Fund. of Data

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Introductions!
Participant Introductions Name Position/ Function, Location (city) How long with Reliance Infocomm How long in the Telecom Industry Expectations from this course Instructor Instructors Introduction
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For Internal Circulation Only
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Course Logistics
PowerPoint Presentation
Follow along with the trainer Student Notes Support information
Student Guide

Logistics
Breaks, Lunch Toilet, Water Mobile phones, Internet
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Points to remember!
Far End (remote to the Instructor) Keep mike off unless Q&A session Keep NetNet-meeting ON Post offline questions on Chat Report discomfort immediately Near End (local to the Instructor) Give first chance to far end Both Ends Keep courseware ready for reference Raise hand, identify yourself, ask question Keep mobiles off/ silent Avoid leaving/ joining the class in between Stick to break timings ASK QUESTIONS
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CONTENTS
Data networks

OSI Model, LAN, WAN, MAN Physical Layer, PDH, SDH, LMDS Data Layer, Ethernet, ATM, PPP Network Layer, Connection oriented, Connection less Repeater, Hub Bridge, Switch, Spanning Tree Protocol, VLan Routers, Router Architecture IP Suite, TCP/IP, UDP, ICMP IPv4 Addressing, Sub-netting, IPv6 Distance Vector, RIP Link State, OSPF, Area Autonomous Systems, IGP, BGP Traffic Engineering, Class of Service, Service Level Assurance FEC, LSP, Label Stacking, LDP, Tunnels VPN, Multicasting, VoIP RDN, ADN, DCN
Data Communication devices

Internet Protocol

Routing

MPLS

Data Applications & Reliance Data Network

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Any Questions?
Are we supposed to know .. to start this course? Yes, but .. Are we getting handshands-on exercises? Yes/ No Will there be a test at the end? No! There will be test at regular intervals and also at the end
Please ask any question that comes to your mind

Raise your hand! Ask on a break.
The only dumb question is the one that is not asked!
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Module 1 Voice Vs Data Networks

Module Objectives
After completion of this module you will be able to understand
Comparison between conventional circuit switched and Data Networks Why voice over Data Networks is the need of the hour The current Scenario Evolution of Data Networks
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History of Data Networking

1. Sharing Resources 2. Interoperability 3. The Internet
Server
Collaboration among DEC, Intel Corporation, and Xerox Corporation at the Palo Alto Research Center (PARC). The results of this research included Ethernet and the Xerox Network Systems (XNS) protocol. LANs allowed many computer systems to be interconnected, using a minimum of wiring and requiring little configuration. The Internet was born in 1969 as a group of interconnected Honeywell computers located at four different universities and financed by the U.S. government's Department of Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). This network, which grew quickly and came to be called ARPANET, interconnected the rapidly growing computing resources of the scientific, academic, and governmental communities. In 1973, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) became a standard protocol for the ARPANET. By 1980, TCP, the Internet Protocol (IP), and the other protocols of the TCP/IP protocol suite had become the required standard for connection to ARPANET; the name of the network changed to the Internet. In 1982, TCP/IP was incorporated into a popular version of the UNIX operating system (BSD UNIX, after the center of its development, U.C. Berkeley). TCP/IP hosts evolved into gateways (later to be called routers) to provide interconnectivity between different TCP/IP hosts over wide area network (WAN) links. Standard networking applications, such as Telnet and File Transfer Protocol (FTP), allowed users on one machine to remotely control the resources of host systems anywhere in the Internet. All of these developments set the stage for the explosion in the development of local area networks (LANs), which came soon
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DATA vis--vis VOICE

VOICE COMMUNICATION Fault tolerant Delay sensitive Circuit oriented Fixed Bandwidth
Access
Switch
Switch
Data and Voice communication have several similarities but are different in a few ways: 1. Voice communication is tolerance of minor failures and noise, as the transmitting and receiving parties are human being (highly intelligent as compared to machines that communicate). Data communication needs to be Fault sensitive as the M/cs cant make much error correction. 2. Voice Communication on the other hand is Delay sensitive. Human being feel very uncomfortable if there is variable delay in transmitting successive parts of the speech. Human senses are used to hearing only in the way they hear to direct voice. Machines however have no such inhibitions and that reconstruct a communicated information from various parts of the same. 3. From the above points one would intuitively realise that Voice communication is best suited to Circuit switching and Data to Packet switching. One a circuit is established between the two parties there would be no variation in transmission delays. The only delay is that of electrical signal traveling over the circuit, which is in negligible. No fault correction mechanism is implemented. But in case of Data, information in sent in packets with suitable error detecting codes and transmitted along with several other packets. Different packets could be of different sizes, thereby producing differential delays in receiving subsequent packets for a node. But thats not the problem. 4. Lastly for Voice, we are all bound by the 64 kbps bandwidth, even during silences. While in Data communication the bandwidth for each channel can be set differently depending on the need of the parties.
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Access
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DATA vis--vis VOICE

DATA COMMUNICATION Fault sensitive Delay tolerant Packet oriented Variable Packet size/ Bandwidth
R R
R R R
Data and Voice communication have several similarities but are different in a few ways: 1. Voice communication is tolerance of minor failures and noise, as the transmitting and receiving parties are human being (highly intelligent as compared to machines that communicate). Data communication needs to be Fault sensitive as the M/cs cant make much error correction. 2. Voice Communication on the other hand is Delay sensitive. Human being feel very uncomfortable if there is variable delay in transmitting successive parts of the speech. Human senses are used to hearing only in the way they hear to direct voice. Machines however have no such inhibitions and that reconstruct a communicated information from various parts of the same. 3. From the above points one would intuitively realise that Voice communication is best suited to Circuit switching and Data to Packet switching. One a circuit is established between the two parties there would be no variation in transmission delays. The only delay is that of electrical signal traveling over the circuit, which is in negligible. No fault correction mechanism is implemented. But in case of Data, information in sent in packets with suitable error detecting codes and transmitted along with several other packets. Different packets could be of different sizes, thereby producing differential delays in receiving subsequent packets for a node. But thats not the problem. 4. Lastly for Voice, we are all bound by the 64 kbps bandwidth, even during silences. While in Data communication the bandwidth for each channel can be set differently depending on the need of the parties.
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Circuit Switching
What is circuit switching? It is a dedicated end-to-end path for your particular voice channel and no other voice traffic transmits on this dedicated path for the duration of your call. Circuit Switching Advantages Highly reliable Excellent voice quality (QoS) Disadvantages Dedicated Circuit Wasted Capacity High cost of ownership
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Packet Switching
What is Packet Switching? Packet switching can be defined as either connection oriented or connectionless environment In packet switching, the sending system converts the data into small individual chunks called as packets each having its own destination address. At the receiving side the address is identified and the packets are reassembled to form the original data Advantages Reduces network load Simultaneous data reception form more than two computers possible Disadvantages Not suitable for voice transmission due to packet loss and packet delay
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Module 2 Networking Models & Protocols

Module Objectives
After completion of this module you will be able to understand The Need for Standards OSI - ORGANISATION FOR STANDARDISATION The OSI & TCP/IP reference Model The Seven OSI reference model Layers Introduction to Protocols on different Layers Summary
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History- The Network Model

Different vendors, different Hardware, software. -No Compatibility
Need For Standardization
The Development of the OSI Model For Internetworking
ISO Starts working on a Common Networking Standard/language for interoperability 1984-The OSI Model Approved -enables internetworking irrespesctive Of manufacturer/OS
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Open System Interconnection - OSI
Communication function is partitioned into logical hierarchy of layers. There are seven layers. Each function is distinctly implemented in one layer.
The OSI model divides the tasks of computer communications into a series of seven layers, with the lowest layer providing an interface to the physical medium and the highest layer providing an interface to the user application. Each layer communicates with the immediately higher and lower layers by placing information in headers added to the data. These headers often contain fields called service access points (SAPs), which act like mailboxes where a communication program can leave information for a program running at a higher or lower layer. The application, presentation, and session layers format the data for presentation to the user application and establish a communication session between the local and remote applications. The transport layer typically guarantees the reliability of the transmissions between two end stations by providing facilities for disassembly, assembly, error checking, sequencing, and retransmission. This layer also often provides a way to identify the application that generated the message, using a special SAP (called a socket in TCP/IP). The network layer provides addresses for the sending and receiving stations that allow routing of the message over a network composed of various physical networks. The data link layer provides addresses for the sending and receiving stations that allow delivery from one station to the next station on the same physical network. The data link trailer usually includes some form of checksum (an arithmetic sum used to verify data integrity). The physical layer converts the bits of data hi each frame into electrical or optical signals, depending on the physical medium, and sends it through the medium.
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OSI - A Layered Network Model

The OSI reference model divides the problem of moving information between computers over a network medium into SEVEN smaller and more manageable problems . This separation into smaller more manageable functions is known as layering. The OSI Reference Model is composed of seven layers, each specifying particular network functions. The process of breaking up the functions or tasks of networking into layers reduces complexity. Each layer provides a service to the layer above it in the protocol specification. Each layer communicates with the same layers software or hardware on other computers.
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A Layered Network Model
The lower 4 layers (transport, network, data link and physical Layers 4, 3, 2, and 1) are concerned with the flow of data from end to end through the network. The upper four layers of the OSI model (application, presentation and sessionLayers 7, 6 and 5) are orientated more toward services to the applications. Data is Encapsulated with the necessary protocol information as it moves down the layers before network transit.
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OSI 7 Layer Concept

A layer undertakes the function assigned to it in association with its peer. Peer-to-peer communication is defined by a protocol. Protocol is a set of rules. Upper layers request for service and lower layers provide service.
Service to higher layer Protocol
Header Data
Data
Service from lower layer

Header
Header
Data
Data
Header contains the communication to peer entity. Every layer thus adds its own header. This is called encapsulation
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Encapsulation/Decapsulation
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Functions of Layers
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Open System Interconnection - OSI

End System
Router Router
End System
Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data Link Physical

Media Network Node (Router) Network Node (Router)
Computer Computer
Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data Link Physical

Media
Network DL Ph DL Ph
Media
Network DL Ph DL Ph
Important to note at this point that while the two end systems need all the 7 layers to communicate the in-between elements (Network Elements/ Routers) need to use upto Layer three. The Lower three layers therefore are also called NETWORK LAYERS while the upper four are called APPLICATION LAYERS. Also note the Physical layer or Data/Link Layer protocol is applicable from one Node to another and not all across the network.
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Figure 3-3
9/5/2007
An Exchange Using the OSI Model

encapsulation decapsulation
H H H H H T H
H H H H T
WCB/McGraw-Hill
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998
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OSI Physical Layer
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Physical Layer
Physical Layer deals with the issues such as: "Electrical/Optical interface to the physical medium "Electrical, mechanical, procedural, and functional specifications for activating, maintaining and deactivating the physical link between communicating network systems. "Voltage levels, timings of voltage changes, physical data rates, maximum transmission distances, and physical connectors. Protocol functioning at this layer: "RS-232,RS-449,V3.5,ISDN,xDSL "Ethernet (Fast/GigE) "T1/E1, T3/E3 "SONET/SDH/PDH Hubs/Repeaters/MUX/DACS function at this level.
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Physical Layer: Topologies
R R
R R R
Connection: Simplex/ Duplex, Half/ Full Duplex Topology: Ring, Star, Bus
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E1(G.703/G.704) Multiplexing Hierarchy

Basic Payload E1-32 Timeslots E1-channelized/unchannelized
Standard Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy Digital Level DS0 E1 E3 Synchronous Digital Hierarchy STM0 STM1 STM4 STM16 STM64 Bandwidth (Kbps) 64 2,048 34,448 51,840 155,520 622,080 2,488,320 9,953,280 Equivalent Telephone lines 1 30 480 630 1890 7560 30240 120960
European std.s Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) and its North American counterpart SONET proposes a transport system with highly synchronised network elements and OFC as the physical media. Thereby the concept of bit-interleaving is replaced by a Byte interleaved system. Also the bandwidths are defined upto much higher range making it suitable for modern data & broadband communication. SDH/ SONET defines to types of packaging one for the electrical network called Synchronous Transmission Module/ System (STM-n/ STS-n) and another for the optical network called Transport Unit (TU-n)/ Optical Carrier (OC-n). STM-n has now been defined from STM-1 (63 E1s) to STM-256 (16128 E1s). Proposal for STM-1024 is under examination for standardising. That would take us to an amazing 160 Gbps. Technically there is no difference between SDH and SONET. Some terms differ and some details in Overhead definitions defer but that doesnt come in the way of making these to standards compatible to each other.
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Standards: Electrical Media & Transceivers

CO-AXIAL THINNET: 0.25 Cables for 10MB, 185m RG-58/ U - Solid Copper Core RG-58 A/U - Stranded Copper Core RG-58 C/U - Mil spec. for RG58 A/U RG-59 - Broadband transmission (TV) RG-62 - ArcNet Network Cable CO-AXIAL THICKNET: 0.5 Cables for 10MB, 500m RG-12 SHIELDED TWISTED PAIR: Cables up to 100m Cat 2 - 4 Mbps, Cat 3 - 10 Mbps Cat 4 - 16 Mbps, Cat5 - 100 Mbps
RS232C:
One to One Full Duplex communication Common mode connection. Baud Rate upto 19.2 kB
RS422:
One to One Full Duplex communication. Differential mode connection. Baud Rate upto 10 MB
RS485:
Multi-drop Half Duplex communication. Differential mode connection. Baud rate upto 10 MB.
BANDWIDTH-DISTANCE PRODUCT: The product of bandwidth (thereby the baud-rate) & the distance between transmitter & receiver is generally constant for any particular type of cable. So while the type of cable determines the bandwidth-distance product, for any cable the bandwidth is inversely proportional to the distance. While bandwidth determines speed, distance gives coverage, thereby these two are very important for any network design.
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Ethernet (802.3) The Media

Ethernet LANs are referred to as 10Base5, Thick coaxial cable ethernet 10Base2, Thin coaxial cable ethernet 10Base-T, Twisted pair ethernet Fast ethernets 100Base-Tx,2 twisted pair (CAT 5) 100Base-FX, 2 optical fibres 100Base-T4, 4 CAT3 pairs Gigabit ethernets 1000Base-SX, 2 multimode fibres 1000Base-LX, 2 multi/mono fibres 1000Base-CX, STP 10 Mb, baseband, 500 meters 10 Mb, baseband, 200 meters 10 Mb, baseband, 100 meters
100 Mb, 100 meters 100 Mb, 2000 meters 100 Mb, 100 meters
1 Gb, 550 meters 1 Gb, 550/5000 meters 1Gb, 25 meter
802.3 Now encompasses Original 802.3: 10BASE-T 10BASE-5 10BASE-2 10BROAD-36 802.3u Fast Ethernet: 100BASE-TX 100BASE-FX 100BASE-T4 802.3x: Flow Control 802.3z Gigabit Ethernet: 1000BASE-SX / -LX / -CX 802.3ab Copper Gigabit Ethernet: 1000BASE-T 802.3ac Frame Tagging for VLAN support 802.3ad Link Aggregation 802.3ae 10 Gigabit Ethernet: Completion by March 2002 802.3af DTE Power via MDI: Completion by Sept 2001
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Microwave systems
Base Station
LMDS-10.5GHZ 3.5 GHz UBR-2.4GHZ 10.52.4 GHz WIFIGHZ 26 GHz WIMAX- 3.4GHZ Terminal Station
Micro Cell Feeding Application Business Customer Radio To The Building(RTTB) Application Application
Standard: Frequency Band: FDD Separation: Range: Receiver Sensitivity: Emitted Power: Terminal Station: Base Station: RFU: Antenna Characteristics: Terminal Station Base Station
ETSI EN 301 021 (TM4) 10.15- 10.65 GHz 350 MHz 10Km -87dbm @ BER 10-9 15 dbm 15 dBm (per carrier) 27 dBm 80, 25 dBi 900, 15. dBi, 4 sectors 600, 18 dBi
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Wireless LANS
WAN (Internet / Intranet)
Base Station (BS)
Subscriber Station (SS)
LAN
user user user user
LAN RF Connection
user user
BWA Subscriber station can connect several users to a WAN. Each User can be provided a service independent of the other users.
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WLAN (IEEE: 802.11)
SS for Peer-to-Peer Communications in Ad Hoc Network
BS Provides Campus-Wide Coverage
WLANs can be used either to replace wired LANs, or as an extension of the wired LAN infrastructure. The basic topology of an 802.11 network is shown in Figure 1. A Basic Service Set (BSS) consists of two or more wireless nodes, or stations (STAs), which have recognized each other and have established communications. In the most basic form, stations communicate directly with each other on a peer-to-peer level sharing a given cell coverage area. This type of network is often formed on a temporary basis, and is commonly referred to as an ad hoc network, or Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS). In most instances, the BSS contains an Access Point (AP). The main function of an AP is to form a bridge between wireless and wired LANs. The AP is analogous to a basestation used in cellular phone networks. When an AP is present, stations do not communicate on a peer-to-peer basis. All communications between stations or between a station and a wired network client go through the AP. APs are not mobile, and form part of the wired network infrastructure. A BSS in this configuration is said to be operating in the infrastructure mode. The Extended Service Set (ESS) shown in Figure 2 consists of a series of overlapping BSSs (each containing an AP) connected together by means of a Distribution System (DS). Although the DS could be any type of network, it is almost invariably an Ethernet LAN. Mobile nodes can roam between APs and seamless campus-wide coverage is possible. Radio Technology IEEE 802.11 provides for two variations of the PHY. These include two (2) RF technologies namely Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS), and Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum (FHSS). The DSSS and FHSS PHY options were designed specifically to conform to FCC regulations (FCC 15.247) for operation in the 2.4 GHz ISM band, which has worldwide allocation for unlicensed operation. Region Allocated Spectrum US 2.4000 2.4835 GHz, Europe 2.4000 2.4835 GHz, Japan 2.471 - 2.497 GHz, France 2.4465 2.4835 GHz, Spain 2.445 - 2.475 GHz
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Wireless LAN Layer 1 for 802.11

