero said that Catiline had broken

human and divine," we use two indicatives " said," and " had broken." But the force of each is different. With " said," the speaker states what he himself believes to be true, and gives those who hear him his word for it. But " had broken " simply states Cicero's belief or assertion, and the hearer does not know what the speaker believes in regard to
every law,
the matter.

The indicative in Latin is used only to express what the speaker believes to be a real occurrence or fact. Wlien the speaker does not guarantee the reality of the act, but wishes to indicate that it is a mere conception, or possibility, or supposition, or intention, or that
it is

a statement of another and

not his own, he employs in Latin one of two moods, as they are called the infinitive or the subjunctive.

CHAPTER
174.

I.

THE ACCUSATIVE AND

INFINITIVE.

In the above sentence, " Cicero said that Catiline had broken all laws," the second clause, " that Catiline had broken
" said." really the accusative case after the verb said by Cicero. The method adopted in Latin to express this is as follows First, the infinitive must be used to express " had broken." As " had broken" is anterior " in time to said," it is the perfect infinitive active ; therefore
all

laws,"

is

It gives us

what was

violavisse.

But
is

Catiline's

breaking the laws must be expressed

so Catiline

to be put in the accusative: thus

Cicero

dixit

88

ACCUSATIVE AND INFINITIVE.

Cdtilhi&m omnes leges violavisse. There is no word in Latin for the English " that," as here used. The mode of thought in Latin is " Cicero said, Catiline's having broken all laws ;" " Catiline's having broken" being the accusative after "said," and being expressed in the accusative and infinitive.

75.

All verbs of stating, declaring, maintaining, assert-

ing, feeling, thinking, &c., have the clause which expresses the object or the statement, assertion, feeling, thought, in the

accusative and infinitive.

Thus

Sdo
Scio
Scio

fe tc

sapientem esse; I

te

know that you are wise. know that yon have been wa'se. sapientem fidurum esse; I know that you will be wiwe.
sajnentem fuissc ; I
te
te

Putavi

magistratam

esse; I

P atari
Putavi

lihros leriere; I

thought that you were a magistrate. thought that you were reading books.

te
te

lihros legisse; I thouglit that

you had read books.

Putavi
books.

Ubros Icctnrum esse; I thoiight that you would read books. Putavi tc lihros Iccturum fuisse ; I thought that you would have read Dixit
se

amnri; he said that he was loved.

Dixit sc amotuin esse; he said that he had been loved. Dixit se amatum iri; he said that he would be loved.

Puella dixit

se amatsiva. esse

Poeta declaravit uxorem amatum.

the girl said that she had been loved. iri; the poet declared that the wife

would be
176.

loved.

Sometimes the accusative and

:

infinitive are
esse

used as the

nominative to the verb

maximae sunt with what is

this usage
is

rebus suis " for a man to be content certissimaeque divitiae, his own is the greatest and surest riches." But not so common as the other.

liominem contentum

CHAPTER II.-SUBJUNCTIVE.
177.

The Subjunctive

is

the

mood used

in subordinate clauses,

to express that the action denoted by the verb is a mere conceirtion, or a })uii)ose or intention, or a supposition of that which
is

not

known

to be true, or

is

impossible, or the statement of

another.

SUBJUNCTIVE.

89

in the sentence, Cicero said that Catiline had broken the laws which the state had ratified," the speaker does not affirm that the state had ratified all the laws referred to. It is
all

Thus

"

Cicero that says this therefore, to express that it is Cicero's statement, we must put this assertion, occurring in a subordinate clause, in the subjunctive Cicero dixit Catiliiyxm omnes
;
:

leges

qiuis

civitas

sanxerat,
state

we

If we were to put sanxisset violavisse. should imply that the speaker knew that the

had ratified the laws, and that he wished to add this remark of his own to make more plain the statement of
Cicero.

Sometimes the subjunctive expresses merely a notion or In the sentence " it happened that the king fell," conception.
178.
" the clause " that the king fell contains the real subject to " " the that is, happened" king's falling happened." "We should naturally have the infinitive here but the Latins put the sub-

junctive
179.
;

accidit ut rex caderet.

The subjunctive is used to express an intention or pur" the king went to subdue the enemy," rex ivit tit hostes domaret. 180. The subjunctive is used to express a supposition of that which the speaker does not know to be true, or of that which " is impossible if the king had fallen, the prince would have succeeded him." Here it is plainly implied that the king did not fall and therefore we must in Latin express by the subpose
as,
:

junctive that the action is only imagined, and not carried out 6-1 rex cecidisset, princeps ei successisset. 181. Lastly, the subjunctive is used with indirect interroga-

"When I put the question, "what are you saying?" I use tives. a direct interrogative, or rather use the interrogative directly I address it to a person. But when I say, " I did not know
:

what he said," I still use the interrogative word what but it no longer asks a question. When it thus no longer asks a question, but the clause in which it is, is the accusative after the principal verb, then the verb in which the indirect interroga;

tive

is,

is

put in the subjunctive

said."

nescivi CLuid diceret,

"

I did

not

know what he
(33S)

90

SUBJUNCTIVE.

THE IMPERFECT AND PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE ACTIVE.

182.

The

close couuection

between the

iufiuitive

and the sub-

In English we junctive has been again and again jjointed out. frequently use the infinitive where the Latins use the subjunctive

and in Latin the imperfect and the pluperfect sub; junctive are formed by adding the personal terminations to the present and the perfect infinitive. Thus
:

IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE ACTIVE.

{Present Infinitive Active: amare.)
Sing,

amdre-va.

I should love.

amdre-S
amdre-t
Plur.
amdre-va.'o.a

you would love. he would love.

we should

love.

amdre-tii

amdre-ut

ye would love. they would love.

(Present Infinitive Active: delere.)

Sing,
delere-va.

I should destroy.

delere-S delere-t

you would destroy. he would destroy.

Plur.

delere-mxii
rff ?ere-tis

we

should destroy.

delere-Jit

ye would destroy. they would destroy.

:

{Present Infinitive Active

Sing.

caper e.)

cap?re-m
capere-B
caper^-X,

I should take.

you would take. he would take,

Pltjr.

capere-ro-US

we

should take.

capere-iis
copej'e-nt

ye woidd take. they would take.

PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE ACTIVE.

{Perfect Infinitive Active Sing,
:

amavisse.)

amavisse-m
amavisse-s amavisse-t

I should have loved.

you wotdd have loved. he would have loved.

Plur.

amavisse-ravia

we

amavissc-lia

amaidssc-nt

should have loved. ye would have loved. they would have loved.,

SUBJUNCTIVE.
(Perfect Infiiiitive Active
:

91
delevisse.)

Sing,

delevisse-vo.

I should have destroyed.

delevisse-B delevissS-t

you would have destroyed. he would have destroyed.

Plur.

delevisse-mvis
delevisse-tia

we should have

destroyed.

delevisse-nt

ye would have destroyed. they would have destroyed.

:

{Perfect Infinitive Active

Sing,
cepisse-ra.

cepisse.)

I should have taken.

cepisse-8 cepisse-t

you would have taken. he would have taken.

Plur.

ceptsse-mus
cepisse- tis

we should have

taken.

cepisse-nt

ye would have taken. they would have taken.