Upper layers Data link layer
Logical link control

MAC sublayer
802.3
802.3
802.3
802.3
802.3
802.3
802.11 Infrared
802.11 FHSS
802.11 DSSS
802.11a OFDM
802.11b HR-DSSS
802.11g OFDM
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Wireless LAN (IEEE-802.16)

Evolution of the 802.16 standard
IEEE 802.16 (2001) Air Interface for Fixed Broadband Wireless Access System MAC and PHY Specifications for 10 66 GHZ (LoS) Single Carrier
IEEE 802.16a (January 2003) Amendment to 802.16 for 2 11 GHz (NLoS) IEEE 802.16d (July 2004) Combines both IEEE 802.16 and 802.16a IEEE 802.16e (November 2005) Amendment to 802.16-2004 Modifications for limited mobility (60Kmph)
RCOM is presently (2007) deploying WiMAX (2004) for static use
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Data/ Link Layer
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Data Link Layer

The Data layer Protocol lays down such simple guidelines like what would be the size of frame, how to detect start of frame or end of frame, how to detect a transmission failure (Parity, CRC, etc.) and so on. In simple words its about how to get your bits transmitted meaningfully. Data/ Link layer makes networking possible within a limited physical area, called Local Area Network (LAN).
33H, 96H = 00110011(oP=1)10010110(oP=1)
001100111100101101 ..oP=1? Yes..oP=1? Yes Communication OK. 33H, 96H
Parity bit: One bit that gives the value of (even/ odd) parity of the attached payload. CHECK-SUM: Sum of values of all the data bytes. PACKET: Collection of Data bytes, parity, check-sum, packet size, header/ footer, etc. SOT, EOT: Header & Footer of a Packet given by pre-defined signature bytes. CRC: Cyclic Redundancy Check - a code attached to each packet for error checking.
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Data Link Layer

Data Link Layer deals with such matters "Framing "Error Detection "Flow Control Addressing Contention Resolution/Media Access Control Divided into two sub layers, MAC and LLC Protocols listed at this layer: "Ethernet, ATM, Frame-Relay, PPP Switches function at this layer.
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Layer 2 Encapsulation
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Data networks - layer 2 Protocols

Network
Local Area Network

Protocol-Ethernet
Wide Area Network
Point To Point WANs

Protocol-HDLC,PPP, MEN- Ethernet
WCB/McGraw-Hill
Point To Multipoint WANs Protocol-ATM, Frame Relay
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Figure 2-16
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Local Area Network
WCB/McGraw-Hill
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Figure 2-17
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Metropolitan Area Network
WCB/McGraw-Hill
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Figure 2-18
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Wide Area Network
WCB/McGraw-Hill
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Ethernet: Frame Format
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Ethernet: MAC Address

MAC Address Format
Ethernet MAC addresses are 48 bits in length. The IEEE assigns the first 24 bits to organizations requesting them, typically, equipment vendors. Vendors are then responsible for placing a unique value in the remaining 24 bits, yielding a globally unique MAC address for every physical interface.
Unicast Address:
A Unicast address is simply a MAC address with the Multicast bit set to zero. Unicast addresses must be unique within the network.
Broadcast address:
A Broadcast address at the MAC level is simply an address of all 1's. In hexadecimal notation this would be expressed as FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF.
Multicast Address:
If the Multicast bit is set to 1 then the MAC address represents a multicast destination. There are several reserved multicast addresses that are used by well known protocols.
There are several bits within the MAC address that have special meanings: The least significant bit (LSB) of the first byte is the Multicast bit. AP11002-01 15- - - If it is set to 1, the MAC address is a multicast address. If the Multicast bit is 1, then the most significant bit (MSB) of the third byte is either: 0 representing the Internet Multicast Address, or 1 which is assigned by IANA for other uses
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Metro Ethernet: Overview
A. B. C. D. E. F.
Primarily Point to Point Links Can be Switch or Router WAN links (e.g. SONET/ SDH) Various Service types (P2P, MP2MP, P2MP), BW from 1 Mbps to 1 Gbps Various protection technique for Network Resilience QoS both End-to-End and Node-to-Node
A. Links are primarily point-to-point and can be any speed of Ethernet. B. Nodes can be either switches or routers, depending on their location in the MEN, the nature of the services being provisioned, and the level of service resilience (network protection). Nodes are meshed to whatever degree necessary to provide the desired connectivity, services, and protection. C. WAN links connect MENs together across large distances. D. Ethernet services can be topologically classified into point-to-point (as shown in this illustration), multipoint-to-multipoint, or point-to-multipoint. Services are then further classified according to the bandwidth provisioned and used. This bandwidth usage can be exclusive or shared across multiple users. Bandwidth is provisioned on demand from 1 Mbps to 1 Gbps, in increments as fine as 1 Mbps. E. Varying degrees of service resilience are obtained by implementing a combination of network protection techniques. Protection can be end-to-end (as shown in this illustration) or node-to-node. F. Quality of Service (QoS) is realized using a combination of various techniques to provide both hard and soft bandwidth and packet-loss guarantees. QoS can be end-to-end (as shown in this illustration) or node-to-node. From an enterprise endcustomer perspective, QoS is visible as a technical/operational Service Level Specification (SLS), which is underwritten by a commercial Service Level Agreement (SLA).
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Frame Relay History

Before frame relay era, large organizations were interconnected by: X.25 Long network processing time connectivity Low bandwidth (max. 64kbps) Charge per traffic Leased Lines Point to point Expensive, there is no bandwidth sharing Required multiple port routers Fixed price
As the 1980s came to close a new demands from the wide area network switching began to appear: Growth in high speed, high speed throughput application. Sophistication of the end user devices, equipment with processing ability. This new wide area switching technology required high speed, low delay, port sharing and bandwidth sharing on a virtual circuit basis. These characteristics implemented in Frame Relay make Frame Relay ideal solution for the burst traffic sources found in LAN-WAN internetworking. Frame Relay is a high-speed communication technology, which enables to send information over the WAN by dividing the information into frames and packets. Frame Relay is not a single physical connection between two end points, but a logical path is defined within the network.No Bandwidth is allocated to the path until actual data needs to be transmitted. Then, the Bandwidth within the network is allocated on a packet-by-packet basis, This logical path called VC (Virtual Circuit).
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X.25 VS. Frame Relay
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Frame Relay Network (cont.)

UNI User to Network Interface
User Node Router FR switch
NNI Network to Network Interface

FR switch User Node Router
User Node Router
FR switch
User Node Router
Network Node
Network nodes (FR switches) User nodes (usually routers)
Switched Virtual Circuits Switched virtual circuits (SVCs) are temporary connections used in situations requiring only sporadic data transfer between DTE devices across the Frame Relay network. A communication session across an SVC consists of the following four operational states: Call setupThe virtual circuit between two Frame Relay DTE devices is established. Data transferData is transmitted between the DTE devices over the virtual circuit. IdleThe connection between DTE devices is still active, but no data is transferred. If an SVC remains in an idle state for a defined period of time, the call can be terminated. Call terminationThe virtual circuit between DTE devices is terminated. Permanent Virtual Circuits Permanent virtual circuits (PVCs) are permanently established connections that are used for frequent and consistent data transfers between DTE devices across the Frame Relay network. Communication across a PVC does not require the call setup and termination states that are used with SVCs. PVCs always operate in one of the following two operational states:
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Frame Relay Packet Structure
Frame Relay Header: 2 bytes of FR address and control Information Field: Users data FCS: 32 bits of Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) Flag : 2 identical bytes made of 6 ones and 2 zeros.
Data transferData is transmitted between the DTE devices over the virtual circuit. IdleThe connection between DTE devices is active, but no data is transferred. Unlike SVCs, PVCs will not be terminated under any circumstances when in an idle state. DTE devices can begin transferring data whenever they are ready because the circuit is permanently established. Differences with X.25
Less robust Assumes more reliable medium =>
No retransmission of lost data No windowing

Error control handled by higher layers Higher performance and transmission efficiency
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Frame Relay: Format

8 16 Variable 16 8
Flags
Address
Data
FCS
Flags
Flags: Delimits the beginning and end of the frame. The value of this field is always the same and is represented either as the hexadecimal number 7E or as the binary number 01111110. Address: Contains the following information:
DLCIThe 10-bit DLCI is the essence of the Frame Relay header. This value represents the virtual connection between the DTE device and the switch. Extended Address (EA)The EA is used to indicate whether the byte in which the EA value is 1 is the last addressing field. If the value is 1, then the current byte is determined to be the last DLCI octet. C/RThe C/R is the bit that follows the most significant DLCI byte in the Address field. The C/R bit is not currently defined. Congestion ControlThis consists of the 3 bits that control the Frame Relay congestion-notification mechanisms. These are the FECN, BECN, and DE bits, which are the last 3 bits in the Address field.
Data: Contains encapsulated upper-layer data. Each frame in this variable-length field includes a user data
or payload field that will vary in length up to 16,000 octets.
Frame Check Sequence: Ensures the integrity of transmitted data.
Switched Virtual Circuits Switched virtual circuits (SVCs) are temporary connections used in situations requiring only sporadic data transfer between DTE devices across the Frame Relay network. A communication session across an SVC consists of the following four operational states: Call setupThe virtual circuit between two Frame Relay DTE devices is established. Data transferData is transmitted between the DTE devices over the virtual circuit. IdleThe connection between DTE devices is still active, but no data is transferred. If an SVC remains in an idle state for a defined period of time, the call can be terminated. Call terminationThe virtual circuit between DTE devices is terminated. Permanent Virtual Circuits Permanent virtual circuits (PVCs) are permanently established connections that are used for frequent and consistent data transfers between DTE devices across the Frame Relay network. Communication across a PVC does not require the call setup and termination states that are used with SVCs. PVCs always operate in one of the following two operational states: Data transferData is transmitted between the DTE devices over the virtual circuit. IdleThe connection between DTE devices is active, but no data is transferred. Unlike SVCs, PVCs will not be terminated under any circumstances when in an idle state. DTE devices can begin transferring data whenever they are ready because the circuit is permanently established. Differences with X.25 Less robust, Assumes more reliable medium => No retransmission of lost data, No windowing, Error control handled by higher layers Higher performance and transmission efficiency
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Leaky Bucket Algorithm (cont.)
Bc
Bc+Be
Each VC has several parameters needed to be configured:

CIR (Committed Information Rate) CIR is the "worst-case" throughput that the frame relay network provider attempts to guaranty CIR bandwidth is guaranteed. In overload situations, transmission will occur over a reasonable time span (usually over a span of seconds) Transmission is monitored using "leaky bucket algorithm." Bc (Burst Committed) Value which indicated how many bits can be transmitted at a certain time interval and the system obligate to transmit them. Be (Burst Exceeded) The amount of bits which were transmitted over the Bc at the defined time interval. Tc (Time Committed) The time interval
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Frame Relay
TS
FRAD DLCI 102
BS
m*DLCI's max(m)=200
FR switch
Rdn n/w
Frame Relay Network
FR switch
FR USERS TS
FRAD DLCI 101
n*DLCI's max(n)=30
FRAD
Congestion Notification Mechanism is helping us to avoid a situation where a node reaches a certain point which it cant deliver data any more due to a sever congestions. In Frame Relay there are several ways to avoid congestions: Explicit Congestion Notification Discard Eligibility Discard Eligibility Due to the use of the CIR which is an obligation for the quality of service to the customer, in case of a problem any frame which is send through the network above the CIR can be discarded. And will not effect the guarantied Quality of Service.
Frame Relay benefits over alternative technologies: Lower cost of ownership Well-established and widely adopted standards that allow open architecture and plug-and-play service implementation. Low overhead, combined with high reliability. Network scalability, flexibility and disaster recovery. Interworking with other new services and applications, such ATM.
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DLCI-SUBNET MAPPING
10.20.31.0
10.20.30.0
192.20.30.0
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ATM: Desire for Integrated Services

FDDI
Data Data
FDDI
Voice PBX
Integrated Network
Voice PBX
Video
Video
Economies of integration: voice, data, video Minimize delays and delay variation
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ATM Basics
Voice Video Data
Header 5 Octets Payload 48 Octets
Cells
ATM Network
53 Octets
Traditional voice/video technology: Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Fixed time slots give isochronicity Variable-size data units give flexibility and efficiency Small, fixed-size cells Combined benefits of TDM and PSDN
Traditional data technology: Packet / Frame Switching (PSDN)
ATM technology: Cell switching

8 Byte 1 2 3 4 5
7 6 GFC VPI
3 2 VPI VCI
Bits - Octets sent in increasing order (start at Octet 1)
VCI VCI HEC PTI CLP
VCI: Virtual Channel Id VPI: Virtual Path Id UNI: User Network Interface GFC: Generic Flow Control (undefined ) Allows for 256 VPs and 65,536 VCs 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Bits VPI 1 Byte No GFC Field 2 VPI VCI More VPI bits for trunking VCI 3 4 VCI PTI CLP 5 HEC VCI: Virtual Channel Id PTI: Payload Type Indicator VPI: Virtual Path Id CLP: Cell Loss Priority NNI: Network Network Interface Allows for 4,096 VPs and 65,536 VCs RIC-Learning Center Page 54 For Internal Circulation Only
- Within the Octet, the MSB (8) is sent first PTI: Payload Type Indicator CLP: Cell Loss Priority HEC: Header Error Check
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ATM FEATURES
One technology for voice, data, video and multimedia Bandwidth on demand as needed Scalable as needs dictate Quality of Service (QoS) is well defined Management Systems and services pre-built into ATM Hardware based switching instead of complicated routing and software schemes ATM is connection oriented protocol and makes use of one of the two connection types PVC Permanent Virtual Circuit SVC Switched Virtual Circuit There is a logical mapping of connections in the network The connection is built into a routing table and in each of the switches involved with the connection from end to end The switches needs to lookup a table for the incoming port and channel and then determine the mapping
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ATM Sub layers

Physical Layer Transfers cells from one interface to another via communication channel Supports both optical and electrical communication channel LAN data rates supported are from 25 to 622Mbps for copper & Fiber WAN data rates supports the data rates of SONET/SDH ATM Layer Performs cell multiplexing/de-multiplexing and switching Provides virtual connection between end points Manage cell headers AAL ATM Adaptation Layer AAL1(A) - Supports connection oriented constant bit rate data AAL2(B) - Supports connection oriented variable bit rate data AAL3/AAL4(C) -Supports connection oriented and connection less data AAL5(D)- Supports bursty data which use high level protocol for error control
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ATM Adoption Layer (AAL)

Maximum Natural Information Rate Loss of Quality (Bandwidth potential lost) Average Natural Information Rate
Bit Rate
Bandwidth Wasted
t
AAL TYPE TUNING Bit rate Connection Class A 1 Required Constant Connection oriented Class B 2 Required Variable Connection oriented VBR, Voice, Video Class C 5, 3/4 Not Required Variable Connection oriented CBR, Voice, Video Class D 5, 3/4 Not Required Variable Connection-less
Example
CBR, Voice, Video
TCP/IP, SMDS
Higher Layers ATM Adaptation Layer ATM Layer Phy ATM Endpoint Peer Layer Communication
Higher Layers ATM Adaptation Layer ATM Layer Phy ATM Endpoint
ATM Layer Phy Phy
ATM Layer Phy Phy
ATM Switching
ATM Switching
ATM Network Interfaces
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ATM: Virtual Path & Channel

Network B Physical Layer (Fiber)
Virtual Path (VP)
Virtual Channel (VC)
Network A
Virtual Channel
>Assigned at call-setup time >Has only local significance >May be used for multi-component services e.g. video telephony with separate voice and video VCI streams
Virtual Path
>Carry a bundles of Virtual Channels >Virtual Path service from Carriers allows reconfiguration of virtual channels without service order changes to the Carrier
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Virtual Paths and Virtual Channels

VC Switch
GFC VPI VCI VCI HEC PTI C VPI VCI
VCI 1 VPI 1'
VCI 2
VCI 3 VPI 3' VPI 3'
VCI 4 VPI VPI 3' 4' VPI 2' VPI 4
VCI 4
VCI 1 VCI 2
VPI 1
VPI 3 VPI 3
VCI 3
VCI 1 VCI 2
VPI 4
VPI 5
VCI 1 VCI 2
VP Switch
Empty cells indicated by VPI/VCI = 0 NNI : 4,096 VPs and 65,536 VCs UNI : 256 VPs and 65,536 VCs
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ATM Frame Format
GFC Generic Flow Control Controls the flow of data across the UNI permitting multiple ATM devices to be attached to the same network interface VPI Virtual Path Identifier Part of the network address used to identify grouping of channels VCI Virtual Channel Identifier Pointer that identifies the virtual channel the system is using on a virtual path PT Payload Type Indicates the type of information contained in the cell CLP Cell Loss Payload Specifies whether or not to discard the cell in the presence of congestion HEC Header Error Control Provides error correction for single bit errors and error detection for multiple bit errors in the cell.
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Sample ATM Network Layout
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HDLC/PPP
High Level Data Link Control Popularly used as a point to point WAN encapsulation protocol for dedicated links and circuit switched type of connections. -HDLC is an ISO standard that encapsulates data on synchronous , Serial data links.
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Point to Point Protocol

The Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) originally emerged as an encapsulation protocol for transporting IP traffic over point-to-point links. PPP uses:
the High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) protocol as a basis for encapsulating datagrams. An extensible LCP to establish, configure, and test the data link connection. A family of NCPs for establishing and configuring different network layer protocols. PPP is designed to allow the simultaneous use of multiple network layer protocols.
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Point to Point Protocol

PPP is capable of operating across any DTE/DCE interface. Examples:

Asynchronous serial Synchronous Serial ISDN HSSI (High Speed Serial Interface)
PPP uses Frame of International Organization for Standardization (ISO) HDLC procedures 3309:1984/PDAD1 :
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THE NETWORK LAYER
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Network Layer
Network Layer deals with: "Routing packets from source to destination subnet addresses. Logical Addressing "Control communication and forwarding information between routers "Mapping MAC addresses to there Network addresses Protocol Functioning in this layer include IP,ICMP,ARP,RARP,RIP,OSPF,BGP Routers function at this level
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Internet Protocol (IP)

Used to route data from its source to destination encapsulates or surrounds its payload utilizes a header structure prefixed to the payload individual packets are passed through the IP network on a best-effort basis no guarantee of packet delivery no guarantee of packet order IP makes minimal demands on network Routers make local forwarding decisions based upon the datagrams destination address
Routers are not required to keep historical data on previous packet destination paths IP makes minimal demands on the network
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IP: Frame Format

32 bits
Version
IHL
Type-of-service Flags Protocol Source Address Destination Address Options (+padding)
Total Length Fragment Offset
Identification Time-to-live
Header Checksum
Data (Variable)
VersionIndicates the version of IP currently used. IP Header Length (IHL)Indicates the datagram header length in 32-bit words. Type-of-ServiceSpecifies how an upper-layer protocol would like a current datagram to be handled, and assigns datagrams various levels of importance. Total LengthSpecifies the length, in bytes, of the entire IP packet, including the data and header. IdentificationContains an integer that identifies the current datagram. This field is used to help piece together datagram fragments. FlagsConsists of a 3-bit field of which the two low-order (least-significant) bits control fragmentation. The low-order bit specifies whether the packet can be fragmented. The middle bit specifies whether the packet is the last fragment in a series of fragmented packets. The third or high-order bit is not used. Fragment OffsetIndicates the position of the fragment's data relative to the beginning of the data in the original datagram, which allows the destination IP process to properly reconstruct the original datagram. Time-to-LiveMaintains a counter that gradually decrements down to zero, at which point the datagram is discarded. This keeps packets from looping endlessly. ProtocolIndicates which upper-layer protocol receives incoming packets after IP processing is complete. Header ChecksumHelps ensure IP header integrity. Source AddressSpecifies the sending node. Destination AddressSpecifies the receiving node. OptionsAllows IP to support various options, such as security. DataContains upper-layer information.
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The Transport Layer
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Transport Layer
The Transport layer is basically responsible For making sure that the data is delivered error-free and in the proper sequence. Other responsibilities are: Segmentation "Sequencing Retransmission (Error Correction) Acknowledgements Windowing / End to End flow control for connection oriented and connectionless applications (Flow Control) "Port addressing, identifying upper layer protocols Main protocols functioning here are TCP and UDP
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TCP Overview
End-to-end protocol that implements:
Reliability, sequencing, flow control and streaming
Bi-lateral duplex protocol
Allowing only two parties on the same connection to share data

The same port number can be associated with a number of
distinct connections by utilizing the source and destination address fields

Low numbered ports are associated with defined services
Higher numbered ports are associated with dynamic services
With stream data transfer, TCP delivers an unstructured stream of bytes identified by sequence numbers. This service benefits applications because they do not have to chop data into blocks before handing it off to TCP. Instead, TCP groups bytes into segments and passes them to IP for delivery. TCP offers reliability by providing connection-oriented, end-to-end reliable packet delivery through an internetwork. It does this by sequencing bytes with a forwarding acknowledgment number that indicates to the destination the next byte the source expects to receive. Bytes not acknowledged within a specified time period are retransmitted. The reliability mechanism of TCP allows devices to deal with lost, delayed, duplicate, or misread packets. A time-out mechanism allows devices to detect lost packets and request retransmission. TCP offers efficient flow control, which means that, when sending acknowledgments back to the source, the receiving TCP process indicates the highest sequence number it can receive without overflowing its internal buffers. Full-duplex operation means that TCP processes can both send and receive at the same time. Finally, TCP's multiplexing means that numerous simultaneous upper-layer conversations can be multiplexed over a single connection. TCP Connection Establishment To use reliable transport services, TCP hosts must establish a connection-oriented session with one another. Connection establishment is performed by using a "three-way handshake" mechanism. A three-way handshake synchronizes both ends of a connection by allowing both sides to agree upon initial sequence numbers. This mechanism also guarantees that both sides are ready to transmit data and know that the other side is ready to transmit as well. This is necessary so that packets are not transmitted or retransmitted during session establishment or after session termination.
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TCP Adaptability
TCP manages the reliable exchange of data
TCP utilizes a basic flow-control algorithm
Increasing the data flow rate until the network signals saturation

Packet loss TCP flow rate is reduced
When reliable transmission occurs
Data flow begins to increase again
If no reliable flow is established

Flow rate backs off until initial probe of single packet occurs Entire flow control process starts again
Allows a highly, efficient network to be utilized
Positive Acknowledgment and Retransmission (PAR) A simple transport protocol might implement a reliability-and-flow-control technique where the source sends one packet, starts a timer, and waits for an acknowledgment before sending a new packet. If the acknowledgment is not received before the timer expires, the source retransmits the packet. Such a technique is called positive acknowledgment and retransmission (PAR). By assigning each packet a sequence number, PAR enables hosts to track lost or duplicate packets caused by network delays that result in premature retransmission. The sequence numbers are sent back in the acknowledgments so that the acknowledgments can be tracked. PAR is an inefficient use of bandwidth, however, because a host must wait for an acknowledgment before sending a new packet, and only one packet can be sent at a time. TCP Sliding Window A TCP sliding window provides more efficient use of network bandwidth than PAR because it enables hosts to send multiple bytes or packets before waiting for an acknowledgment. In TCP, the receiver specifies the current window size in every packet. Because TCP provides a bytestream connection, window sizes are expressed in bytes. This means that a window is the number of data bytes that the sender is allowed to send before waiting for an acknowledgment. Initial window sizes are indicated at connection setup, but might vary throughout the data transfer to provide flow control. A window size of zero, for instance, means "Send no data." In a TCP sliding-window operation, for example, the sender might have a sequence of bytes to send (numbered 1 to 10) to a receiver who has a window size of five. The sender then would place a window around the first five bytes and transmit them together. It would then wait for an acknowledgment.
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TCP Data Transfer
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TCP Frame Format

Source Port Sequence Number Acknowledgement Number Data Offset Reserved Checksum Options (+padding) Flags Window Urgent Pointer Destination Port
Data (Variable)
Source Port and Destination PortIdentifies points at which upper-layer source and destination processes receive TCP services. Sequence NumberUsually specifies the number assigned to the first byte of data in the current message. In the connection-establishment phase, this field also can be used to identify an initial sequence number to be used in an upcoming transmission. Acknowledgment NumberContains the sequence number of the next byte of data the sender of the packet expects to receive. Data OffsetIndicates the number of 32-bit words in the TCP header. ReservedRemains reserved for future use. FlagsCarries a variety of control information, including the SYN and ACK bits used for connection establishment, and the FIN bit used for connection termination. WindowSpecifies the size of the sender's receive window (that is, the buffer space available for incoming data). ChecksumIndicates whether the header was damaged in transit. Urgent PointerPoints to the first urgent data byte in the packet. OptionsSpecifies various TCP options. DataContains upper-layer information.
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UDP
UDP is a connectionless transport-layer protocol UDP is basically an interface between IP and upper-layer processes. UDP adds no reliability, flow-control, or errorrecovery functions to IP.
UDP headers contain fewer bytes and consume less network overhead UDP is useful in situations where the reliability mechanisms of TCP are not necessary, such as in cases where a higher-layer protocol might provide error and flow control. UDP is the transport protocol for several well-known application-layer protocols, including Network File System (NFS), Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP), Domain Name System (DNS), and Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP).
Application UDP IP TCP ICMP
Data Link Physical
The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a connectionless transport-layer protocol (Layer 4) that belongs to the Internet protocol family. UDP is basically an interface between IP and upper-layer processes. UDP protocol ports distinguish multiple applications running on a single device from one another. Unlike the TCP, UDP adds no reliability, flow-control, or error-recovery functions to IP. Because of UDP's simplicity, UDP headers contain fewer bytes and consume less network overhead than TCP. UDP is useful in situations where the reliability mechanisms of TCP are not necessary, such as in cases where a higher-layer protocol might provide error and flow control. UDP is the transport protocol for several well-known application-layer protocols, including Network File System (NFS), Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP), Domain Name System (DNS), and Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP).
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TCP/UDP Port Numbers
Each internet application (FTP, HTTP, Telnet) relates to particular port in a session. Main internet application maintain well known port numbers, while most port numbers are dynamically assigned.
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TCP/UDP PORTS
Port nos above 1024 are generally allocated For source port as port nos below 1024 have Been assigned for popular applications by IETF. Every application running in a PC will have a Unique source port while all similar applications (ex. http, telnet, ftp etc.) will have the same Destination port.
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TCP/UDP Port Addresses
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The Session Layer
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Session Layer
Protocols at this layer are necessary for Establishing, maintaining and ending sessions between user applications. They are basically flow chart applications which guide the user into the various functional/control aspects of an application.
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The Presentation Layer
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Presentation Layer
The presentation layer ensures that The communication passing through are in the appropriate form for the recipient. Programs in the presentation layer address three aspects of presentation. "Data formats for example ASCII or binary formats "Compatibility with host operating system "Encapsulation of the data into message envelops for transmission through the network.
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The Application Layer
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Application Layer
This layer is closest to the user providing network services to application programs to ensure communication with other application program The Application layer is NOT the application itself that is doing the communication; it is the service layer that provides these services. "Makes sure that the other party is identified and can be reached. "If appropriate, authenticates either the message sender or receiver or both. "Makes sure that necessary communication resources exist. "Ensures agreement at both ends about error recovery procedures data integrity, and privacy. "Determines protocol and data syntax rules at the application level. !It may be convenient to think of the Application layer as the high level set-up services for the application program.
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The TCP/IP Protocol Suite

A set of standard data communication protocols also known as the Internet Protocol suite used on the internet world wide. The suite was originally developed for the US Department of Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA) TCP/IP is a layered protocol based on the DoD model where each layer builds upon the layer below it, adding new functionality.
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TCP/IP Protocol Suite

TCP/IP is designed to use a client server model of communication in which a client request is provided a service (such as sending a web page) to by another a computer(server) in the network. TCP/IP has only four layers i.e. when compared to the OSI reference model the upper four layers (4-7) is integrated into one and is called as Application layer. All the TCP/IP applications resides at this layer. Lower layers (1-3) purely are concerned with sending and receiving data using specific n/w hardware.
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TCP/IP VS OSI MODEL
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TCP/IP Protocol Suite
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FTP
File Transfer Protocol FTP is most widely used protocol for moving files reliably across networks of various platforms. You need to logon to the FTP server with a password, however publicly available files are easily accessed using anonymous FTP. A user can use FTP commands from a prompt, or a graphical user interface to download programs selected from a web page or an FTP server. Using FTP, one can also update (delete, rename,move and copy) files at sever To ensure reliability, FTP uses TCP at the transport layer
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HTTP
Hyper Text Transfer Protocol HTTP is the fundamental protocol used by the World Wide Web It defines how messages and files are formatted and transmitted and what actions web server and browser should take in response to various commands. A web browser is a client program that uses HTTP to make requests of web servers throughout the internet on behalf of the browser user. A web browser use the Uniform Resource Locator (URL) to link files to other websites. To ensure reliability HTTP uses TCP at the transport layer
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SNMP
Simple Network Management Protocol Application layer protocol for managing complex networks It allows a host (NMS) acting as an SNMP Manager to poll and configure managed network devices SNMP agents Agents routinely reports unsolicited events notifications to their managers known as Traps. Management Information Base (MIB) is a collection of managed objects residing in the agent. SNMP uses UDP at the transport layer
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SMTP
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol The host that is configured with this protocol is called as the SMTP server. The SMTP server handles outgoing mails Whenever you send a piece of e-mail, your email client interacts with your SMTP server to handle sending of the mail The SMTP server then contacts other SMTP server to actually deliver the mail To ensure reliability SMTP use TCP at the transport layer
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POP3
Post Office Protocol It the most popular TCP/IP mail access protocol It implements the Off-Line access model, allowing users to retrieve mail from their SMTP server.
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TELNET
TELNET Telnet is the terminal emulation program that allows you to remotely access someone elses computer across the network, assuming they have given you permission To start a telnet session the client must log in to a server by entering a valid username and password After you get authenticated you will be presented a command prompt where you can execute the commands, you feel as if you are on the sever console To ensure reliability, Telnet uses TCP at the transport layer
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Module Summary
WCB/McGraw-Hill
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Module Review
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Node to Node Communication is provided by Layer Parity & CRC are .. layer tools. .. layer takes care of end to end reliable delivery of data. RS232C and RS485 are layer standards. .layer takes care of packet transfer between logical networks. .layer takes care of forms, formats, fonts, etc. .layers are broadly categorized as the Network Layers and Layers are categorized as Application Layers in OSI model. Which layers take part in data communication in Networking Devices
8.
We had see this page before: As information is passed through the network, the top four layers are only required at the end-points. The bottom three (Physical, Data & Network) are required at every node that the information pass through. Nodes which can process upto Layer 3 (Network layer) information are called Routers. Routers are essentially element that determine the Route to to taken for end-to-end information Transfer. This they do by creating and maintaining either a Static or Dynamic Routing Table. Modern Routers are capable of maintaining several Routing Tables, some Static and some Dynamic.
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Module 3 Networking Devices