THE PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE ACTIVE.

183.

The Present Subjunctive Active

jDersonal
:

is

and the
sonants

terminations to stems in

formed by adding a cone, i, u, and

Stem:
Sing,
{ut) dele-a,-ni

dele-.

(that) I
(that) (that) (that)
(that)

may

destroy.

{ut) dele-Si-s
(ut) dele-a.-t

you may destroy.

he

may

destroy. destroy.

Plur.

(ut) dele-a,-mus
(ut) dele-a.-tis

we may
ye

(ut) dele-&-nt

(that)

may destroy. they may destroy.

Stem:
Sing,
(ut)

audi-.
(that) I

audi-a.-m

may

hear.

(ut)

audi-h-s

(that)
(that)
(that)

you may hear.

he

(ut) audi-a,-t

may

hear.
hear.

Plur.

(ut)

audi-a,-mus

we may
ye

(ut) audi-a,-tis

(that) (that)

(ut) audi-a,-nt

may hear. they may hear.

Stem:
Sing,
(ut) capi-a,-in

capi-.

(that) I
(that) (that)

may

take.

(m<) capi-a,-s

you may
he

take.

(ut) capi-Sk-t

may

take.

92
Plur.
{i(t)

SUBJUNCTIVE.
capi-a-miis
(that)
(that)

we may
ye

take.

[ut] capi-a-tis

{ut) capi-Si-nt

(that)

may take. they may take.

Stem:
Siso.
{ut) cad-Si-m {ut) cad-a.-s
{ut) cad-dL-t

cad-.
(that) I

may

fall. fall.

(that) (that) (that) (that) (that)

you may
he

Plur.

{ut)

cad-&-mus
cad-a-nt

{ut) cad-a-tis {ut)

may fall. we may fall. ye may fall. they may fall.

The present subjunctive of verbs with the stem in a is formed by cuttiug oflf the a and adding e and the personal terminations. The e is really the result of a blending of a of the
stem with another vowel
am-e-m
am-e-s
am-e-t
:

Stem: ama-.
Sing,
{ut) {ut) {ut)

(that) I (that) (that)

may

love.

you may
he

love.

Plur.

{ut)
{ut) {ut)

am-e-mus
am-e-tis

am-Q-nt

may love. (that) we may love. (that) ye may love. (that) they may love.

THE PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE PASSIVE.

of the Present Subjunctive is formed from the active by changing the terminations in the same way as they are changed in the imperfect indicative. Thus

184.

The Passive

dele-a-m

ACTIVE. I may destroy.

dele-as
dele-a-t

you may destroy.

he

may destroy. may destroy. dele-a-tis....ye may destroy. dele-a-nt .they may destroy.
dele-a-mns..we
.
. .

PASSIVE. I may be destroyed. dele-a-r dele-a-ris,0T -re.. you may be destroyed. he may be destroyed. dele-a-tur
dele-a-mur
dele-a-mini
dele-a-ntur

we may be

destroyed.

ye may be destroyed. they may be destroyed.

So:
Sing,

audi-a-r
audi-a-ris, or audi-a-re

may

be heard.
be heard.

you may be heard.

he

audi-a-tur

may

SUBJUNCTIVE.
Plur.
audi-a.-mur
audi-Si-mini
audi-SL-ntur
Sing.
capi-a,-r

93

we may be heard. ye may be heard.

they
I

may

be heard.

may

be taken. be taken.
taken.

capi-&-ris, or capi-a-re

you may be taken.

he

capi-&-tur

may

Plub.

cain-a.-mur

we may be
ye

capi-a-mini
capi-a-nttz/r

may be taken. they may be taken.

I

SiNo.

leg-a,-r

may

be read.
read.

leg-a-ris,
leg-2k-tur

or

leg-a,-re

you may be
he

Plur,

leg-a-mur
leg-a-mini
leg-a.-ntur

may be read. we may be read. ye may be read. they may be read.

I

Sing,

am-6-r
am-h-ris, or am-h-re

may

be loved. be loved.
loved.

you may be loved.

he

am-h-tur

may

Plur.

am-h-inur

we may be

am-e-mini am-e-ntur

ye may be loved. they may be loved.

THE IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE PASSIVE.

185. Tlie Imperfect Subjunctive Passive is formed from the imperfect subjunctive active by the same changes as those

which take place in the present subjunctive

ACTIVE.

PASSIVE.

amdre-m
amare-s
ainare-t

amare-mus
amare-tis
ar)iare-nt

I might love. you might love. he might love. we might love. ye might love. they might love.

amdre-r
amare-tur amare-mur. amare-mini amare-ntur

amare-ris, or -j-c.you

might be loved. might be loved. he might be loved. we might be loved. ye might be loved. they might be loved.
I

So:
Sing,
{ut) delere-r {ut) delere-ris, (ut) delere-tur

(that) I might be destroyed. or de?ere-}*e...(that) you might be destroyed.

(that)

he might be destroyed.

94
Plur.
(

SUBJUNCTIVE.
(that) (that) (that)

ut)

delere-mur
delere-mini

(nt)

{ut) delere-ntur

we might he destroyed, ye might be destroyed, they might be destroyed.

might be heard, you might be heard, he might be heard.
heard.

Sing,

(ut)

audlre-r
.

(that) I

(ut) audirc-ris, (ut)

or audire-re. (that)
(that) (that)
(that)

audire-tur

Plur.

(ut)

audire-mur
audire-mini
audire-ntur

we might be

(ut)
(ut)

ye might be heard, (that) they might be heard.

(that) I

Sing,

(ut) caperc-r
(ut) capere-ris,
(

or capere-re. .(thsit)
(that)
(that) (that)

ut)

capere-tur

might be taken, you might be taken, he might be taken,

Plur.

(ut)

capere-mur
capere-mini

we might be

taken,

(ut)

(ut) capere-ntu/r

ye might be taken, (that) they might be taken.

(that) I

Sing.

(ut)

fundere-r
or fun) '

might be poured out.

out.

(ut) fundere-ris,

/+ u4.\

dere-re
(ut)

you might be poured

fundere-tur

(that) he might be poured out.

(that)

Plub.

fundere-mur (ut) fundere-min i

(Mi)

we might be poured

out.

(that)

(ut)

fundere-ntur

ye might be poured out. (that) they might be poured out.

THE PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE ACTIVE.

186.
fect

into

The Perfect Subjuuctive Active is formed from the perindicative active by changing the i of the perfect stem Thus e, and adding ri and the personal terminations.
:

(Perfect Indicative Active

Sing,

amavi.)

amave-ri-m
amave-ri-s
amave-rl-t

may

have loved.

you may have loved. he may have loved.

Plur.

amav^-xi-mus
amave-ri-tis

we may have loved.

ye they

amavS-ri-nt

may have loved. may have loved.

Sing,

(scio (scio (scio

quid) cepie-xi-in quid) cepe-ri-s

quid) cepe-rl-t

(Perfect Indicative Active: cepi.) (I know what) I took.

(I (I

know what) you took. know what) he took.

SUBJU>'CTIVE.
Plur.
{scio

95

quid) cepe-Ti-mus....(l quid) cepe-rt-tis quid) cepe-ri-nt

(I

(scio {scio

(I

know what) we took. know what) ye took. know what) they took,

187. The Perfect Subjunctive and Pluperfect Subjunctive Passive are compound tenses. They are formed by the perfect

'the

with the present and imperfect subjunctive of participle passive therefore give here the subjunctive of verb esse, to be.

We

*the

verb

esse :

PRESENT.
SINGULAR.
siva
s78

PLURAL.

sit

may be. you may be. he may be.

I
I should be.

simus
sitis

we may

be.

smt
IMPERFECT.

ye may be. they may be.

essem
esses
esset

essemus
esse tis

we should

be.

you would be. he would be.

essent

ye would be. they would be.

PERFECT.
fuerim....T
fiierls

may

have been.

/werlmus. ...we
/Me'ttis

fuerlt

you may have been. he may have been.

fuerint

may have been. ye may have been. they may have been.

PLUPERFECT.
/isscm...I should have been. you would have been. fuisses
fuisset

/iM'sscmus...we should have been. ye would have been. fuissetis

fuisscnt

he would have been.

they would have been.

188.
Sing,

THE PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE PASSIVE.

amatus
siva

may have

been loved.
loved.

atnatxis sis

you may have been

he

amatas
Plur.
amati.

sit

simus
sitis

amati

amad
Sing,

sint

raptns sim captws

sis

captVLS sit

Plur.

capti simus
capti sitis capii sint

may have been loved. we may have been loved. ye may have been loved. they may have been loved. 1 may have been taken. you may have been taken. he may have been taken. we may have been taken. ye may have been taken. they may have been taken.

96
189.
SiNo.

THE SUBJUNCTIVE.

THE PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE PASSIVE.

amafus esscm.. ..I should have been loved. you would have been loved. he would have been loved. amdius esset
amdtxxs ecses

Plur.

amdti ess?inus...we should have been loved. avidd essetis ye would have been loved. amdti essent they would have been loved.
captas essera capius esses
ca2}tns esset

Sing,

I should have been taken. you would have been taken. he would have been taken.

Plub.

ca2)ti

capti essetis capti essent

essemus....we should have been taken. ye would have been taken.

they would have been taken.

is not possible to give the English of the subjunctive the subjunctive is rarely used by itself. The because by itself, on the clause in which subjunctive clause is generally dependent the form of the translation and is contained verb the pi-incipal into English therefore depends on the idea contained in the

190.

It

princijial clause.

191.

There

is

also a

mutual relation between the tense

of

the principal verb and the tense of the subjoined verb. To understand this, the tenses of the indicative have to be divided the present or primai-y, and the past or hisinto two classes

torical.

The present
is is

tenses in this sense are the present, per-

fect definite (" I

sulijunctive

have done"), and the future; and the present contemporaneous with these, and the perfect

subjunctive
perfect,

and

subjunctive

The past tenses are the imperfect, pluanterior. and the imperfect perfect indefinite ("I did"); is contemporaneous with these, and the pluperfect
is

subjunctive

anterior.

We may
,

represent the matter thus:

PRESENT TENSES.
Present, Perfect definite,
1 f "^ ii

>
J

jL

cPrcsf??* sity?7rtiw, ^^^^

I

contemporaneous;

Future,

Perfect subjunctive, smterioT.

PAST TENSES.
Imperfect, r \ f '^ \\ Perfect indefinite, K '^1^
Pluperfect,
/
t

(Imperfect subjunctive, coutem^oraxieows; and <

\

Pluperfect subjunctive, sniitviov.

THE SUBJUNCTIVE.
Thus
:

97

Scio quid dicas Scivi quid dicas

I
I

Sciam quid dicas

Scio quid dixeris
Scivi quid dixens

know what you say. have known what you are saying. I shall know what you are saying.
I
I

know what you said. have kno-\vn what you

said.

know what you said. I knew what you were saying. Scieham quid diceres I knew what you were saying. Scivi quid dicercs I had known what you were saying. Sciveram quid dicercs Scieham quid dixisses .1 knew what you had said. I knew what you had said. Scivi quid dixisses Sciveram quid dixisses...! had known what you had said.
Sciam quid
dixeris.

I shall

. . .

Lego ut discam Legi ut discam Legam ut discam

I read that I
I

may

learn.

have read that I I shaU read that I

I read that I

may learn. may learn.

Legeham ut discerem
Legi ut discerem Legera/m ut discerem

I was reading that I might learn.

I

might learn. had read that I might learn.

192. It will be noticed that the Latiu subjunctive is often rendered by the English indicative. It is also rendered by " " " " may," should," &c. "We shall render it by may," should ;"

" " but the pupil is to remember that may" does not mean can," " and but is used as in the sentence, " I read that I may learn " " that should" does not mean ought," but is used as in the
;

"

sentence,

I should

have done

it,

had

known."

98

THE VERB.

PARTY193.

We have now finished

our survey of
all

all

the

the parts

THE VERB.

99

THE VERB.
parts of speech, but of the verb.

we have

yet to place together

I.

100
consonant and u.

THE VERB.

THE VERB.
1.

101

102

THE VERB.

NOUN

THE VERB.

103

FORMS.
i.

104
195.

SUM.

Verbs are usually arranged under four conjugations. consists of those verbs wliicli have their stem in a, the second of those which have their stem in e, the third of those which have their stem in a consonant or u or i, and the fourth of those which have their stem in i. There are some verbs that are irregular that is, do not form their parts in exactly the same way as the others and there are some verbs that are defective that is, are deficient ill some of the parts which all the other verbs have. 196. The most common of the irregular verbs is the verb

The

first

sum, to be

sum, fui,

esse.

INDICATIVE.
PBESENT.
S.

SUBJUNCTIVE.
sivi
sis
sit

sum
es
est

I am.

may

be. be,

you
he

are.

you may
he

is.

P. silmus
estls

we

are.

simUs
sitls

may be. we may be.

ye maybe. they may be,

sunt

ye are. they are.

sint

IMPERFECT,
S. erani

I was.

essem,

I should be.

eras
erat

you were.
he was. ye were. they were.

esses
esset

you would be. he would be.

.
.

P. crcTmMS. ...we were.

eratls

essemiis
essetls

.we should be,

erant

essent

ye would be. they would be.

S. ero
erls
erit

I shall he.

FUTURE. The subjunctive

futurus
{a, \
>

you

will be.
be.

is wanting, but is supplied hy futuriis and sini. Thus

:

he will

may
be.
sis,

be about to

P. crm^s....we shall be.

eritls

Mm)

siin..

erunt

ye will be. they will be.

futurus

{a,

um)

&c.

PERFECT.
S. fill

fuistl

fuit

I have been, or was. you have been, &c. he has been, &c.

fuerim
fucrls
fuerit

I may have been. you may have been. he may have been.

P. fulinUs....\\e have been, &c. faistis ye have been, &c.

fuerunt...theiy have been, &c.

fueriiiis...we
fucritls

fucrint

may have been. ye may have been. they may have been.

SUM,
PLCPERFECT.
fueram....! had been. fucrds you had been.
fuerat

105

fuissem
fuisses
fuisset

I should have been.

he had been.

you would have been. he would have been.

fuerdmus.'we had been.

had been. fuer ant... they had been.

fueratls...ye

fuissetts....Ye

fuissemiis..we should have been. would have been.

fuissent

they would have been.