Module Objectives
After completion of this module you will be able to understand Function of HUBs Function of Switches Function of Routers Advantages/Disadvantages of Various Networking Devices
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Bus Topology
The Ethernet started in a bus topology:
Main Cable
Termination Termination
COLISSIONS IS A PROBLEM,ANS INFO TRANSMITTED BY ONE GOES TO ALL,THIS IS A COMMON BROADCAST DOMAIN,AND THE BUS HAS TO BE TERNINATED OTHERWISE THERE WILL BE VOLATAGE REFLECTIOSN this is called a common broadcast domain
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Bus Topology
The bus topology found out to have a lot of disadvantages: Cut in the Coax cable can cause disconnecting several stations. Fault in Coax cable can disturbed the service. Incorrect / no termination Fault in the ground
Termination
Termination Termination
No Termination
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Star Topology
In order to over come the problem issued in a bus topology, star topology was used for the Ethernet connection. If a single cable cut/fault only one node is disconnected. Usage of a cheaper unshielded twisted pair cable than a coaxial cable. The usage of the star topology introduced the bus in a box equipment which is known as an Hub.
SO THE HUB WAS DEVELOPED.THE MEDIA IS STILL SHARED BUT UNDER OUR CONTROL.ALL PORTS ARE PARALLEL,SO BREAK IN LINK WILL NOT RESULT IN ALL STATIONS OUTAGE.
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L1 Devices
Repeater Used in local area networks. It is a physical layer device that regenerates the electrical signal. Extend the distance between remote nodes Increase the total number of nodes on a network. Repeater amplifies the signal and removes any distortion.
Maximum 5 spans
Repeaters let you extend the distance between remote nodes and increase the total number of nodes on a network. The physical layer defines the rules for the media (such as electrical or fiber optic cable) that interconnect network devices. Electrical signals become weaker over distance (called attenuation) and may become distorted by exposure to interference (EMI and RFI). The rules provided by the physical layer protocol ensure that the signal remains strong enough for the most remote end nodes to exchange data. A repeater amplifies the signal and removes any accumulated distortion. The only possible values for a digital signal are 0 or 1, so it is easy to restore it to its original condition. Because a repeater deals with signal reproduction, it is considered to operate at the OSI physical layer. Besides limiting the length of the segment, physical layer specifications also state the maximum number of nodes per segment for different media types. For instance, a maximum of 30 attachments are permitted on an 802.3 network using 10BASE2 (thin Ethernet) coaxial cable. Repeaters allow you to interconnect multiple segments of the same media type and the same data link layer protocol. This interconnection increases the number of nodes allowed and extends the maximum distance permitted between the most distant end nodes in the network.
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Hub
Hubs provide both Physical layer and Repeaters function.
Hubs do not isolate collision domains , they extend them. This means a node may collide with any other node residing at any segment in the LAN.
Segment A/ Accounts Department
Segment B/ Sales Department
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CSMA/CD
Although Metclafe and his colleagues establish a connection they had one major problem Collisions. Through out the years a protocol was added to the Ethernet network in order to reduce the collisions. This protocol called CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detection). The CSMA/CD describes the following scenario
Workstation
IBM Compatible
Laptop computer
IBM Compatible
IBM laser printer
SO THE TERMINAL WILL FIRST ENSURE WETHER MEDIA IS FREE OR NOT TO AVOID COLLISIONS to avoid collisions the csma/cd protocol is defined
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CSMA/CD
Node A prior the transmission to node B needs to listen to the media in order to check whether the media is free or not.
C
The Media is occupied wait a random period of time and try again. The A listen A Media wants is to to free the transmit Media O.K to to is transmit B it free?
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CSMA/CD
CSMA/CD is not immune to collisions because at the same time that A listens to the media C could have also been listening to the media and both of them will transmit on the same time. In a collision scenario the Ethernet system has a way to know that collision happened. Both node stopping their transmission and back-off for a random time period.
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Full / Half Duplex

Half Duplex Only one node may transmit on the line. Half duplex is a must in shared media scenario (e.g hub). Full Duplex A station can receive and transmit on the same time, only in a none shared media environment.
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L2 Devices
Bridge Bridge is a layer 2 device. It interconnects two LAN segments.
LAN 1
LAN 2
The two LANs can be of different technologies e.g. Ethernet, token ring. A bridge is also used to segment a LAN so that messages meant for one segment are not sent to other segments (Filtering capability). Segmentation of a LAN can be done department wise in an organization. Security policy can be implemented. Bridge can be self learning i.e they learn addresses of stations on different segments by looking at the frames that flow in a segment.
In telecommunication networks, a bridge is a product that connects a local area network (LAN) to another local area network that uses the same protocol (for example, Ethernet or token ring). You can envision a bridge as being a device that decides whether a message from you to someone else is going to the local area network in your building or to someone on the local area network in the building across the street. A bridge examines each message on a LAN, "passing" those known to be within the same LAN, and forwarding those known to be on the other interconnected LAN (or LANs). In bridging networks, computer or node addresses have no specific relationship to location. For this reason, messages are sent out to every address on the network and accepted only by the intended destination node. Bridges learn which addresses are on which network and develop a learning table so that subsequent messages can be forwarded to the right network. Bridging networks are generally always interconnected local area networks since broadcasting every message to all possible destinations would flood a larger network with unnecessary traffic. For this reason, router networks such as the Internet use a scheme that assigns addresses to nodes so that a message or packet can be forwarded only in one general direction rather than forwarded in all directions. A bridge works at the data-link level of a network, copying a data frame from one network to the next along the communications path. A bridge is sometimes combined with a router in a product called a brouter.
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BRIDGE Basics
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Bridge
Transparent bridges integrate LANs into a logical network by actively listening to each frame on each network and forwarding those frames with a destination on the remote LAN. To interconnect physical networks, bridges perform four basic functions: Listen Learn Filter Forward
The bridge listens to all messages transmitted on the networks to which it is connected. A bridge learns device addresses by building a forwarding table mapping the source address from each frame it receives to the port on which it is received. A bridge filters traffic, ignoring frames with destination addresses mapped to the same port on which they are received. (The bridge can be configured to perform additional filtering based on various criteria.) Finally, a bridge forwards traffic to the appropriate ports to allow data to reach its destination. A transparent bridge examines the destination address of all messages transmitted on each network to which it is connected. If the destination address is associated with the port on which it was received, the message is not forwarded to transmitting ports. If the destination address is known and is not associated with the port on which it was received, the bridge forwards the frame to the port associated with the destination. For instance, in Figure 3-3, a message with the destination address AA received on port 1 is ignored, but one destined for BB is forwarded on port 2. With Ethernet's CSMA/CD access method, performance decreases as the size of the collision domain increases. Filtering lets bridges improve network performance by reducing the size of the Ethernet collision domain. Since traffic for destinations on the local segment remains local, the number of users in a single collision domain is reduced. When the destination is not known, the frame is forwarded on all transmit ports except the one on which it was received. This is called flooding. When a reply is received from the destination, the bridge associates the source address of the reply with the port on which the reply was received. Thereafter, frames addressed to the newly learned address are transmitted on the appropriate port.
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BRIDGE Basics
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Spanning Tree Algorithm

Using redundant Transparent Bridges, for higher network reliability, causes looping of frames. STA is used to avoid such looping.
STA detects frame looping and puts one of the two redundant Bridges into Standby mode. Bridges develop and maintain a map of the network topology by exchanging bridge protocol data units (BPDUs), of which there are three basic types:
Transmit configuration
Reply to configuration Transmit topology change notification
BPDUs contain the following information: Protocol IDDefines this packet as a BPDU. VersionThe current version used by this BPDU packet. Message TypeIndicates the stage of the negotiation. Flags.Used to indicate a topology change. Root ID.A number composed of the assigned bridge priority (most significant two octets) followed by the bridge MAC address. Root cost.Cost of the total path to the root bridge from the bridge sending the BPDU. Bridge ID.ID of the bridge sending the BPDU; actually composed of the bridge priority (2 bytes) and the bridge MAC address (6 bytes). Port ID.Made up of the configured port priority (most significant octet) and the interface number (the order of circuit configuration). Message Age.Timers used for message aging and other configuration information. Max Age.The message age value at which a stored configuration message is judged too old and is discarded. Hello Time.The time that elapses between the generation of configuration messages by a bridge that assumes itself to be the root. Forward Delay.A parameter that temporarily prevents a bridge from starting to forward data packets to and from a link until news of a topology change has spread to all parts of a bridged network. This should give all links that need to be turned off in the new topology time to do so before new links are turned on.
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Spanning Tree Algorithm

Electing a Root Bridge. Only the Root Bridge generates Bridge Protocol Data Unit
(BPDU). All other Bridges update and forward the packets they receive. In the event of equal cost paths to the root, tiebreakers will be used in the following order:
1. Bridge Priority.The port that received a BPDU from a bridge with the lowest priority becomes the root port. 2. MAC Address.The port that received a BPDU from a bridge with the lowest MAC address will be chosen as the root port. 3. Port Priority.The port that received the BPDU from the port with the lowest port priority will be chosen as the root + 4. Interface number.If everything else is equal, the interface number contained within the BPDU is used as the tiebreaker.
Determining
a Path to the Root
Once a root bridge has been elected, all other bridges determine the least cost path to the root bridge. This is done by reading the root cost field in the BPDU received on all bridge interfaces. Breaking Loops After electing a root bridge, the next step is to break loops that exist in the network topology by causing bridges to block redundant ports. ports will accept only BPDUs and not data traffic. The blocked ports are held in reserve as redundant paths providing fault tolerance.
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L2 Switch
The Cloud
Connects multiple LAN segments. Can be called a multi-port bridge. Switches packet to correct LAN segment based on the MAC address.
To connect several Segments, we can use a Switch. A Switch is a Layer 2 device, it forms bridge between various segments and also does basic Data layer error checking. Addressing is limited to Media Access Codes (MAC) of the DTEs. MACs are unique codes provided in the Network Interface Cards (NIC) of each DTE. MAC is unique all over the world. The Ethernet switch is different from a bridge because it does not need to read the entire frame before selecting the destination port. This means that the switch can begin transmitting the frame before it has been completely received. This results in much smaller delay times, compared to a bridge. An Ethernet switch reads only the first 6 bytes, which contain the data link layer destination address, before it begins transmitting the frame. The Ethernet input controllers (also called packet processors) learn the network's topology by reading the source address of incoming packets and by storing these addresses in a resource table. The packet processors refer to this table when determining whether to forward a packet or not. The control processor, called the system module, maintains address tables in each packet processor. Switches do not normally use store/forward technology; as a result, they provide the lowest latency of all networking devices. Switches do provide buffering, since this is necessary when the output port is busy. However, as long as the output port is available, no buffering is required. Like a bridge, when the Ethernet switch starts, all address tables are empty. Initially, each packet received by the switch is sent to the system module with the port of entry marked, so that the system module knows the packet port of origin. The system module reads the packet source address and sends data to each packet processor to set up its lookup table. Future packets are then directly routed through the cross-point matrix, without passing through the system module.
Whenever the packet processor receives a packet with an unknown source or destination address, it marks the packet with the port of entry and sends it to the system module. The system module verifies that the new packet is fully formed. If the packet destination is known, the system module sends the packet to all output ports. As with bridges, the reply to flooding provides the switch with the port connected to the destination station.
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Switches
With the advent of 100Base and 1000Base Ethernet Networks, Layer 2 devices with higher levels of performance and port density became necessary. These devices needed the following attributes:
Forward multiple packets simultaneously Reduced Collisions High Port Densities Support for 10Base, 100Base, & 1000Base interfaces Data Link Layer devices Spanning Tree Protocol Support Transparent Bridging In general a switch has moved the forwarding function from a general purpose CPU to hardware using Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs). These changes along with increases to backplane speed result in a device supporting all required features.
In telecommunications, a switch is a network device that selects a path or circuit for sending a unit of data to its next destination. A switch may also include the function of the router, a device or program that can determine the route and specifically what adjacent network point the data should be sent to. In general, a switch is a simpler and faster mechanism than a router, which requires knowledge about the network and how to determine the route. Relative to the layered Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) communication model, a switch is usually associated with layer 2, the Data-Link Layer. However, some newer switches also perform the routing functions of layer 3, the Network Layer. Layer 3 switches are also sometimes called IP switches. On larger networks, the trip from one switch point to another in the network is called a hop. The time a switch takes to figure out where to forward a data unit is called its latency. The price paid for having the flexibility that switches provide in a network is this latency. Switches are found at the backbone and gateway levels of a network where one network connects with another and at the subnetwork level where data is being forwarded close to its destination or origin. The former are often known as core switches and the latter as desktop switches. In the simplest networks, a switch is not required for messages that are sent and received within the network. For example, a local area network may be organized in a token ring or bus arrangement in which each possible destination inspects each message and reads any message with its address.
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Types of Switches
Cut-through
A cut-through switch starts to transmit the packet on a destination port before it has been completely received over the source port; that is, as soon as it can read the destination MAC address from the packet header. While cut-through switches offer low latency, they cannot validate the packets checksum before starting transmission. This can lead to forwarding corrupted packets.
Store and Forward A store and forward switch receives the entire frame into its buffer before forwarding it. By waiting to read the entire frame, these switches can filter out bad packets and protect destination LANs from corrupt frames. The disadvantage of the store and forward switch is increased latency
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L2 Devices
VLAN on Layer 2 Switch A subset of ports of LAN switches can be configured as Virtual LAN (LAN).
10 Mb
100 Mb
VLAN 1
VLAN 2
All broadcasts within one VLAN never appear on another VLAN. VLANs give several advantages: Segmentation of broadcast domains to give more bandwidth. Deployment flexibility in physical placement of a station belonging to a VLAN. Additional security.
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LAYER 3Router
The Cloud
Can be used to connect different Layer 2 devices and different topologies. Makes decisions based on network addresses (IP Addresses).
Once a LAN is established would come the need to interconnect them. That is done by a Router. Routers provide Layer 3 services, i.e. they serve to packetise data and send them across the network. This they do by following some Addressing philosophy like the IP (Internet Protocol).
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Layer3 Switches
L3 Switch application in large Networks
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The Router
The Router has access to layer 3 of the OSI model, it takes decision according to the IP address. The router has an address in the network and when a node needs to send a packet to another network it address the packet (on layer 2) to the router. Routers block broadcasts. Can handle two different 1st and 2nd layers of the OSI in different networks.
An example for routing from real life is the post office when sending a letter to someone.
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L3 Devices
Routers Routers are layer 3 devices.
Network Data link Physical Data link Physical Network Data link Physical Data link Physical
IP protocol HDLC/PPP/LLC/MAC E1, STM1, Ethernet
Unlike LAN, router does not broadcast traffic. Based on destination address, it routes the traffic received on one port to another port. Routing decisions are based on routing tables, that are updated dynamically. The physical ports on the routers can be WAN ports (E1, STM1 etc) or LAN ports (Ethernet). The data link layer has corresponding protocol. HDLC/PPP are used for WAN links, IEEE 802.x for LAN ports.
Routers base their routing decisions on the network number within the network layer address. Routers route to networks, while bridges direct traffic using the physical addresses of specific devices. Since there are fewer networks in the network than stations, the routing table is smaller and the forwarding decision is simpler. The routing table maps each of the router's ports to the networks that can be reached through each port. When the router receives a packet, it transmits the packet on the appropriate port. A routing table generally provides some information about each path, such as the number of hops required to reach each network by means of each port. This allows the router to choose the best path to a particular network, based on various criteria such as hop count, configured cost, or bandwidth. If a path becomes unavailable for some reason, a router will direct traffic to the most efficient path that remains available. If a port provides a connection directly to the destination network, routing is complete. Otherwise, if another router receives the packet, the process is repeated. Each router transmits the packet toward the destination network on the most efficient path it knows about. The packet proceeds, hop by hop, until it reaches its destination network. Each time a router forwards a packet, it increments the hop counter in the network layer header. Many routers (such as IP routers) will discard a packet when the hop count reaches 16. This prevents packets from roaming endlessly about the network. Routing table entries with a path cost of 16 hops are generally considered unreachable by such routers, and packets for those addresses are discarded. Routers do not listen to every packet on the network; only those packets explicitly addressed to the router are monitored. For this reason, end stations must be aware of the router. Unlike a transparent bridge, a router is not transparent. Different network layer protocols use different strategies for identifying a router to the end stations.
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NETWORK OF NETWORKS NETWORK NETWORKS

The WAN is a network of networks Each network is a LAN with a collection of Hosts The WAN interconnects them by interconnected routers Routers connected to LANs are called Edge Routers Routers providing interconnection only are Core Routers
R R R R R R
R R R R R R
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Routing Table
Routing involves determination of path a packet should take to reach destination. Routing tables are implemented in each router. Routing tables indicate the next hop based on the destination address on a packet.
Network ID
Cost
Next hop
A D C B E G F
Routing is the process of creating and maintaining Routing Table. Essential to this is the information of Physical Connectivity. This information can be stored and updated either Statically or Dynamically. To make the Routing process simple, Physical connection that a Router remembers is limited to its immediate neighbours only. Example: Router A remembers that it has a physical link with Router C. So also does B, D and E. D and E also remember that they have physical links with F and G, respectively in addition to a link between themselves. Similarly F remember its links with H,I and J in addition to one with D and G remembers its link with J in addition to the one with E. Routers A and B can now be Logically linked to rest of the Routers through their physical links with C. Like A is logically linked to B through C and visa-versa. This addition information is also stored in the Routing Table but only after these information is received from the neighbouring routers. This exchange of information can be done by the Routers in a iterative process of transfer of Link-state information between themselves or can be feed into it manually.
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Routing Protocol
Static & Dynamic Routing Routing tables can be static i.e routing paths are defined / altered by the network administrator. The network does not react to changes on its own. In dynamic routing, routers exchange messages and develop/update routing tables based on predefined algorithms.
A D C B E G F
Static Routing The first routers had to be manually configured with the numbers of each network that could be reached by each of a router's ports. This kind of routing is called static routing. In a large network, performing this configuration and maintaining its accuracy is a time-consuming task. However, under some circumstances, this is still the only way to provide a router with the information it needs to reach certain networks. Routing Protocols To overcome the difficulty with static routing, most routers provide a routing protocol. Routing protocols allow routers to broadcast information to each other about the network topology. Using a routing protocol allows the status of links and networks to be updated dynamically. Depending on the protocol, routers may inform each other of error rates, link failures, network configuration, or other information. There are two basic types of routing protocols in common use today: Distance vector Link state
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Router Architecture
Routers generically have two parts: Packet Forwarding Engine
Receives and Forwards Packets through physical interfaces Maintains Packet Forwarding Table Performs Layer 2 Error checks, Store & Forward functions
Routing Engine
Receives, Sends and Analyses Routing information Creates and maintains Routing Table(s) Communicates with Network Management System
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Collision/Broadcast Domains
How many collision & broadcast domains are there in this picture
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The Evolution of the Ethernet
It all started in a Bus topology Shared media
Then the hub was Introduced Still shared media The switch was developed in order to enable several stations to transmit simultaneously Not a shared media
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Module Summary
Layer 1
Repeaters Hub Layer
Bridge Switch Layer
Router L3 Switch (IP Switch)
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Module Review
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. A Hub provides a type topology. The defacto industry Layer 2 protocol for LANs is. .. and . are L2 devices connecting LAN sections. The main function of switches is to . And . packets. Routers are used to interconnect . WAN uses to find alternate routes to connect .. Routers use .. Address to route packets between networks. Routing Tables are maintained by . Engine based on information received in .. packets.
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Module 4 Internet Protocol