FUTURE PERFECT.
S. fii^ro

I shall have been.

fueris
fuerit

you will have been. he will have been.

P. fuerimus .we shall have been. fueritis ...ye will have been.
/uerini. ...they will have been.

e.f

106

FIRST CONJUGATION.

FIRST CONJUGATION,
197. Verbs of the first conjugation have stems ending in a. They have are in the present infinitive active, and they have generally avi in the perfect indicative active, and atum in the

supine.

amo, amskvi, am&tum, am&re, to

love.

ACTIVE.
INDICATIVE.
PRESENT.
aino, I love.
aniB.s,
I

SUBJUNCTIVE,

amem, I may
ames, &c.

love.

&c.

IMPERFECT.
I was loving. ani&bas, &c.
ama,ba7)i,
l

a)na,rem, I

might

love.

ain&res, &c,

FDTURE.
ama,bo, I shall love.
a7na,bis,
j I

ainaturus sim, I

may

be about
[to love.

&c.

amaturus

sis, Sec.

PERFECT.

amavi, I have loved, or I loved,

amavisti, &c.

amaverim, I

may have

loved.

amaveris, &c.

PLUPERFECT.

amaveram, I had loved,

amaveras, &c.

j
I

amavissem, I should have loved.

aTtiavisses,

&c.

FUTURE PERFECT.
araavero, I shall

have loved.

amaveris, &c.

IMPERATIVE.
First Form.

SINOULAR.
'
I

PLT7IULL.
I

ama, love

(thou).

ama,te, love (ye).

Second or Emphatic Form.

(ima.to,
uiiiBito,

thou shalt love. he sJuJill love.

am&tote, ye shall love.

am&iito, they shall love.

FIRST CONJUGATIOX.
INFINITIVE.
Pres.

107

Peef.
FuT.

is or was amare, to love (that amavisse, to have loved (that

loving),

has loved, loved, or had

loved).

amaturum
would

{am,

wn)

esse,

to be about to love (that

will or

love).

PARTICIPLES.
Pres.

am&ns, loving.

Pkrf.
FuT.

amaturus,

a, urn,

about to love.

GERUND.
Gen.

amindi, of loving.
aniAndo, to loving.
(ad, inte7-) ania,tjduni (for or during) loving.

Dat.
Ace.

Abl.

amnndo, by loving.

SUPINES.
1.

amatum,

in order to love.

2.

amdtu, to love, or to be loved.

198.

PASSIVE.
INDICATIVE.
PBESENT.

SUBJUNCTIVE.
amer, I

amor, I

am being loved.

may

be loved.

am&ris, &c.

ameris, &c.

IMPERFECT.

amabar, I was being loved.

a?ns,baris, &c.

a)/iarcr,

might be

loved.

am&reris, &c.

FUTURE.
am&hor, I shall be loved.
am&beris, &c.
l

PERFECT.

amdtus sum, I have been loved. amatus es, &c.

amdtus sim, I amatus sis, &c.

may have

been

[loved.

PLUPERFECT.

amdtus cram, I had been loved. amatus eras, &c.

amdtus essem, I might have been amatus esses, &c. [loved.

108

FIRST CONJUGATION.
FUTDKE PERFECT.

amdtui
aviatus

ero,
eris,

I shall have been

&c.

[loved.

IMPERATIVE.
First

Form.
rLURAL.

SINGULAR.

am&re, be thou loved.

am&mini, be ye loved.

Second or Emphatic Form.

thou shalt be loved. ani&tor, he shall be loved.

uia&tor,

am&ntor, they shall be loved.

INFINITIVE.
Pres.
amSiri, to

be loved (that

is

or

was

loved).

Pebf.
FuT.

amatum

has been, had (am, %ijn) esse, to have been loved (that been, or was loved). amatum iri, to be about to be loved (that will be or would

be loved).

PARTICIPLES.
Pees.

Perf.
Part, of Necessity,
or
,

amatus,
) '

a, ura, a,

amdmdus,

having been loved. um, to be loved, deserving or

re-

Gerundive.

quiring to be loved.
:

Verbs for practice

I.
.

CONJUGATED REGULARLY IN

avi,

atum,

ate.

aro, I plough. considero, I consider.

muto, I change. narro, I relate,

opto, I wish.
joa.ro,

cremo, I burn.
creo, I create.

I prepare.

trro, I

wander.

habito, I dwell.

porto, I carry. tracto, I handle.

voro, I devour.

indico, I jwint out.

11.

CONJUGATED IRREGULARLY.

d6mo.

SECOND CONJUGATION.

109

SECOND CONJUGATION.
199.

Verbs

They have ere

of the second conjugation have stems ending in e. in the present infinitive active ; and they have

generally evi or ui in the perfect indicative active, and or itum in the supine.

etum

moneo, monvii, moniUim, monlre, to warn.

ACTIVE.
INDICATIVE.
PRESENT.

SUBJUNCTIVE.
monea?^, I may warn. moneas, &c.

monw,

I warn. mones, &c.

IMPERFECT.
moneba^n, I was warning. monebas, &c.
I

monirem, I might warn, &c.

moneres, &c.

FUTURE.
monelo, I shall warn.
vionebis, &c.
I

monlturus sim, I moniturus sis, &c.

may

be
[to

al3oiit

warn.

PERFECT.

monui, I have warned, or I

monuisti, &c.

monMmw,

may

have warned.

[warned.

monueris, &c.

PLUPERFECT.

monu^ram, I had warned.

monueras, &c.

mommse??i, I might have warned.

monuisses, &c.

FUTURE PERFECT.
monuero, I shall have warned. monuSris, &c.

IMPERATIVE.
First Form.

SINGULAR.
I

PLURAL.
I

monl, warn

(thou).

monete,

warn

(ye).

Second or Emphatic Form.

nwneto, thou shalt warn. vwneto, he shall warn.
I

monetote, ye shall warn.

moiiQnto, they shall warn.

110

SECOND CONJUGATION.
INFINITIVE.
PRE8.

monere, to warn. Perf. monuisse, to have warned.

FuT.

monlturum {am, um)

esse,

to be about to warn.

PARTICIPLES.
PBEa.

monens, warning.
moniturus, a, um, about to warn,

Pkbf.
Fur.

GERUND.
Gen. Dat.
Ace.

monendi, of warning.
moneyido, to warning.
(ad, inter)

monendum,

(for

or during) warning.

Abl.

monendo, by warning.

SUPINES.
1. 2.

monitum,

in order to warn.

monltu, to warn, or to be warned.

200.

PASSIVE.
INDICATIVE.
PBE3ENT.

SUBJUNCTIVE.
moni&r, I

mentor, I am being warned. moneris, &c

may

be warned,

montlris, &c.

IMPERFECT.
trwnebar, I

was being warned.

vionebaris, &c.

mcnerer, I might be warned. monereris, &c.

FUTURE.
monebor, I shall be warned. monebSris, &c.
I

'

PERFECT.
wio/n<s.<im,

Ihavebeenwamed.

I
'

monitus

es,

&c.

monltus sim, I monitus sis, &c.

may

have been
[warned.

PI,UPERFECT.
rtOfti<Msemm, I

had been warned.

monitus eras, &c.

monitus essem, I might h^ve been monitus essts, kc. [warned.

SECOND CONJUGATION.
FUTURE PERFECT.
monltus monitus
ero,
eris,

Ill

I shall have been

&c.

[warned.

IMPERATIVE.
First Form.

SINGULAR.
I

rLURAL.
I

monere, be thou warned.

mommini, be ye warned.

Second or Emphatic Form.

monetor, thou shalt be warned, monetor, he shall be warned.
I

monentor, they shall be warned.

INFINITIVE.
Pres.

moneri, to be warned.

Perf.
FuT.

monitum {am, um)

esse,

to have been warned.

monitum

iri,

to be about to be warned.

PARTICIPLES.
Pre3.

Perf. Part, of Necessity,

or
)

monendus,

monltus, a, um, having been warned. a, um, to be warned, deserving or

Gerundive.

requiring to be warned.

Verba for practice

112

THIRD CONJUGATIOX.
Without Supine,

floreo,

fiorui,

florere,

to flourish.
to
lie

pateo,
studeo,

patui,
atudui,

patere,
studere,

open.

to be zealous for, to study.

THIRD CONJUGATION.
Verbs of the third conjugation have stems ending in a consonant. They have ere in the present infinitive Those which have their stems in i retain the i in the active. future indicative active and passive, in present, imperfect, and the present subjunctive active and passive, in the present partiThe % disin the gerund and gerundive. ciple active, and suband the infinitive in the active, imperfect present appears and the present infinitive passive junctive active and passive is formed as if the stem did not end in *, but in the consonant
201.
u, or
;

i,

that precedes the

i.

to read. lego, legi, leotum, leglre,

ACTIVE.
INDICATIVE.
PKESENT.
lego,
legls,

SUBJUNCTIVE.

I read.

leg&m, I
lega.s,

may read.

&c.

&c,

IMPERFECT.
legebam, I was reading. legebas, &c.
I

legerem, I

might read.

kgeres, &c.

FUTURE.
lcga,m, 1 shall read.
feges,
I

lecturiis sim,

may

be about to
[read.

&c.

lecturus

sis,

&c.

PERFECT.
legi, I
legisti,

have read, or I read.

&c.

legerim, I
legeris,

may

have read.

&c.

PLUPERFECT.
legeram, 1 had read. legeras, &c.
I

legissem, I
legisses,

might have

read.

&c.

THIRD CONJUGATION.
FUTURE PERFECT.
leyero, I shall
leyeris,

113

have read.

&c.

IMPERATIVE.
First Form.

SINGULAR.
I

PLURAIi.
I

lege,

read (thou).

leglte,

read

(ye).

Second or Emphatic Form.

legito,

kglto,

thou slmlt read. he shall read.

legitote,

ye shall read.

legunto, they shall read.

Pres.

Perf.
FuT.

legere, to read. legisse, to have read.

lecturum {am, um)

esse,

to be about to read.

PARTICIPLES.
Pres.
.

l^gens, reading.

Perp.
FuT.
lecturus, a,

um, about

to read,

GERUND.
Gen. DAT.
Aoc.
legendi, of reading.

legendo, to reading.
(ad, inter)

legendum, (for or during) reading.

reading.

Abl.

leg&ndo,

by

SUPINES.
1.
2.

lectum, in order to read. lectu, to read, or to be read.

202.

PASSIVE.
INDICATIVE.
PRESENT.

SUBJUNCTIVE.
I

legor, I

am

being read.

leffSir,

may

be read.

legeris, &c.

ley&ris, &c.

114

THIRD CONJUGATION.
IMPERFECT.

legebar, I

was being

read.

kgercr, I might be read.

legereris, &c.

legebaris, &c.

FUTURE.
lep&r,

I shall be read.

legeris, &c.

PERFECT.
lectus
lecttis

sum, I have been read. es, &c.

kctus sim, I may have been read. lectus sis, &c.

PLUPERFECT.
lectus

eram, I had been read.

lectus essem,

I might have been

[read.

lectus eras, Sec.

lectus esses, &c.

FUTURE PERFECT.
I shall have been read. lectus eris, &c.
lectus ero,
'

IMPERATIVE.
First Form.

SINGULAR.
I

PLURAL
I

legtre,

be thou read.

legimini, be ye read.

Second or Emphatic Form.

legitor,
legitor,

thou shalt be read. he shall be read.

leguntor, they shall be read.

INFINITIVE.
Pres.
l^gi,

to be read.
esse,

Pert,
FuT.

lectum {am, urn)

to have been read.

lectum

iri,

to be about to be read.

PARTICIPLES.
Pres.

Perf.

lectus, a, urn,
1
)

haAang been read.

Part,

or Necessity, or Gerundive.

legtndus, a, urn, to be read, deserving or requiring to be read.

THIRD CONJUGATION.
203.
capio, cepi, capttim, caplre, to take.

115

INDICATIVE.

ACTIVE.

116

THIRD CONJUGATION.
PARTICIPLES.
ca}nens.

captus.

capturus.

capiendus.

GERUND.
capHendi, capiendo, capiendum, capiendo.

FOURTH CONJUGATION.
audio, midlvi, midlttim, audlre, to hear.

117

ACTIVE.
INDICATIVE.
PEESENT.
audio, I hear. audls, &c.
I

SUBJUNCTIVE.
audi^m, I

may

hear.

awdias, &c,

IMPERFECT.
innliebain, I

was hearing,

audirem, I might hear.

audires, &c.

audiebns, &c.

FUTUEE.
audisim, I shall hear. audies, &c.
I

auditurus

auditilrus sim, I may be about to sis, &c. [hear.

PERFECT.
audivi, I have heard, or I heard, audivigti, &c.
l

audiverim, I may have heard. audiveris, &c,

PLUPERFECT.
audlveram, I had heard.
uudiveras, &c.
I

audivissem, I might have heard.

audivisses, &c.

FUTURE PEEFECT.
audh'ero, I shall have heard. audiveris, &c.

au(.R,

SINGULAR. hear (thou).

PLURAL.
I I

auditc, hear (ye).

Second or Emphatic Form.

audiio, thou
s/i?i

hear.

audita, he

s/ia/?

hear.

auditote, ye s^a^^ hear. audivinto, they sAa?Z hear.

INFINITIVE.
Pres.

audire, to hear.
audivisse, to

Perf.
Fdt.

have heard.
be about to hear,

auditurum

{a7n, urn) esse, to

PARTICIPLES.
Pres.

audiens, hearing.
auditurus, a, um, about to hear.

Perf.

FuT.

118

FOURTH CONJUGATION.
GERUND.
Gkn.
Dat.
Ace.
audie7idi, of hearing. audiendo, to hearing.
(ad, ititer) audiendiun, (for or during) hearing.

Abl.

audiendo, by hearing.

SUPINES.
1. 2.

auditum, in order to hear. audltu, to hear, or to be heard.

205.

PASSIVE.
INDICATIVE.
PRESENT.

SUBJUNCTIVE.
audia.r, I

audior, I am being heard. audiris, &c.

may

be heard.

audi&ris, &c.