Module Objectives
On completion of this module you will be able to understand Subnetting Concept & Procedures IP V4 Structure and Naming Rules Working with Binary Codes Concept of VLSM/CIDR
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IP ADDRESS
Unique IP addressing allows communication between end stations. Each location is identified by a 32bit unique IP address. IP addresses are integral to the process of routing datagrams through the internetwork
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Network And Host IP Addressing
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IP Address Structure
Used to uniquely identify a service point on the network IP addresses must be unique
However a host can have many IP addresses

One per network interface
IP Address Functions:

Identification Location 4,294,967,296 possible addresses IPv6 utilizes 128128-bit value Used to separate the Network ID from the Host ID Required when routing frames through networks
IPv4 utilizes 3232-bit value

Masking

IP addressing provides an unique Address to any Element on the Network. Thus the Network layers job is simplified by providing the source & destination IP address. An IP address provides not only Identification but also Location of an Element. IP Version 4 uses a 32 bit addressing pattern (IP Version 6 uses 128 bits). The 32 bit is divided into 4 octets (8 bits), which identify either a Network Address or a Host Address. Network Address is unique throughout the world, no two hosts would have the same Network Address. Host Address is unique through out the LAN supported y the host. No two clients of a host would have same the same Host Address. Classless IP Most commercial users have private networks Private IP Addressing Most commercial customers are deploying private to public networking Public IP Addressing Static (no security) Learned route (potential fire wall) NAT - Network Access Translation Translation from private to public IP
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IPV4 Address Structure

IP address is 4 bytes (32 bits) long. Dotted decimal notation is used to express an address.
An IP address has network part and host (destination) part.

Net-id 32 Bits Host-Id
The net-id part is identified by indicating the number of bits in net-id. 128.11.3.31/17 Net-id is 17 bits long.
Address Block Date Registry - Purpose 000/8 001/8 002/8 003/8 004/8 005/8 006/8 007/8 008/8 009/8 010/8 011/8 012/8 013/8 014/8 015/8 016/8 017/8 018/8 019/8 Sep 81 Sep 81 Sep 81 May 94 Dec 92 Jul 95 Feb 94 Apr 95 Dec 92 Aug 92 Jun 95 May 93 Jun 95 Sep 91 Jun 91 Jul 94 Nov 94 Jul 92 Jan 94 May 95 IANA - Reserved IANA - Reserved IANA - Reserved General Electric Company Bolt Beranek and Newman Inc. IANA - Reserved
Notes or Reference
Army Information Systems Center IANA - Reserved Bolt Beranek and Newman Inc. IBM IANA - Private Use See [RFC1918] DoD Intel Information Systems AT&T Bell Laboratories Xerox Corporation IANA - Public Data Network Hewlett-Packard Company Digital Equipment Corporation Apple Computer Inc. MIT Ford Motor Company
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IP RULES
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IP Addressing
Class A

NN. 1 to 126 Identified by 0 Nw. ID NN.

HH.
HH. Host ID
HH
Class B 128128-191 Identified by 10
NN.
HH.
HH Host ID
Nw. ID NN. NN. Nw. ID NN.
Class C

HH Host ID
192192-223 Identified by 110
Class D

Masks
224224-239 Identified by 1110 240240-255 Identified by 11110
Notes or Reference
Class E

Class A: 255.0.0.0 Class B: 255.255.0.0 Class C: 255.255.255.0
Address Block Date Registry - Purpose 021/8 022/8 023/8 024/8 025/8 026/8 027/8 028/8 029/8 030/8 031/8 Jul 91 May 93 Jul 95 May 01 Jan 95 May 95 Apr 95 Jul 92 Jul 91 Jul 91 Apr 99 DDN-RVN
Defense Information Systems Agency IANA - Reserved ARIN - Cable Block (Formerly IANA - Jul 95) Royal Signals and Radar Establishment Defense Information Systems Agency IANA - Reserved DSI-North Defense Information Systems Agency Defense Information Systems Agency IANA - Reserved
Addresses beginning with 01111111, or 127 decimal, are reserved for loopback and for internal testing on a local machine. [You can test this: you should always be able to ping 127.0.0.1, which points to yourself] Class D addresses are reserved for multicasting. Class E addresses are reserved for future use. They should not be used for host addresses. Now we can see how the Class determines, by default, which part of the IP address belongs to the network (N) and which part belongs to the node (n). Class A -- NNNNNNNN.nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnn.nnnnnnn Class B -- NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn Class C -- NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.nnnnnnnn
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Default Subnet Masks
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Private IPs
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BASICS OF BINARY
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BASICS OF BIANARY
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BASICS OF BIANARY
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IP RULES Exercise
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Subnetting
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FLAT NETWORKS
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Subnetted Networks
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SUBNETTING
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Subnetting
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SUBNETTING
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SUBNETTING
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EXTRACTING N/W ADDRESS
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Subnetting Exercise
FIND THE NETWORK ADDRESS, HOST IP ADD RANGE AND THE BROADCAST ADDRESS FOR THE IP ADD GIVEN BELOW IN THE FORMAT MENTIONED ABOVE. 145.6.69.15 WITH A SUBNET MASK OF 255.255.248.0
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Subnetting Solution
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Subnetting Solution
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ANSWER
ANSWER
ANSWER
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Class B Subnetting Exercise
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Class C Subnetting Exercise
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Variable Length Subnet Masking
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Subnetting- Inefficiency
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The Solution- VLSM
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Classes Routing-VLSM
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Variable Length Subnet Mask

199.10.1.0 / 26 . 63 199.10.1.0 / 24 1 2 . . 255 199.10.1.64 / 26 . 127 199.10.1.128 / 26 . 191 199.10.1.192 / 26 . 255 199.10.1.128 / 27 199.10.1.160 / 27
199.10.1.192 / 28 199.10.1.208 / 28 199.10.1.224 / 28 199.10.1.240 / 28
26 28 26
26
25
26
25
24 24 24 24
Examples of Sub-netting in Class B operator Number Hosts of Bits 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 255.255.192.0 255.255.224.0 255.255.240.0 255.255.248.0 255.255.252.0 255.255.254.0 255.255.255.0 255.255.255.128 255.255.255.192 255.255.255.224 255.255.255.240 255.255.255.248 255.255.255.252 510 1022 2046 4094 8190 16382 Subnet Mask Subnets 2 6 14 30 62 126 254 126 62 30 14 6 2 16382 8190 4094 2046 1022 510 254 Number of Number of
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Classful & Classless
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CLASSLESS ROUTING WITH PREFIX
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VLSM Summarized IPs
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VLSM An Example
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IPv6: New Age Inter Networking

IPv4 was finished in the 1970s and has started to show its age. Main issue is addressing, or the lack of addressing capability of IPv4 IPv6 is the newest major standard Some major areas of modification includes expanded addressing simplified header format flow labeling authentication, and privacy. From 32-bit address to a 128-bit addressing method.
IPv6 One of the newest major standards on the horizon is IPv6. Although IPv6 has not officially become a standard, it is worth some overview. It is very possible that this information will change as we move closer to IPv6 as a standard, so you should use this as a guide into IPv6, not the definitive information. A number of books are now being published that cover in detail this emerging standard; if you are looking for more details you should refer to these books. All the RFCs available on the Internet have the raw details on how this standard is developing. However, these documents are difficult to interpret at first glance and require some commitment to going through any number of RFCs pertaining to many subjects all related to IPv6 development. Internet Protocol Version 4 is the most popular protocol in use today, although there are some questions about its capability to serve the Internet community much longer. IPv4 was finished in the 1970s and has started to show its age. The main issue surrounding IPv6 is addressingor, the lack of addressingbecause many experts believe that we are nearly out of the four billion addresses available in IPv4. Although this seems like a very large number of addresses, multiple large blocks are given to government agencies and large organizations. IPv6 could be the solution to many problems, but it is still not fully developed and is not a standardyet! Many of the finest developers and engineering minds have been working on IPv6 since the early 1990s. Hundreds of RFCs have been written and have detailed some major areas, including expanded addressing, simplified header format, flow labeling, authentication, and privacy. Expanded addressing moves us from 32-bit address to a 128-bit addressing method. It also provides newer unicast and broadcasting methods, injects hexadecimal into the IP address, and moves from using "." to using ":" as delimiters. Next slide shows the IPv6 packet header format.
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IPv6: Frame Format
IPv6 One of the newest major standards on the horizon is IPv6. Although IPv6 has not officially become a standard, it is worth some overview. It is very possible that this information will change as we move closer to IPv6 as a standard, so you should use this as a guide into IPv6, not the definitive information. A number of books are now being published that cover in detail this emerging standard; if you are looking for more details you should refer to these books. All the RFCs available on the Internet have the raw details on how this standard is developing. However, these documents are difficult to interpret at first glance and require some commitment to going through any number of RFCs pertaining to many subjects all related to IPv6 development. Internet Protocol Version 4 is the most popular protocol in use today (see Chapter 31, "Internet Protocols"), although there are some questions about its capability to serve the Internet community much longer. IPv4 was finished in the 1970s and has started to show its age. The main issue surrounding IPv6 is addressingor, the lack of addressingbecause many experts believe that we are nearly out of the four billion addresses available in IPv4. Although this seems like a very large number of addresses, multiple large blocks are given to government agencies and large organizations. IPv6 could be the solution to many problems, but it is still not fully developed and is not a standardyet! Many of the finest developers and engineering minds have been working on IPv6 since the early 1990s. Hundreds of RFCs have been written and have detailed some major areas, including expanded addressing, simplified header format, flow labeling, authentication, and privacy. Expanded addressing moves us from 32-bit address to a 128-bit addressing method. It also provides newer unicast and broadcasting methods, injects hexadecimal into the IP address, and moves from using "." to using ":" as delimiters. Figure 32-1 shows the IPv6 packet header format.
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Module Summary
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Module 5 IP Layer Protocols

Module Objectives
After completion of this module you will be able to understand
Basics of ICMP Basics of ARP Basics of RARP Basics of DHCP Basics of DNS Basics of NAT
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Internet Control Message Protocol

ICMP is used for error notification back to sender Messages are generated in specific circumstances Hosts and routers use ICMP to exchange control information errors and alarms Ping command Logically sits above IP Utilizes IP as its network layer protocol
ICMP Messages ICMPs generate several kinds of useful messages, including Destination Unreachable, Echo Request and Reply, Redirect, Time Exceeded, and Router Advertisement and Router Solicitation. If an ICMP message cannot be delivered, no second one is generated. This is to avoid an endless flood of ICMP messages. When an ICMP destination-unreachable message is sent by a router, it means that the router is unable to send the package to its final destination. The router then discards the original packet. Two reasons exist for why a destination might be unreachable. Most commonly, the source host has specified a nonexistent address. Less frequently, the router does not have a route to the destination. Destination-unreachable messages include four basic types: network unreachable, host unreachable, protocol unreachable, and port unreachable. Network-unreachable messages usually mean that a failure has occurred in the routing or addressing of a packet. Host-unreachable messages usually indicates delivery failure, such as a wrong subnet mask. Protocol-unreachable messages generally mean that the destination does not support the upper-layer protocol specified in the packet. Portunreachable messages imply that the TCP socket or port is not available. An ICMP echo-request message, which is generated by the ping command, is sent by any host to test node reachability across an internetwork. The ICMP echo-reply message indicates that the node can be successfully reached.
An ICMP Redirect message is sent by the router to the source host to stimulate more efficient routing. The router still forwards the original packet to the destination. ICMP redirects allow host routing tables to remain small because it is necessary to know the address of only one router, even if that router does not provide the best path. Even after receiving an ICMP Redirect message, some devices might continue using the less-efficient route. An ICMP Time-exceeded message is sent by the router if an IP packet's Time-to-Live field (expressed in hops or seconds) reaches zero. The Time-to-Live field prevents packets from continuously circulating the internetwork if the internetwork contains a routing loop. The router then discards the original packet.
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ARP
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RARP
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ARP OPERATION
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DHCP Process
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DNS Hierarchy
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DNS Name Resolution Process
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Numbering Authorities
Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) Central coordinator Regional Authorities AfriNIC for Africa ARIN in North America RIPE in Europe, Middle East APNIC in the AsiaAsia-Pacific region LACNIC for Latin America DNS Registrars Network Solutions Initially established by NSF National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) (NTIA) extended exclusive registration rights to .com, .net, .org through through September 30, 2000 Registers 10,000 new .com domains/day @ $70 a piece
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DNS Authorities
Internet Corporation for Assigned Names & Numbers (ICANN) NTIA recognized ICANN as private entity to assume domain name responsibility ICANN named five initial registrars America Online Council of Registrars France Telecom Melbourne IT Register.com Additional 52 registrars are set to come on-line All of these authorities access the NSF database
DNS
Translates between IP addresses and hostnames Hierarchical name structure with variable levels
13 root name servers
Country Code Domains (.AF) Generic Domains (.com, .net, .org) International Domains (.int) US Domains (.edu, .gov, .mil) Other (.arpa) Proposed (.firm, .web, .shop, .rec, .arts, .nom, .info)
DNS utilizes a label tree
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Module Review
1. 2. An IP address consists of two parts, theaddress and the .address. Class A addresses have max N/W and max Hosts in each N/W. In Subnetting we steal bits from the.. Part and give it to.part Super netting/CIDR is the inverse of ... CIDR is used to reduce the no of entries in the .. .. Type Of IPs can be reused . VLSM is used because .. IPV6 have .. Bytes in their address field
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
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Module 6
ROUTING
Module Objectives
After completion of this module you will be able to understand Different Types of Routing Methods Types of Dynamic Routing Algorithms Basics of RIP Basics of OSPF Basics of BGP
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Routing Philosophy

Best route identification (least hop, least congestion, CoS, ) Alternate route identification Least Packet Forwarding Latency Fast Convergence in case of change in network topology
A D C B E G F
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ROUTING
Link State Routing
Each router maintains routing information for entire area. Each router shares the information about its neighbours only with all the routers in the area.
Advertiser Network ID Cost Next HOP
Cost is a weighted cost based on several parameters (Path length, latency, load, reliability, bandwidth, cost etc). Routing information is sent by sending packets called LSAs (Link State Advertisements). Status of neighbours is obtained by sending Hello packets to them periodically. OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) is a link state routing protocol used worldwide, and in Reliance networks.
Link State Protocols The following are examples of Link State Protocols: For OSI - Intermediate System-Intermediate System (IS-IS) For IP - Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) For IPX - NetWare Link State Protocol (NLSP)
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Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
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RIP uses Bellman-Ford, or distance-vector, algorithm to determine the best route to a destination. RIP uses the hop count as the metric. RIP allows hosts and routers to exchange information for computing routes through an IP-based network. RIP is intended to be used as an IGP in reasonably homogeneous networks of moderate size. RIP is defined in the following documents: RFC 1058, Routing Information Protocol RFC 2082, RIP-2 MD-5 Authentication RFC 2453, RIP Version 2
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RIP Characteristics
RIP allows a maximum of 15 router hops Beyond 15 hops there is significant increase in network convergence time. RIP does not take into consideration congestion, line speed, and cost. Routing Table is broadcast to each interface every 30 seconds. Routing tables are exchanged at the following times: 9 Initial broadcast (router entering the network) 9 Every 30 seconds (unsolicited) Distance Vector protocols maintain a routing table of reachable destination networks. Each table entry contains the network address, metric (distance), interface (vector), and other information such as the protocol that created the entry and the elapsed time since it was last refreshed.
RIP Characteristics RIP is a distance vector protocol that uses the Bellman-Ford algorithm to control the decisions involved in dynamically updating routing tables. RIP makes its routing decisions based solely on distance (hops). RIP allows a maximum of 15 router hops between networks because of the time it takes for all routers to converge (stabilize their routing tables). Some implementations may allow the use of extended RIP (up to 127 hops) in the network topology. It is not recommended to increase the network diameter beyond the 15-hop limit. Doing so will cause a significant increase in network convergence time. RIP does not take into consideration such things as congestion, line speed, and cost. A list of routes presently known to the router is broadcast to each interface every 30 seconds. Routing tables are exchanged at the following times: Initial broadcast (router entering the network) Every 30 seconds (unsolicited)
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RIP: Bellman -Ford algorithm Bellman-Ford

No Advertised Route Known? No Yes No Yes Ignore Update Update 2 1 5 3 Routing Table Ignore Update Yes
Metric < Unreachable?
Advertiser= Current Next Hop?
Yes
Metric < Current Metric? No
The Bellman-Ford algorithm specifies the actions taken when processing a received route. It checks whether the destination is already known. If not, it creates a new routing table entry, marks it with the interface on which the route was received, and initializes the aging timer to zero. If the route is already known, it sees if the advertiser matches the existing next hop router. If so, it resets the aging timer to zero to refresh the route. If advertised from a different router and the metric is less than the existing route, it replaces this existing route; otherwise it ignores the update. This prevents thrashing when two or more routers advertise an equal cost route to a given destination.
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Routing Updates
RIP sends routing-update messages at regular intervals and when the network topology changes.
When a router receives a routing update that includes changes to an entry, it updates its routing table to reflect the new route. The metric value for the path is increased by 1, and the sender is indicated as the next hop. RIP Routing Metric RIP uses a single routing metric (hop count) to measure the distance between the source and a destination network.
When a router receives a routing update that contains a new or changed destination network entry, the router adds 1 to the metric value indicated in the update and enters the network in the routing table. The IP address of the sender is used as the next hop.
Routing Updates RIP sends routing-update messages at regular intervals and when the network topology changes. When a router receives a routing update that includes changes to an entry, it updates its routing table to reflect the new route. The metric value for the path is increased by 1, and the sender is indicated as the next hop. RIP routers maintain only the best route (the route with the lowest metric value) to a destination. After updating its routing table, the router immediately begins transmitting routing updates to inform other network routers of the change. These updates are sent independently of the regularly scheduled updates that RIP routers send. RIP Routing Metric RIP uses a single routing metric (hop count) to measure the distance between the source and a destination network. Each hop in a path from source to destination is assigned a hop count value, which is typically 1. When a router receives a routing update that contains a new or changed destination network entry, the router adds 1 to the metric value indicated in the update and enters the network in the routing table. The IP address of the sender is used as the next hop.
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RIP Stability Features
RIP prevents routing loops from continuing indefinitely by implementing a limit on the number of hops allowed in a path from the source to a destination as 15.
The downside of this stability feature is that it limits the maximum diameter of a RIP network to less than 16 hops. RIP implements the split horizon and holddown mechanisms to prevent incorrect routing information from being propagated.
RIP Timers
Routing-update timer Route-timeout timer Route-flush timer.
RIP Stability Features RIP prevents routing loops from continuing indefinitely by implementing a limit on the number of hops allowed in a path from the source to a destination. The maximum number of hops in a path is 15. If a router receives a routing update that contains a new or changed entry, and if increasing the metric value by 1 causes the metric to be infinity (that is, 16), the network destination is considered unreachable. The
downside of this stability feature is that it limits the maximum diameter of a RIP network to less than 16 hops. RIP includes a number of other stability features that are common to many routing protocols. These features are designed to provide stability despite potentially rapid changes in a network's topology. For example, RIP implements the split horizon and holddown mechanisms to prevent incorrect routing information from being propagated. RIP Timers RIP uses numerous timers to regulate its performance. These include a routing-update timer, a routetimeout timer, and a route-flush timer. The routing-update timer clocks the interval between periodic routing updates. Generally, it is set to 30 seconds, with a small random amount of time added whenever the timer is reset. This is done to help prevent congestion, which could result from all routers simultaneously attempting to update their neighbors. Each routing table entry has a route-timeout timer associated with it. When the route-timeout timer expires, the route is marked invalid but is retained in the table until the route-flush timer expires.
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CommandIndicates whether the packet is a request or a response. VersionSpecifies the RIP version used. For RIP 2 fields or using authentication, set to 2. UnusedHas a value set to zero. Address-family identifier (AFI)Specifies the address family used. Route tagProvides a method for distinguishing between internal routes (learned by RIP) and external routes (learned from other protocols). IP addressSpecifies the IP address for the entry. Subnet maskContains the subnet mask for the entry. Next hopIndicates the IP address of the next hop to which packets should be forwarded. MetricIndicates how many internetwork hops (routers) have been traversed.
CommandIndicates whether the packet is a request or a response. The request asks that a router send all or a part of its routing table. The response can be an unsolicited regular routing update or a reply to a request. Responses contain routing table entries. Multiple RIP packets are used to convey information from large routing tables. VersionSpecifies the RIP version used. In a RIP packet implementing any of the RIP 2 fields or using authentication, this value is set to 2. UnusedHas a value set to zero. Address-family identifier (AFI)Specifies the address family used. RIPv2's AFI field functions identically to RFC 1058 RIP's AFI field, with one exception: If the AFI for the first entry in the message is 0xFFFF, the remainder of the entry contains authentication information. Currently, the only authentication type is simple password. Route tagProvides a method for distinguishing between internal routes (learned by RIP) and external routes (learned from other protocols). IP addressSpecifies the IP address for the entry. Subnet maskContains the subnet mask for the entry. If this field is zero, no subnet mask has been specified for the entry. Next hopIndicates the IP address of the next hop to which packets for the entry should be forwarded. MetricIndicates how many internetwork hops (routers) have been traversed in the trip to the destination. This value is between 1 and 15 for a valid route, or 16 for an unreachable route.
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Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
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OSPF: Overview
OSPF is an IGP that routes packets within a single AS. OSPF uses link-state information to make routing decisions, using shortestpath-first (SPF)/ Dijkstra algorithm. Each router running OSPF floods link-state advertisements throughout the AS that contain information about that routers attached interfaces and routing metrics. Each router takes the information in these link-state advertisements and creates a database that describes the topology of the AS. Each OSPF router has an identical topological database so that all routers in the area have a consistent view of the network. OSPF is defined in the following documents:
RFC 2328, OSPF Version 2 RFC 1587, The OSPF NSSA Option Traffic Engineering Extensions to OSPF, draft-katz-yeung-ospf-traffic-01.txt
When a router starts, it initializes OSPF and waits for indications from lower-level protocols that the router interfaces are functional. The router then uses the OSPF hello protocol to acquire neighbors, by sending and receiving hello packets. On broadcast or non-broadcast multi-access networks the OSPF hello protocol elects a designated router for the network. This router is responsible for sending link-state advertisements that describe the network, which reduces the amount of network traffic and the size of the routers topological databases.
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OSPF: Overview
Each routers exchange Hello packets with neighbors Forms Link State Advertisement (LSA) Each router distributes LSA by flooding to all the routers of the network Each Router forms LS Database (LSDB) LSDB is the complete Network topological Every router gets the same LSDB, Convergence is very quick.
LSDB A LSDB C B LSA - C LSDB E LSDB G LSDB Hello I LSDB LSDB D LSDB F H LSDB
LSA A LSA B LSA C LSA D LSA E LSA - F LSA G LSA H LSA I LSA J
LSDB
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Routing Algorithm: Adjacencies

The router then attempts to form adjacencies with some of its newly acquired neighbors. Adjacencies determine the distribution of routing packets and topological database updates are sent only along adjacencies. When adjacencies have been established, pairs of adjacent routers synchronize their topological databases. A router sends link-state advertisement (LSA) packets to advertise its state periodically and when the routers state changes. These packets include information about the routers adjacencies.
Adjacencies Between Routers OSPF creates adjacencies between neighboring routers for the purpose of exchanging LSDB information. The Hello protocol is used to determine if two routers are to become adjacent. The Hello protocol verifies that both routers are in the same area, have the same interface timers and network mask, and their router capabilities match. If all of these tests are passed, the routers may then exchange Link State information. Adjacencies in a Broadcast Network An adjacency is an agreement to exchange database information. Forming an adjacency can be bandwidth and resource-intensive; the interval depends on the size of the LSDB. In a multi-access environment such as an Ethernet network, having all routers maintain adjacencies with all other routers within a broadcast domain requires unnecessary overhead.
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Link State Operation

Each router builds an advertisement describing its immediate surroundings.
These advertisements will contain neighboring routers and networks. In the advertisement, only directly connected networks are included. LSAs can propagate throughout the OSPF domain.
As shown in figure the LSDB of all routers contains information about the complete network. This information is pieced together from LSA advertisements received from each of the other participating routers within the OSPF domain. Note that two of the vertices (N8 and N9) are networks representing a broadcast network with one router. All other vertices represent connected R1 routers R2 R3 R4 by point-to-point R6 N8 links. N9
R1 R2 R3 R4 R6 N8
0 1 1 Inf 1 0
1 0 1 Inf Inf Inf Inf
1 1 0 1 1 Inf Inf
Inf Inf 1 0 1 Inf Inf Page
1 Inf 1 1 0 Inf 0
0 Inf Inf Inf Inf 0 Inf
Inf Inf Inf Inf 0 Inf 0
RIC-LearningN9 Center Inf 193
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OSPF Metric
Metric is the measure of effort required to send a packet from Source Nw to Destination Nw. It is simply reffered as Cost. Lower the Cost means shorter path.
N7 10 Mbps R1 R3 64 Kbps
OSPF Metric can be expressed as: Metric = 108/Bw = 100M/ Bw
E1
E1
In this Network:
R4 N9
Route 1 (R1-R3-R4): 1610 Route 2 (R1-R2-R5-R4): 460 Route 3 (R1-R2-R5- R3-R4): 1710 Route 3 (R1-R3-R5-R4): 460
256 Kbps 10 Mbps R2 N8 R5
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OSPF Packet Types

OSPF uses following type of Packets: OSPF Packet Header Hello Packets Database Description Packets Link-State Request Packets Link-State Update Packets Link-State Acknowledgment Packets
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OSPF Scalability
Single AS can be divided into smaller groups called Areas. This reduces LSDB as LSA flooding in restricted within the Area. An area is a set of networks and hosts within an AS that have been administratively grouped together. We recommend that you configure an area as a collection of contiguous IP Sub-netted networks. Routers that are wholly within an area are called internal routers. All interfaces on internal routers are directly connected to networks within the area.
In a large enterprise with many routers and networks, the link state database (LSDB) and routing tables become large. This is not advantageous because: Large routing tables consume memory and result in more CPU cycles to make a forwarding decision. Large LSDBs consume memory. The processing of link state advertisements (LSAs) is CPU-intensive. Dividing the network into OSPF areas can reduce these undesirable side effects. When a network is broken up into areas: A separate LSDB is maintained for each area. Routers internal to the area maintain only one LSDB for the area to which they belong. Area border routers must maintain an LSDB for each area to which they belong. Networks outside an area are advertised into the area. Some advantages of implementing OSPF areas are: Routers internal to the area incur less overhead. The impact of a topology change is localized to the area in which it occurs. Although the change is advertised outside the area, it requires less CPU overhead. By planning summary network addresses processing on all routers external to the area is reduced along with the size of the routing table.
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OSPF Routing Hierarchy

OSPF scales up to large networks by using Areas:
Areas are a group of contiguous networks Entire WAN is seen as a collection of Areas
AREA 1 ABR
AREA 0 OSPF BACKBONE

ABR ABR AREA 2
AREA 3
Areas serve as little networks, subsequently resulting in reduced traffic, lesser LSA flooding, smaller LSDB a more efficient network.
Internal Routers An internal router is a router with all directly connected networks belonging to the same area. Routers with only backbone interfaces also belong to this category. These routers run a single copy of the basic routing algorithm and maintain one Shortest Path First (SPF) for that area. Area Border Routers An area border router is a router with interfaces in multiple areas. Area border routers maintain multiple link state databases (LSDBs), one copy for each attached area including the backbone. Area border routers must be connected to the backbone ( Area 0.0.0.0 ). Backbone Routers A backbone router is a router with an interface to the backbone. This router can also be an area border router or an internal router. Area border routers are, by definition, also backbone routers. AS Boundary Routers OSPF views non-OSPF networks as outside its autonomous system (AS) and, therefore, external to it. An OSPF router connected to such networks, Routing Information Protocol (RIP) or Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), is an AS boundary router (ASBR). This router has AS external routes that are advertised throughout the OSPF domain. Every router in the OSPF domain knows the path to each ASBR router.
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OSPF Network diagram

Area 1
LSDB Area 1 ABR ABR ABR
Area 2
LSDB Area 2
Area 0
BR BR LSDB Area 0
Area 3
LSDB Area 3 ABR
ABR ABR
Area 4
LSDB Area 4
The topology of an area is hidden from the rest of the AS, thus significantly reducing routing traffic in the AS. Also, routing within the area is determined only by the areas topology, providing the area with some protection from bad routing data. All routers within an area have identical topological databases. Routers that belong to more than one area are called area border routers. They maintain a separate topological database for each area to which they are connected.
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Backbone Area
An OSPF backbone area consists of all networks in area ID 0.0.0.0, their attached routers, and all area border routers. The backbone itself does not have any area border routers. The backbone distributes routing information between areas. The backbone is simply another area, so the terminology and rules of areas apply: a router that is directly connected to the backbone is an internal router on the backbone, and the backbones topology is hidden from the other areas in the AS.
Stub areas are areas through which or into which AS external advertisements are not flooded. You might want to create stub areas when much of the topological database consists of AS external advertisements. Doing so reduces the size of the topological databases and therefore the amount of memory required on the internal routers in the stub area. An OSPF stub area has no external routes in it, so you cannot redistribute from another protocol into a stub area. A Not-So-Stubby Area (NSSA) allows external routes to be flooded within the area. These routes are then leaked into other areas. However, external routes from other areas still do not enter the NSSA. Transit areas are used to pass traffic from one adjacent area to the backbone (or to another area if the backbone is more than two hops away from an area). The traffic does not originate in, nor is it destined for, the transit area.
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Backbone Area
The routers that make up the backbone must be physically contiguous. If they are not, you must configure virtual links to create the appearance of backbone connectivity. You can create virtual links between any two area border routers that have an interface to a common non-backbone area. OSPF treats two routers joined by a virtual link as if they were connected to an unnumbered point-to-point network.
External Metric When OSPF exports route information from external ASs, it includes a cost, or external metric, in the route. There are two types of external metrics: Type 1 and Type 2. Type 1 external metrics are equivalent to the link-state metric; that is, the cost of the route used in the internal AS. Type 2 external metrics are greater than the cost of any path internal to the AS. OSPF for Traffic engineering To help provide traffic engineering and MPLS with information about network topology and loading, extensions have been added to the JUNOS implementation of OSPF. Specifically, OSPF generates opaque LSAs, which carry traffic engineering parameters. These parameters are used to populate the traffic engineering database (TED), which is used by the Constrained Shortest-Path First (CSPF) algorithm to compute the paths that MPLS LSPs will take. This path information is used by RSVP to set up LSPs and reserve bandwidth for them.
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Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
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Interior and Exterior Protocols