IMPERFECT.
audiebar, I

was being heard.

avdieharis, &c.

audlrer, I might be heard. audirerii, &c.

FUTURE.
aiidi&r, I shall

be heard.

audierig, &c.

PERFECT,
auditus sum, I have been heard. auditus es, &c.
I

auditus sim, I auditiis sis, &c.

may

have been
[heard.

PLUPERFECT,
auditus eram, I had been heard. auditus eras, &c.
1

auditus

essetn,
esses,

I might have been

auditus

&c,

[heard

FOTDRE PERFECT,
auditus ero, I shall have been auditus eris, &c, [heard.

IMPERATIVE.
First Form.

SINGULAR.
audire, be thou heard.

PLURAL. audimlni, be ye heard.

Second or Emphatic Form.

auditor, thou shalt be heard. auditor, he shall be heard.
I I

audiM-ntor, they shall be heard.

FOURTH CONJUGATION.
INFINITIVE.
Pres.
audiri, to be heard.

119

Perf.
FuT.

audittim (am, um)

esse,

audltum

iri,

to be

to have been heard. about to be heard.

PARTICIPLES.
Pres.

Pekf.

auditus, a,

um, having been heard.

Part, of
or

Necessity,

Gerundive.

'

audie7idus, a, um, to be heard, deserving or requiring to be heard.

Verbs

for practice

120

DEPONENT VERBS.
IMPERFECT.
(/ ivas exhorting,
etc. )

S.

hortabar. hortabaris. hortabatur.

verebar. verebaria. verebatur.

loquebar. loquebaris. loquebatur.

largiebar.
largiebaris.

larglebatur.

liortabamur. hortabamini. hortabantur.

verebamur. verebamini.
verebantur.

loquebamur.
loquebamini. loquebantur.

largiebamur.
largiebamini.
largiebantur.

FUTURE.
(/ shall exhort, d-c.
S.
)

hortabor. hortabSris. hortabltur.

verebor. vereberis. verebitur.

loquar.
loqueris.

largiar.
largieris.

loquetur.

largietur.

P.

hortablmur. hortabimini. hortabuntur.

vereblmur.
verebimini. verebuntur.

loquemur.
loquemini. loquentur.

largiemur.
largieaiini.

largientur.

PERFECT.
(/

have exhorted, or did exhort,

verl- ("sum.
tus,
a,

cfec.)

hor- fsum.
tatus,
a,
<.

locatus,
a,

Tsum.
s
es.
(.est.

largitus,
a, um

Tsum.
S
63.

es.

<
(,

es.

um

(.est.

um
riti,

est.

um
lo-

( est.

hor- fsumus.
tati,

ve- ("sumus.

I'sumus.

largiti,

I'sumus.

<

estis.

estis.

cuti,

<

estis.

estis.

ae, a (sunt.

ae,

a \ sunt.

ae, a (sunt.

ae, a (sunt.

PLUPERFECT.
(I

had

exhorted,

<bc.)

S.

hortatus,
a,

eram.
eras,

veri- f eram.
tus,
a,

locu- ( eram.
tus,
a,

largitus,
a,

eram.
J"

< eras,
( erat.

eras.

<.

eras.

um

(erat.

um
ve-

um
lo-

(erat.

um
lar-

( erat.

F.

hor- feramus.
tati,

("eramus.

("eramus.

J'eramus.

<

eratis.

riti,

eratis.

cuti,

eratis.

giti,

eratis.

ae,

a ( erant.

ae,

a ( erant.

ae, a (erant.

ae, a ( erant.

FUTURE PERFECT.
(7 shall

have exhorted,

etc.)

hor- ( ero.
tatus, < eris.
a,

veri- fero.
tus,
a,

locu- Tero.
tus,
a,

largi- Tero.

eris.

<

eris.
a,

tus,

<

eris.

um
hortati,

( erit.

um
riti,

( erit.

um
lo-

(erit.

um
giti,

( erit.

Cerimus.
-l

ve- f erimus
-s

(erimus.
-s

lar- rerimus!.

eritis.

eritis.

cuti,

eritis.

s
(

eritis.

ae, a ( erunt.

ae,

a (erunt.

ae, a (erunt.

ae,

erunt.

DEPONENT VERBS.
SUBJUNCTIVE.

121

o^

DEPONENT VERBS.

DEPONENT VERBS.
GERUND,
{of exhorting,
G. hortandi.
Jic.)

123

verendi.

D. hortando. [dum. A. (ad, inter) hortanA. hortando.

verendo.

verendum.
verendo.

loquendi. loquendo. loquendiim.

largiendi.

largiendo.

largiendum.
largiendo.

loquendo.

SUPINES,
{in order to exhort, etc.)
1.

hortatum.
hortatu.

verltuQi.
veritu.

lociltum.

largltum.
largitu.

2.

locutu.

Verbs

for practice

Conor,

124

IRREGULAR VERBS.

IRREGULAE VERBS.
"We have already noticed srim as an irregular verb.
Its

com-

pound possum
208.

is

peculiar in its inflections.

possum, pohii, posse, to be able.

INDICATIVE.
PRESENT.

SUBJUNCTIVE.

S.

possum,

j)oti^s,

potest.

P. possumus, potestis, possunt.

possim, possis, possit. possimus, possitis, possint

IMPERFECT.
S.

poteram, poteras, poterat. P. poteramus, poteratis, poterant

possem, posses, posset, possemus, possetis, possent.

FUTURE.
S. pot^ro, poteris, poterit.

P. poterlmus, poteritis, poterunt.

PERFECT.
S.

potni, potuisti, potuit.

P. potminns, potuistis, pofiiernnt.

potuh'im, potueris, potucrit. potuerimus, potueritis, potuerint.

PLUPERFECT.
S.

potu^ram, potueras, potuerat,

potuissem, potuisscs, potuisset,

P. potiieramus, atis, ant.

potuissemus, potuissetts, potuissent.

FUTURE PERFECT.
S.

potu^ro, potueris, potiierit.

eritis, erint.

P. potaerhnus,

(Imperative wanting.)

INFINITIVE.
Pres. posse. Terf, jiotnisse.
I

PARTICIPLE.
pofcii.%
tive).

powerful (only as

adjec-

209. Sdo, edi, esum, edere, is inflected regularly, according to but besides the I'egular forms, it has the third conjugation also contracted forms, which are identical with those of the
;

verb sum beginning with Thus;

es,

but have the

naturally long.

IRREGULAR VERBS.
PRESENT INDICATIVE.
S.

125

IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE.
S.

edis or
edit

es.

ederem
ederes
ederet

or

essem.
esaes. esset.

est.

P. editis

estis.

P. ederemus
ederetis

essemus.
essetis.

ederent

essent.

IMPERATIVE.
I^rst Form.
S,

Second Form.
S.

ede

or

es.

edito edito

or

esto. esto.

P. edite

este.

P. editote

estote.

INFINITIVE PRESENT.
edere or esse.

In passive only editur or

210.

estur, ederetur or essetur.

Fero,

tuli,

latum, ferre, to bear.

ACTIVE.
INDICATIVE.
PRESENT.
S.
fe7v, fers, ffert.