Routing protocols within an Autonomous System are termed as Interior Protocols. Routing Information Protocol (RIP) and Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) are examples of interior protocols. Routing protocols between Autonomous Systems are termed as Exterior Protocols. EGP, BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) are exterior protocols.
Gateway
Exterior Gateway Protocol
AS1
AS2 AS4
AS3
Interior Gateway Protocol
The Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is an exterior gateway protocol (EGP) that is used to exchange routing information among routers in different autonomous systems (ASs). BGP routing information includes the complete route to each destination. BGP uses the routing information to maintain a database of network reachability information, which it exchanges with other BGP systems. BGP uses the network reachability information to construct a graph of AS connectivity, thus allowing BGP to remove routing loops and enforce policy decisions at the AS level. BGP allows for policy-based routing. You can use routing policies to choose among multiple paths to a destination and to control the redistribution of routing information. BGP uses the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) as its transport protocol, using port 179 for establishing connections. Running over a reliable transport protocol eliminates the need for BGP to implement update fragmentation, retransmission, acknowledgment, and sequencing. BGP Version 4 also supports aggregation of routes, including the aggregation of AS paths.
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BGP Overview
Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP)between different ASs. BGP routing information includes the complete route to each destination. BGP allows for policy-based routing. BGP uses TCP as its transport protocol, using port 179. BGP Version 4 also supports aggregation of routes.
BGP Version 4 is defined in the following documents: RFC 1771, A Border Gateway Protocol 4 (BGP-4) RFC 1772, Application of the Border Gateway Protocol in the Internet RFC 1966, BGP Route Reflection: An Alternative to Full-Mesh IBGP RFC 1997, BGP Communities Attribute RFC 2270, Using a Dedicated AS for Sites Homed to a Single Provider RFC 2283, Multiprotocol Extensions for BGP-4 RFC 2385, Protection of BGP Sessions via the TCP MD5 Signature Option RFC 2439, BGP Route Flap Damping RFC 2796, BGP Route Reflection RFC 3065, Autonomous System Confederations for BGP Capabilities Negotiation with BGP4, IETF draft draft-ietf-idr-cap-neg-01 BGP Extended Communities Attribute, IETF draft-ramachandra-bgp-ext-communities-04.txt
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BGP Route
A BGP route consists of the following:
1.
A destination, described as an IP address prefix. Information that describes the path, including AS path & Path attributes
2.
BGP peers advertise routes to each other in update messages. The routing table stores the following information about BGP routes:
1. 2. 3. Routing information learned from update messages received from peers Local routing information that the BGP system selects by applying local policies to routes received in update messages Information that the BGP system selects to advertise to its BGP peers in the update messages it sends.
Routing protocol process selects a single best path, called the active path.
A BGP route consists of the following: 1. A destination, described as an IP address prefix. 2. Information that describes the path to the destination, including: AS path, which is a list of numbers of the ASs that a route passed through to reach the local router. The first number in the path is that of the last AS in the paththe AS closest to the local router. The last number in the path is the AS farthest from the local router, which is generally the origin of the path. Path attributes, which contain additional information about the AS path that is used in routing policy. BGP peers advertise routes to each other in update messages. The routing table stores the following information about BGP routes: Routing information learned from update messages received from peers Local routing information that the BGP system selects by applying policies to routes received in update messages Information that the BGP system selects to advertise to its BGP peers in the update messages it sends.
local
For each prefix in the routing table, the routing protocol process selects a single best path, called the active path.
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Border Gateway Protocol

eBGP Used between different AS for Exchanging reachability Information Interior Gateway Protocol Interior Gateway Protocol iBGP used within the AS iBGP used within the AS used within the AS used within the AS
AS1
AS2
ISP X
AS1 Under one Administrative Control AS2 Under different Administrative Control
ISP Y
A BGP system shares network reachability information with adjacent BGP systems, which are referred to as neighbors or peers. BGP systems are arranged into groups. In an internal BGP group, all peers in the groupcalled internal peersare in the same AS. Internal peers can be anywhere in the local AS and do not have to be directly connected to each other. Internal groups use routes from an IGP to resolve forwarding addresses. They also propagate external routes among all other internal routers running internal BGP, computing the next hop by taking the BGP next hop received with the route and resolving it using information from one of the interior gateway protocols. In an external BGP group, the peers in the groupcalled external peersare in different ASs and normally share a subnet. In an external group, the next hop is computed with respect to the interface that is shared between the external peer and the local router. The route to each destination is called the AS path, and the additional route information is included in path attributes. BGP uses the AS path and the path attributes to completely determine the network topology, detect and eliminate routing loops and it can enforce administrative preferences and routing policy decisions. BGP supports two types of exchanges of routing information: exchanges between different ASs and exchanges within a single AS. When used between ASs, BGP is called external BGP (eBGP) and BGP sessions perform inter-AS routing. When used within an AS, BGP is called internal BGP (iBGP) and BGP sessions perform intra-AS routing. Next slide illustrates ASs, IBGP, and EBGP.
COURSE TITLE
9/5/2007
BGP Messages
BGP systems send four types of messages: Open Update Keepalive Notification
All BGP messages have the same fixed-size header, which contains a marker field indicating the total length of the message and a type field indicating the message type.
After a TCP connection is established between two BGP systems, they exchange BGP open messages to create a BGP connection between them. Once the connection is established, the two systems can exchange BGP messages and data traffic. Open messages consist of the BGP header plus the following fields: VersionThe current BGP version number is 4. Local AS numberYou configure this with the AS statement Hold timeProposed hold-time value. BGP identifierIP address of the BGP system. Parameter field length and the parameter itselfThese are optional fields. BGP systems send update messages to exchange network reachability information. BGP systems use this information to construct a graph that describes the relationships among all known ASs. Update messages consist of the BGP header plus the following optional fields: Unfeasible routes lengthroutes that are no longer deemed reachable Withdrawn routesIP address prefixes for the routes being withdrawn Total path attribute lengthLength of the field that lists the path attributes Path attributesProperties of the routes (path origin, MED, etc.) Network layer reachability information (NLRI)IP address prefixes BGP systems exchange keepalive messages to determine whether a link or host has failed or is no longer available. Keepalive messages are exchanged often enough so that the hold timer does not expire. These messages consist only of the BGP header. BGP systems send notification messages when an error condition is detected. After the message is sent, the BGP session and the TCP connection between the BGP systems are closed. Notification messages consist of the BGP header plus the error code and subcode, and data that describes the error.
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9/5/2007
Module Summary
COURSE TITLE
9/5/2007
Module Review
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. In Static Routing, the Routing Tables are . and manually when a link or Router come up/ go down. RIP uses: Distance Vector / Link State Protocol True/ False
RIP is best used in small homogeneous networks:
In RIP Metric is always . per hop meaning all the are same RIP sends .. updates once in every sec OSPF allows metric value as to signify differences in . OSPF would send LSA only in case of or . . is used to form . with all routers in OSPF connected thru bus OSPF follows Dikjstra algorithm: True/ False.
10. OSPF provides scalability by using .. 11. Within an AS, BGP peers run , and between AS they run . 12. A BGP lists down all the .. that comes in between the source and the destination router.
COURSE TITLE
9/5/2007
Module 7 MULTI PROTOCOL LABEL SWITCHING

Module Objectives
After completion of this module you will be able to understand Why MPLS is a preferred protocol Advantages of using MPLS Features of MPLS Basics of MPLS working
COURSE TITLE
9/5/2007
Why MPLS?
Connectionless IP networks provide robustness. Connection oriented networks provide QOS:

Bandwidth, throughput for audio/video/data applications. Control over latency, jitter for voice/video applications. Differentiated services.
These requirements entail a sophisticated mechanism of traffic engineering for transport of IP packets, that enables

prior commitment of network resources (e.g. bandwidth) dynamically adjust to traffic demands, network outages.
In other words, we need robustness of connectionless networks and QOS of connection oriented networks. MPLS imposes a connection oriented framework on connection less IP networks to achieve these objectives. It is called multiprotocol, because it is applicable for IP, ATM, frame relay, PPP, IEEE 802.x(LAN) network environments.
COURSE TITLE
9/5/2007
Present: IP Overlay Network

ATM on SDH as Layer 1, with AAL support:
Provider Edge Router
ATM Switch
Customer Edge Router
Around 1994 or 1995, the volume of Internet traffic reached a point that ISPs were required to migrate their networks to support trunks that were larger than T3 (45 Mbps). Fortunately, at this time OC-3 ATM interfaces (155 Mbps) became available for switches and routers. To obtain the required speed, ISPs were forced to redesign their networks so that they could make use of the higher speeds supported by a switched (ATM or Frame Relay) core. Some ISPs transitioned from a network of DS-3 point-to-point links to routers with OC-3 ATM SAR interfaces at the edge and OC-3 ATM switches in the core. Then, after a period of 6 to 9 months, the links between core ATM switches were upgraded to OC-12 (622 Mbps). Other ISPs began by increasing the mesh of their DS-3 Frame Relay networks. When they began the transition from Frame Relay to ATM, they relied on OC-3 at the edge but immediately deployed OC-12 interswitch links in the core.
COURSE TITLE
9/5/2007
Working of IP Overlay Network

When IP runs over an ATM network, routers surround the edge of the ATM cloud. Each router communicates with every other router by a set of Permanent Virtual Circuits (PVCs) that are configured across the ATM physical topology.
ATM Switch PE Router PE Router ATM PVC PE Router
The PVCs function as logical circuits, providing connectivity between edge routers.
The routers do not have direct access to information describing the physical topology of the underlying ATM infrastructure supporting the PVCs. The routers have knowledge only of the individual PVCs that appear to them as simple point-to-point circuits between two routers. This figure illustrates how the physical topology of an ATM core differs from the logical IP overlay topology. For large ISPs, the ATM core is completely owned and operated by the ISP and is dedicated to supporting Internet backbone service. This core infrastructure is entirely separate from the carriers other private data services. Because the network is fully owned by the ISP and dedicated to IP service, all traffic flows across the ATM core utilizing the unspecified bit rate (UBR) ATM class of servicethere is no policing, no traffic shaping, no peak cell rate, and no sustained cell rate. ISPs simply use the ATM switched infrastructure as a high-speed transport without relying on ATMs traffic and congestion control mechanisms. There is little reason for them to use these advanced features because each ISP owns its own backbone and they do not need to police themselves. A network that deploys a full mesh of ATM PVCs exhibits the traditional n-squared problem. For relatively small or moderately sized networks, the n-squared problem is not a major issue. But for core ISPs with hundreds of attached routers, the challenge can be quite significant. For example, when growing a small network from five to six routers, an ISP is required to increase the number of simplex PVCs from 20 to 30. However, increasing the number of attached routers from 200 to 201 requires the addition of 400 new simplex PVCsan increase from 39,800 to 40,200 PVCs. It should be emphasized that these numbers do not include backup PVCs or additional PVCs for networks running multiple services that require more than one PVC between any two routers.
COURSE TITLE
9/5/2007
ATM Network: Problem of Full Meshing
ATM Switch
ATM Virtual circuit must exist between two routers connected on ATM Link Scalability problem in large network when several hundreds of routers need to be connected Full mesh of router adjacencies is required resulting in large amounts of routing traffic
COURSE TITLE
9/5/2007
Multi Protocol Label Switching
COURSE TITLE
9/5/2007
Multi Protocol Label Switching (MPLS)

Label Edge Router Label Switching Router
Label Switched Path
Suggested Reading: 1. Internetworking Tutourial 2. LAN/ WAN Tutorial 3. ATM, MPLS Tutorial Cisco www.cisco.com www.itpapers.com www.iec.org
COURSE TITLE
9/5/2007
Forward Equivalence Class (FEC) and LSP

Data flows are associated with an FEC, each FEC having defined characteristics. For an FEC, end to end Label Switched Path (LSP) is established. LSP is a virtual path (like PVC).
FEC
Out Out Port Label 1 1 4 5
In In Out Out Port Label Port Label 2 2 4 5 0 1 9 7
In In Out Out Port Label Port Label 2 2 9 12 0 1 6 5
In In Out Port Label port
a b Label attached LER 199.8.2.4 Data
2 ...
6 ...
4 ...
Label popped 1 2 LSR 4 199.8.2.4 Data 1 9 199.8.2.4 Label switched 0 2 LSR Data 1 6 199.8.2.4 0 2 LER Data 199.89.25.4 Data 4
COURSE TITLE
9/5/2007
MPLS: Setting up of LSP

1. Existing routing protocols (e.g. OSPF, IS-IS) establish reachability to destination networks 2. Label Distribution Protocol (LDP) establishes label to destination network mappings. 4. For CoS attachment, Diff. Serv. Extension of MPLS is used.
3. Resource reSerVation Protocol (RSVP) is used to reserve committed Bit-rate.
3a. RSVP may lead to rerouting as the shortest path is already over-booked
COURSE TITLE
9/5/2007
Label Distribution Protocol (LDP)

LSPs can be defined explicitly for every FEC by network administrator or dynamically using LDP.
1 LER 128.89.25.4 Data
2 LSR 1
2 LER
Request for label 8
Request for label 12
FEC can be defined for one or more parameters.

Source/destination/network addresses. Source destination ports. Protocol id, differentiated service id, etc.
COURSE TITLE
9/5/2007
Resource reSerVation Protocol (RSVP)

1. BW reservation request is sent from each Router to its next node
2. Each Router checks for BW already assigned and BW left
3. Depending on how much BW is already reserved, new reservation may/ may not succeed
4. IGP (like OSPF) is rerun to find the next shortest path and steps 1 & 2 are repeated.
COURSE TITLE
9/5/2007
Label Format
Label is 32 bits long.
20 Label Value Exp : S : TTL :
3 Exp
1 S
8 TTL
Experimental Set to 1 for oldest entry, indicating that more labels beneath. Time to live, hop count.
TTL field is taken from the IP header and decremented by one for each hop traversed. When a label is added to stack of lables, the remaining TTL value is taken from lower label.
COURSE TITLE
9/5/2007
Label Stacking
Label stacking is a very powerful feature of MPLS. It enables aggregation of LSPs into a single LSP for portion of the route though a network, creating a tunnel.
Stacked labels
One LSP (Tunnel) 1
COURSE TITLE
9/5/2007
Link Protection Tunnel

Push Label End-User Traffic Pop Label
Initial data path

End-User Traffic
Link protection tunnel A protection LSP tunnel for each link is set up.
L3 Converged Path
Protection tunnel is not used during normal operation. In event of a link failure, an additional label is pushed at the device that detects a failure. The traffic is diverted through the protection tunnel. At the other end of the protection LSP tunnel, the label is popped and the traffic continues along the normal path. After a configurable amount of time, a new L3 converged path may be utilized.
No protection traffic loss will persist till the failure is restored No additional BW reservation is required Guaranteed fast aggregated protection traffic loss will persist less than 50mSec Additional BW reservation for those connections is reserved in the local resilient path of the lost link. Guaranteed slow end to end protection within BW network constraints Slow alternative preconfigured connection will replace the lost one in less than 10sec an alternative path end to end per each connection is calculated within the remaining protection BW(after the fast protection allocation).
COURSE TITLE
9/5/2007
Module Summary
COURSE TITLE
9/5/2007
Module 8 RELIANCE DATA NETWORKS
Module Objectives
After completion of this module you will be able to understand A brief overview of the Reliance Network Architecture Services provided over Reliance RDN VPN technologies
COURSE TITLE
9/5/2007
Core Network: RDN

Jallandhar Ambala Lucknow Jaipur
Delhi Ahmedabad
Allahabad
Kolkata
Bhopal Surat Bhuvaneswar
Mumbai
Pune
Hyderabad Bangalore
Vijayawada
Coimbatore Ernakulam Trivandrum
Chennai
Madurai
Primary Core Location Secondary Core Location
The Core network consists of devices with high-speed interfaces connecting all 21 locations in logically meshed fashion. Routers are chosen in such a way so as to ensure 99.999 % reliability as well as to achieve scalability of traffic growth up to a minimum of 300 Gbps in the network. The major functions of Core network are as follows: Connectivity across 21 locations for efficient traffic and QoS Interconnect traffic from the access network Aggregate traffic from the collector location Connectivity to Internet POPs, Connectivity to Reliance ISP operations Connectivity to IXP and NAP. Connectivity to IDC where different services could be hosted. Connectivity to Managed IP network for VoIP and Video Connectivity for DCN for in-band Network management by NOC. Maintain QoS, SLA parameters of customers.
COURSE TITLE
9/5/2007
Jallandhar Ambala
National Backbone
Lucknow
New Delhi
Jaipur
Allahabad
Ahmedabad
Bhopal
Surat
Hyderabad
Vijayawada
Kolkata
Pune
Bhubaneshwar
Mumbai Primary core location Bangalore

Coimbatore Madurai
Chennai
Secondary core location
Ernakulam Trivandrum
COURSE TITLE
9/5/2007
Primary Core Architecture

N x STM-16
T320 T 320
N x STM-16
T320
T320
Aggregation routers can be added at this layer to enhance capacity
1 x 12 port FE M40e 2 x CH STM-1
STM 1 from Collectors
Metro Access Ring, NRAS, and BRAS
COURSE TITLE
9/5/2007
Secondary Core Architecture

To Primary Core location
N x STM-4
N x STM-4
M40e
T320
1 x 12 port FE M40e 2 x CH STM-1
Aggregation routers can be added at this layer to enhance capacity
N x STM 1 from Collectors
Metro Access Ring, NRAS, and BRAS
COURSE TITLE
9/5/2007
Reliance MEN Architecture

Internet
BRAS
DR T-320 DR T-320
BRAS
VLAN CC
City MCN 1
M-40 AR
City MCN 1
MAN
MAN Ring 1 GE
MPLS RDN
M-40 AR
MAN Ring 1 GE
RSVP
BAN
BAN Ring 1 GE
RSVP-TE
BAN Ring 1 GE
BN
BA Ring 1 GE Cisco 3550 Cisco 7609 Cisco 7301 BRAS
BA Ring 1 GE
COURSE TITLE
9/5/2007
Connectivity to LMDS via MEN

WIMax or WiFI
Catalyst 3550 (BN)
GigE Access Ring

WALKair 1000 BS-BU
Cisco 7609 (BAN)

Residential VLAN Mapped to Residential VPN WALKair TS-BU Cisco 3550/ Atrica 2100/ OSM105
Residential VLAN
Metro E MPLS N/W
Residential VPN (L3VPN) with Default RouteTo MCN Device
Utstar AN-2000 IPDSLAM
Cisco 7609 (MCN) MCN Device has route to

BRAS Sub-system / Internet PE
ADSL Modem
IP Routing BRAS Internet Sub System Internet PE
COURSE TITLE
9/5/2007
ADSL link to RDN via MEN

MCN City-2 FE to E1 Convertor E1 TRANSPORT N/W FE Layer2 VPN RDN Cloud
BRAS Internet IPE
Internet Internet Cloud
MCN E1 City-3 FE to E1 Convertor FE FX DLC MEN BN Ring FE DLC ADSL Modem End User ADSL ADSL Modem SOHO DLC DLC MCN City-1
Si
NMS/EMS
Internet DCN
C7609 FE FE
Internet MEN Cloud
ADSL
COURSE TITLE
9/5/2007
DCN: with high degree of redundancy

Si
Hyderbad
Delhi
Cisco 3550 Bangalore L3 Switches
Kolkatta
Mumbai PP8600 L3 Switches
Si
L3 Switches
Si Si
STM -1
DCN core IP network architecture - n x 2 Mbps
Router with 16 Ethernet ports, 3STM1, 1 Ch. STM1,ISDN/PSTN
Aggregation locations
Si Si Si Si
IP
OSI
Access Router with E1s & Ethernet ports
IP
IP
OSI
Router with 16 Ethernet ports, 12 E1 ISDN/PSTN
IP
Other Access layer locations connectivity
COURSE TITLE
9/5/2007
DCN: Connected NMS

Sr. No.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Customer Name
Wire-line (TDM) Switch Wireless ( CDMA-MSC ) Data Network ( RDN / TELOS ) Transport Network SDH Microwave LMDS DLC Fiber Management System (FMS) Synchronization Infrastructure & Utilities Point of Interconnect (PoI) Building Security & Surveillance Small Automatic Exchange (SAX ) VoIP/ VoATM (ILD/NLD)
Type of Traffic
X.25/IP IP IP OSI/IP IP IP IP IP IP IP OSI IP IP IP
Cisco7507 CoreIProuter Cisco3662 Aggregation IProuter Cisco3745 Aggregation IProuter Cisco3631 AccessIProuter Cisco3725 ILDIProuter Cisco2610 AccessIProuter CiscoRouters Cisco2611 AccessIProuter Cisco2610 LMDS Cisco2611 LMDS Cisco2610 Microw ave Cisco2611 Microw ave Cisco3662 Aggregation OSIrouter Cisco3631 AccessOSIrouter Cisco2611 AccessOSIrouter Cisco4507 Aggregation Sw itch CiscoSw itches Cisco4503 Aggregation Sw itch Cisco3550 Agg+ Access Sw itch Cisco2950 ILDAccessSw itch Nortel Passport8600 Sw itch AlliedTelysyn AT745 Microw ave TotalDCN Elementsbeingmonitored RIC-Learning Center Page 233
5 25 19 429 3 2 10 98 239 10 38 22 71 29 10 6 38 3 6 39 1102
Fundamentals of Data Communication Day 1 Quiz

1) Packet switched technology is characterized by a) All of these b) Variable BW c) Flexible Path d) Frames 2) Which OSI Layer defines the frame structure, error checking, physical address, etc.? a) Data/ Link b) Transport c) Network d) Physical 3) Which OSI layer takes care of end-to-end packet delivery a) Transport b) Session c) Application d) Presentation 4) Which Layer defines electrical specifications of a network a) Physical Layer b) Network Layer c) Transport d) Session 5) In OSI 7 layer model the upper four layers are called a) "Application layers" b) "Network Layers" c) Protocols d) Interfaces
6) What type of media access technique is used in Ethernet a) CSMA/CD b) Token passing c) Polling d) CDMA 7) Which field on the Ethernet frame is used for frame detection a) Preamble b) Payload
c) Type d) CRC 8) In Ethernet in case of Broadcast use Destinationation address as a) FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF b) 01-XX-XX-XX-XX-XX c) 00-XX-XX-XX-XX-XX d) Can't broadcast on Ethernet 9) How much gap is kept between two consecutive Ethernet frames a) 12 bytes b) 2 bytes c) 4 bytes d) 18 bytes
10) To connect different segments of a LAN, without extending the collision domain, use a) Bridge b) Repeater c) Router d) Hub 11) In a LAN with Transparent Bridges multiple routing is avoided by using a) Spanning Tree b) Loop-back IP c) TTL d) Routing Table 12) L2 Switch do not provide/ maintain a) Alternate routes b) Error detection c) Store & Forward d) Multiple bridge connections
Fundamentals of Data Communication Day 2 Quiz

1) Network Layer protocols establishes a) Network to network connectivity b) Host to Host connectivity c) Network to Host connectivity d) Host to network connectivity
2) Network layer function of a Router is: a) Path determination b) Store & Forwarding of packets c) Error detection d) Packet Formatting 3) In a Router, While L3 function is done by Routing Engine, L2 funtion is done by a) Packet Forwarding Engine b) Routing Engine c) No L2 function is performed
4) In Static Routing, Router are capable of a) Only best route identification b) Creating Routing Table c) Creating & updating Routing Table d) Creating & updating Routing Table and best route identification 5) Which one of these protocols is not a part of TCP/IP suite a) ATM b) UDP c) IP d) ICMP 6) The TTL counter, in the IP frame, signifies a) The maximum number of hops the packet can take before it is dropped b) Time in seconds after which the packet is considered invalid c) The number of hops the packet has traversed so far d) Time in seconds taken by the packet to reach it's destination 7) Which class of IP address provides maximum number of hosts a) Class-A b) Class-C
d) Class B
8) The IP address range starting from 192.x.x.x to 223.x.x.x belongs to which class of IP addresses a) Class C b) Class A c) Class B d) Class D 9) Which one of these is a Public IP number a) 112.03.29.19 b) 10.23.102.252 c)172.29.01.03 d) 192.168.03.28 10) How many usable unicast addresses are available in a /24 Network a) 254 b) 28 c) 256 d) 512 11) Network mask 255.255.255.224 can expressed in short as a) /27 b) /26 c) /28 d) /29 12) A subnet 213.12.102.192/27 covers the following IP's (including Nw and Broadcast IP's) a) 213.12.102.192 to 213.12.102.223 b) 213.12.102.0 to 213.12.102.32 c) 213.12.102.192 to 213.12.102.255 d) 213.12.102.0 to 213.12.102.255 13) Four Class C networks 199.23.4.0, 199.23.5.0, 199.23.6.0 and 199.23.7.0 are Supernetted to a) 199.23.4.0/22 b) 199.23.4.0/24 c) 199.23.4.0/26 d) 199.23.0.0/22 14) Routers look at which part of the Destination Address for IP based routing a) Network ID b) Complete address c) Host ID d) None of these
Fundamentals of Data Communication Day3 Quiz
1) For translation of IP addresses into MAC within a LAN, Host use a) Address Resolution protocol b) Domain Name Servers c) Dynamic Host configuration Protocol d) Network Address Translation protocol 2) Which one is found in IP V6 header a) Flow label 20 bits b) Sequence Number 32 bits c) Source Address 32 bits d) Fragment Identification 16 bits 3) TCP Acknowledgement Number indicates a) Sequence number of next byte which can be transmitted b) Sequence number of the last packet that was received c) Total number of Bytes received in last packet d) Total number of Bytes received through all the packets 4) UDP packet header do not provide for a) Sequence & Acknowledgement numbers b) Source & Destination Ports c) Header Checksum d) Packet Length 5) Which of the following is not a Routing protocol a) TCP b) IS-IS c) OSPF d) RIP 6) Which of the following protocol is best suited for a small-medium homogeneous NW a) RIP b) BGP c) OSPF d) IS-IS 7) RIP V.2 restricts the maximum number of Hops to a) 15 b) 12
c) 255 d) No restriction 8) To avoid routes that loop back to the same router, RIP routers uses Poison reverse and/ or Split Horizon Loop Back addresses Spanning Tree Algorithm Bellman-Ford Algorithm 9) Which one of these is not a RIP feature Dijkstra Algorithm Distance Vector Protocol 30s updates Metric = No of Hops 10) OSPF is categorized as a a) Link State Protocol b)Distance Vector Protocol c) Exterior Gateway Protocol
11) OSPF routers would flood LSA a) Only on Entry or after any change in it's neighborhood b) On Entry and after every 30s thereafter c) Only of request 12) OSPF routers send regular ........ packet to Neighboring routers, to keep track of their availability a) Hello b) Keep-Alive c) Link State Advertisement d) Route Update
13) OSPF routers can express Metric as a) 100,000,000/ BW b) Number of Hops only c) BW/ 100,000,000
14) IPV6 Address is of -------- bits a) 128 bits b) 32 bits c) 64 bits d) 128-n bits
Fundamentals of Data Communication Day4 Quiz
1) Which of the following protocol is best suited within a large heterogeneous Autonomous System a) OSPF b) BGP c) RIP
2) Which one of these can be used for AS - AS routing a) BGP b) IS-IS c) OSPF d) RIP 3) Routing between two Autonomous Systems connected to each other uses a) eBGP b) RIP c) OSPF Backbone d) iBGP 4) BGP provides a) Connection-oriented Path with Path Attriutes b) Connection-less Path with Path Attributes c) Connection-oriented Path d) Connection-less Path 5) In MPLS cloud, labels are attached & detached at a) Edge-LSR b) Core-LSR c) Customer Edge Router
6) In MPLS cloud, labels distribution can be done using a) LDP b) RIP c) OSPF d) None of these 7) For establishing LSP with BW resevation MPLS uses a) RSVP
b) LDP c) OSPF d) RIP 8) Which one is not a MPLS feature a) Connection-less b) Label Stacking c) BW Reservation d) Quick Link protection 9) VPN's can be best described as a) A Private LAN over a Public Network b) A LAN with virtual addresses c) Several LAN's interconnected by leased lines d) A Public LAN over a Private Network 10) Building Ring in Access Data Network with Atrica/ Cisco Switches use a) Gigabit Ethernet b) STM-4 c) Leased Lines d) ADSL
Exercises
1. Convert the following octet to decimal i) ii) 01000001
iii)
01011001
iv)
11111110
v)
10010101
2.
Convert the following IP address in to binary i) 140.179.220.200
ii)
10.1.23.19
iii)
128.7.15.1
iv) 140.179.240.200
iv)
8.20.15.1
3.
Write the Class, Network id and Host id of IP addresses given in question 2 CLASS NETWORK ID HOST ID
IP ADDRESS 140.179.220.200 10.1.23.19 128.7.15.1 8.20.15.1
4.
Determine the network address, the broadcast address, and the available host addresses that Correspond with the given IP address /USE CLASSFUL IP IP- 150.34.74.53 Mask- 255.255.240.0 NETWORK ADDRESS BROADCAST ADD SUBNET IP RANGE
HOST IP/MASK
5.
Use three bit subnet and list down all subnet addresses and possible host address range for i) ii) 204.15.5.0/24 140.179.220.200/16
IP ADD
SUBNET ADDRESS
HOST RANGE
B/C ADDRESS
204.15.5.0
140.179.220.200
6.
Create 8 subnets for 200.133.175.0
SUBNET NO
SUBNET IP
HOST RANGE
B/C ADDRESS
7.
If you have network 172.16.0.0 ,then you know that its natural mask is 255.255.0.0 or 172.16.0.0/16. If you use a mask of 255.255.248.0 (/21), how many subnets and hosts per subnet does this allow for?
8.
Now that you have an understanding of subnetting, put this knowledge to use. In this example, you are given two address / mask combinations, written with the prefix/length notation, which have been assigned to two devices. Your task is to determine if these devices are on the same subnet or different subnets. You can do this by using the address and mask of each device to determine to which subnet each address belongs. DeviceA: 172.16.17.30/20 DeviceB: 172.16.28.15/20
Subnetting Exercise
1. Assume that you have been assigned the 200.35.1.0/24 network block. Define an extended-network-prefix that allows the creation of 20 hosts on each subnet.
2. What is the maximum number of hosts that can be assigned to each subnet?
3. What is the maximum number of subnets that can be defined?
4. Specify the subnets of 200.35.1.0/24 __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 5. List range of host addresses that can be assigned to Subnet #6 (200.35.1.192/27) __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 6. What is the broadcast address for subnet 200.35.1.192/27? __________________________________________________________________
9. Given the Class C network of 204.15.5.0/24, subnet the network in order to create the network in Figure with the host requirements shown.
NETWORK
N/W ADDRESS
HOST RANGE
B/C ADDRESS
NET A NET B
NET C
NET D
10. Given the same network and requirements as in Exercise 9 develop a subnetting scheme using VLSM. Variable Length Subnet Masks (VLSM) allows you to use different masks for each subnet, thereby using address space efficiently NETWORK N/W ADDRESS HOST RANGE B/C ADDRESS
NET A NET B
NET C
NET D
11. Part A) Assume that you have been assigned the 132.45.0.0/16 network block. You need to establish eight subnets a. __________ binary digits are required to define eight subnets. b. Specify the extended-network-prefix that allows the creation of 8 subnets. __________________________________________________________________ c. Express the subnets in binary format and dotted decimal notation: #0 __________________________________________________________ #1 __________________________________________________________ #2 __________________________________________________________ #3 __________________________________________________________ #4 __________________________________________________________ #5 __________________________________________________________ #6 __________________________________________________________ #7 __________________________________________________________ d. What is the broadcast address for Subnet #3?
__________________________________________________________________
VLSM EXERCISE
Given
An organization has been assigned the network number 140.25.0.0/16 and it plans to Deploy VLSM. The Figure provides a graphic display of the VLSM design for the Organization.
To arrive at this design, the first step of the subnetting process divides the base network address into 8 equal-sized address blocks. Then Subnet #1 is divided it into 32 equalsized address blocks and Subnet #6 is divided into 16 equal-sized address blocks. Finally, Subnet #6-14 is divided into 8 equal-sized address blocks. 1. Specify the eight subnets of 140.25.0.0/16: #0 ________________________________________________________________ #1 ________________________________________________________________ #2 ________________________________________________________________ #3 ________________________________________________________________ #4 ________________________________________________________________ #5 ________________________________________________________________ #6 ________________________________________________________________
#7 ________________________________________________________________
2. List the host addresses that can be assigned to Subnet #3 (140.25.96.0): __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 3. Identify the broadcast address for Subnet #3 (140.25.96.0):
4. Specify the 16 subnets of Subnet #6 (140.25.192.0/19): #6-0_______________________________________________________________ #6-1_______________________________________________________________ #6-2_______________________________________________________________ #6-3_______________________________________________________________ #6-4_______________________________________________________________ #6-5_______________________________________________________________ #6-6_______________________________________________________________ #6-7_______________________________________________________________ #6-8_______________________________________________________________ #6-9_______________________________________________________________ #6-10_____________________________________________________________ _ #6-11______________________________________________________________ #6-12______________________________________________________________
#6-13______________________________________________________________ #6-14______________________________________________________________ #6-15______________________________________________________________ 5. List the host addresses that can be assigned to Subnet #6-3 (140.25.198.0/23): __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 6. Identify the broadcast address for Subnet #6-3 (140.25.198.0/23):
7. Specify the eight subnets of Subnet #6-14 (140.25.220.0/23): #6-14-0 ____________________________________________________________ #6-14-1 ____________________________________________________________ #6-14-2 ____________________________________________________________ #6-14-3 ____________________________________________________________ #6-14-4 ____________________________________________________________ #6-14-5 ____________________________________________________________ #6-14-6 ____________________________________________________________ #6-14-7 ____________________________________________________________ 8. List the host addresses that can be assigned to Subnet #6-14-2 (140.25.220.128/26): __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________
9. Identify the broadcast address for Subnet #6-14-2 (140.25.220.128/26): __________________________________________________________________
Aggregate the following set of (4) IP /24 network addresses to the highest degree possible. (CIDR aggregation) 212.56.132.0/24 212.56.133.0/24 212.56.134.0/24 212.56.135.0/24

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COURSE TITLE

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Follow along with the trainer Student Notes Support information

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Data Communication devices

Data Applications & Reliance Data Network

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Please ask any question that comes to your mind

Raise your hand! Ask on a break.

The only dumb question is the one that is not asked!

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Module 1 Voice Vs Data Networks

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History of Data Networking

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DATA vis--vis VOICE

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DATA vis--vis VOICE

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For Internal Circulation Only

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Module 2 Networking Models & Protocols

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History- The Network Model

Need For Standardization

The Development of the OSI Model For Internetworking

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Open System Interconnection - OSI

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OSI - A Layered Network Model

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A Layered Network Model

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OSI 7 Layer Concept

Service from lower layer

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For Internal Circulation Only

Open System Interconnection - OSI

Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data Link Physical

Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data Link Physical

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An Exchange Using the OSI Model

The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

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OSI Physical Layer

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Physical Layer: Topologies

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E1(G.703/G.704) Multiplexing Hierarchy

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Standards: Electrical Media & Transceivers

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Ethernet (802.3) The Media

1 Gb, 550 meters 1 Gb, 550/5000 meters 1Gb, 25 meter

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WAN (Internet / Intranet)

Base Station (BS)

Subscriber Station (SS)

user user user user

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