SUBJUNCTIVE.
fcram, /eras, ferat. feramus, feratis, ferant.

P. ferlmus, fevtis, ferunt.

IMPERFECT.
S. ferebam, ferebas, ferebat.

ferrem, ferres, ferret.

ferr emus, ferretis, ferrent.

P. ferebamus, ferebatis, ferebant.

FUTURE.
S.

feram, feres, feret. P. feremiis, feretis, ferent.

laturus {a, ton) sim, laturi [ae, a) simus,

sis, sit.

sitis, sint.

PERFECT.
S.
tiili,

tulisti, tiiUt.

P. tullmus,

tulistis,

tuhrunt.

tuUrim, tuUris, tuhrit. tukrimus, tuleritis, tiderint.

PLUPERFECT.
S.

tuleram, tideras, tuUrat. P. tukramus, tuleratis, tukrant,

tulissem, tulisses, tulisset. tulissemvs, tidissetis, tulissent.

FUTURE PERFECT.
S.
tvlero, tuleris, tiderit.

P.

tukrimus, tukritis, tukrint.

126

IRREGULAR VERBS.
IMPERATIVE.
First Form.

Second Form.
S.

S.

fer.

P. ferte.

ferto.

P. fertote.
ferunto.

ferto.

INFINITIVE.
Pres.
fterre.

GERUND.
Gen. ferendi. Dat. ferendo.
esse.

Per\
FcT.

tulisse,

laturum {am, um)

Ace.

(a<i, infer)

ferendam.

Abl. ferendo.

PARTICIPLES.
Pres.
ftrens.
1. 2.

SUPINES.
Ja<ww.
totu.

FuT.

latunis, a, ot.

PASSIVE.
INDICATIVE.
PRESENT.
S. /-or, ferris, fertur.
I

SUBJUNCTIVE.
ferar, feraris, feratur.

P. ferlmur, ferimini, feruntur.

feramur, feramini, ferantur.

IMPERFECT.
S. firebar, fircbaris, firebatur.

ferrer, ferreris, ferretur.

P. firebamur, hamini, bantur.

ferremur, ferremini, ferrentur.

FUTURE.
S.

firar, fireris, firetur.

P. firemur, firemini, firentur.

PERFECT.
S.

latus

{(I,

2m) sum,
sumus,

es, est.

latus (a,

um)

sim,

sis, sii.
sitis, sint.

P.

Mi

{ae, a)

estis,

sunt.

lati {ae, a)

simus,

PLUPERFECT.
S.

latns {a,

vm) eram,
eramus,

eras, erat.
eratis, erant.

latus {a,

um) essem,
essemus,

esses, esset.
essetis, essent.

P. lati

(ae, a)

luti {ae, a)

FUTURE PERFECT.
S.

latas {a,

um)

ero, eris, erit.

P. lati

{ae, a] ej'imus, eritis, erunt.

IRREGULAR VERBS.
IMPERATIVE.
First
S.

127

Form.
P. ferimini.
S,

Second Form,
fertor.

ferre.

P.
feruntor.

fertor.

INFINITIVE.
Pres. ferri.

PARTICIPLES.
Perp.
esse.
,

latiis, a, uni.

Perp. latum {am, um) FuT. latum iri.

Part. OF Necessity, \ferendi \ferendns,

or

a,

Gerundive.

um.

211.
(for

mage

non volo), I Volo, I will; nolo (for or magis volo), I wish ratliei*.
INDICATIVE.
PEESENT.

am

uuwilliug; male

S.

vSlo.

nolo.

mdlo.
vis.

vis.

vult.

non non non

vult.

mavis. mavult.

P. volumus. vultis.
volunt.

nolumus.
vultis.
tiolunt.

malumus.
mavultis.
malunt.

IMPERFECT.
S. voleham, has, hat. P. volebamus, atis, ant.
i

noleham, has, bat.

nolebamus,

atis, ant.

malcham, has, bat. malebamus, atis, ant.

FUTURE.
S. volam, es,
et.
i

P. volemus,

ctis, ent.

nolam, es, et. nolemus, etis,

malam,
ent.

es, et.
etis, ent.

malemus,

PERFECT.
S. volui, i^ti,
it.

[imt.
er-

nolui,

isti, it.

malui,

isti, it.

P. voluimus,

istis,

noluimus,

istis, eriint.

maluimus,

istis,

erunt.

PLUPERFECT.
S.

volueram, as,
ant.

at.

P. volucramus,

atis,

nolueram, as, at. nolueramus, atis, ant.

malucram, as, at. malueramus, atis, ant.

FUTURE PERFECT.
S.

voluero,

iSy^it.

noluero,

is, it.

P. valuer imus,itis,

int.

noluerimus. His,

int.

maluero, is, it. maluerimus, itis,

int.

128

IRREGULAR VERBS.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.

S. velim, is, it.

nolim,
I

is, it.

P. velimus, itis, int.

nolimus,

itis, int.

malim, is, it. malimus, itis,

int.

IMPERFECT.
S. vellem, es, et.

nollem,

es, et.

P. vellemus, etis, ent.

noUemus,

etis, ent.

mallem, es, et. mallemus, etis, ent.

PERFECT.
S. voluerim,
is, it.

noluerim,

is, it.
itis, int.

P. volmmnus,

itis, int.

noluerimus,

mnluerim, is, it. maluerimus, itis,

int.

PLUPERFECT.
S. voluissem, es,
et.
I

noluissem,

es, et.

P. voluissemus,etis,ent.

noluissemus,

etis, ent.

maluissem, es, et. maluissemus, etis,

ent.

IMPERATIVE.
First Foiin.
S.

noli.

P. nolite.

Second Form.
S.

nolito.

P. nolitote, nolunto.

INFINITIVE.
PRESENT.
velle.

nolle.

malle.

PERFECT.
voluisse.
I

noluisse.

mahdsse.

GERUND,
volendi.

nolendo.

volendo.

PARTICIPLE,
voUns.
nolens.

IRREGUtAR VERBS.
212.
eo, ioi, ituin, ire,

129

to go.

INDICATIVE.
PRESENT.
S. eo,
is, it.
Itis,

SUBJUNCTIVE.
earn, eas, eat.

P. imus,

eunt.

eamus,
IMPERFECT.

eatis, eant.

S.

ibam,

ibas, ibat.

Irem, ires,

iret.

P. ibamus, ibatis, ibant.

ircmus,

iretis, irent.

FUTURE.
S. ibo, ibis, ibit.

iturus
I

{a,

um)

sim,

sis, sit.

P. ibimus, ibitis, ibunt.

ituri (ae, a) simus, sitis, sint.

PERFECT.
S. ivi, ivisti, ivit,

iverim, iveris, iverit.

P. ivlmus,

ivistis, iverunt.

ivcrimus, iveritis, iverint.

PLUPERFECT.
S.

iveram, iveras, iverat.

P. iveranius, iveratis, iverant.

irissem, ivisses, ivisset. ivissemus, ivissetis, ivissent.

FUTURE PERFECT,
S.
ivero, iveris, iverit.
iveritis, iverint.

P. iverimus,

IMPERATIVE.
I\rst Form.
S.

Second
S.
ito, ito.

Fwm.
itote,

P.

ite.

P.

eunto.

INFINITIVE.
Pres.
ire.

GERUND.
Gen. eundi.
DAT. eundo.

Perf.
FuT.

ivisse.

itui^mii (a7n,

um)

esse.

Ace. (ad, inter) Abl. eundo.

euudum.

PARTICIPLES.
Pres. iens (Gen. euntis). FuT. iturus, a, um.
1. 2.

SUPINES.
ituni,
itu.

21.3. Queo, I can, and nequeo, I cannot, follow the intlection of eo, but are deficient in many parts.

130

IRREGULAR VERBS.
queo, qu'ivi, quttum, quire,

nequeo, aequlvi, nequitum, nequire.

INDICATIVE.
PRESENT.
S.

queo, qms, quit.

p. qulmus, qultis, queunt.

nequeo, ncquis, neqidt. nequlmus, nequltis, neqneunt.

S,

quibam,

quibat, &c.

IMPERFECT.
I

nequibam,

nequibat. nequibant.

S.

quibo,

P.

quibuut.
quiit.

FUTURE.

PERFECT.
\

nequibunt.

S.

quivi,

P.

quivit ov quiverimt.

nequivl,iiquisti,nequivitornequiU,

nequiverunt.

PLUPERFECT.

ncqu'hcrnt.

nequictrant.

SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
S.

queam, queas, queat. P. queamus, queatis, queant.

nequeam, nequeas, nequeat. nequeamus, nequeatis, nequeant.

S.

qulrem,

P.

IMPERFECT.
quiret.

neqnirem,
neqiiiremus,

quirent.

nequiret,
neqidreiit.

S,

P.

quivcrit.
quisstnt.

PERFECT.
I

ncquiverim,

neqidvcrit.

nequiverint.

PLUPERFECT.
iiequisset.

P.

neqaissmt.

INFINITIVE.
quire, qulvisse (quisse).
I

nequire, nequivisse {neqidsse).

PARTICIPLE.
qulcns (Gen. queuntis).
I

neqidens (Gen. nequeuntis).

214.

Fio means I become, or I

am

made.

It is used as the

passive oifacio.

DEFECTIVE VERBS.
Jio,factus sum^fien,

131

INDICATIVE.
PRESENT.
S. flo, fls,
fit.

SUBJUNCTIVE.
flam,
fias, fiat.

P. flmus,

fitis, fiunt.

fiamuSffiatis, fiant.

IMPERFECT.
S.

fleham, fiebas,

fiebat.

fierem,

fieres, fieret.

P. fiehamus, fiebatis, fiebant.

fieremus, ficretis, fierent.

FUTURE.
S.

flam,

fies, fiet.
fietis, fient.

P. fiemus,

PERFECT.
S.

factus

{a,

um) sum,

es, est.

factus

(a,

um)

sim,

sis, sit.

P. facti

{ae, a) siimus, estis, su7it.

facti {ae, a) simus,

sitis, sint.

PLUPERFECT.
S.

factus

{a,

um) tram,

eras, crat.

factus

P. facti

{ae, a)

eramus, &c.

(a, um) essem, esses, esset. facti {ae, a) essemus, &c,

FUTURE PERFECT.
S. factus {a,

P. facti

(ae,

ens, ent. a) erinius, &c.

um)

ero,

INFINITIVE.
Pkes.
fiS7'i.

PARTICIPLES
Perf.
factus, a, um.
)

Perf.
FuT.

factum {am, factum iri.

Jim) esse.

Part, of Necessity,
or

faciendus, a,

Gerundive.

um.

DEFECTIVE VERBS.
215. (1.) Coepi, memini, novi, odi, ai'e verbs used ouly in the Coejii means, I have begun, or I began ; but perfect tenses. the other three have a present meaning. Memini, I remember ;

memineram, I was remembering meminero, I &. Novi, I know. Odi, I hate.

;

shall

remember,

132

DEFECTIVE VERBS.
PLUPERFECT. mtmineram, &c. noveram, &c.
|

coeperam, &c.

oderam, &c.

FUTURE PERFECT.
coepem, &c.
I

7neminero,

Sec.
|

novero, &c.

odero, &c.

SUBJUNCTIVE.
PERFECT.
coeperim, &c.
I

meminerim, &c.

noverini, &c.

oderim,

Sec.

PLUPERFECT.
coepissem, &c.
I

vieminissem, &c.

novissem, &c.

odissem, &c.

IMPERATIVE.
S.

memento.

P. mementote.

INFINITIVE.
coeptsse.
|

memiinsse.

nnvisse {nosse).

odisse.

coepturum

esse.

osurum
PARTICIPLES.

esse.

Perf. Pass, coeptus. FuT. Act. coepturus.

osus, hating.

(2.)

.4 10,

inquam,fan.
aio, I say, or I

say yes, or yea.

INDICATIVE.
PRESENT.
S.
dio, ais, ait.

SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
S.

P.

diunt.

P.

aias, aiat.

aiant.

IMPERFECT.
S.

IMPERATIVE.
aiebat.

aiebam or aibam, aiebas,

S.

ai (antiquated).

P. aiebamus, aiebatis, aicbant.

PARTICIPLES.
aicns (rare).

S.

PERFECT.
ait.

The
? (do

rest wanting.

The form

a't'sne

you say so

?) is

shortened iuto ain'?

IMPERSONAL VERBS.
inquam, say
I.

133

INDICATIVE.
PRESENT.
S.

FCTDRE.
S.

inquam, inquls,

inquit.

inqaies, iaqiuet.

P.

inquimus, inquUis, inquiunt.

S.

Oi

IMPERFECT.
inquihat.
S.

PERFECT.
inquii, inquisti, inquit.

PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE.
S.
r

IMPERATIVE.
S.

{inquiat.)

inque, inquito.

/Gri, to speak, only fdttir of the present, a,nd fat us, the
participle,

pex'fect

are

generally used.
I

Several other parts

quaestimus,
.

occui\
(3.)

Single forms.

Quneso,

beg

we

beg.

Fdrem, I should be, has forem, fores, foret, forent, and the inlinitive /(5re, which is frequently used for the future infinitive of sum.
Age, and plural agite, come now. Cedo, and plural cette, hand me or

tell

me.
avete

From
tives ave

the verbs salvere and avere, or havere, come the impei-a-

and

salve, aveto

and

salveto,

and

and

salvete,

used

in salutation,

"
hail,"

"

welcome."

IMPERSONAL VERBS.
have no passive in English; but in the third person singular in tlie passive. Thus, vSnitur, from venio, I come. This passive means that th action of the verb is going on, but the persons the action
216. Intransitive verbs

Latin they

may have

doing

are not named.

so peojile

Venitur, people are

stars.

coming

sic 'itur

ad

astra,

go to the

person singular of the active.

There are also several verbs that are used only in the T\ms, pudet, poetiUet, piget.

tliird

The

134
Euglisli

IMPERSONAL VERBS.
nominative
is
;

put iu the accusative in Latin

I repent (literally,
it

me

pudet, I
me).

am ashamed
is

me poenitet,

repents
idea

There
is

no imperative of these verbs.

The imperative
te

translated

by

the subjunctive: pudeat

peccati,

be ashamed

of

your

sin.