Pontificia Universidad Javeriana

Bogot, Colombia
UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
BALLAST FOR FLUORESCENT LAMP POWERED BY A DC VOLTAGE SUPPLY
Authors:
Nini Vanesa Rueda Algarra
Andrea Prez Barbosa
Advisors:
Rafael Dez, M.Sc., Ph.D.
Gabriel Perilla, M.Sc.
May 20, 2013
Artculo 23 de la resolucin No. 13 de junio de 1946
La universidad no se hace responsable por los conceptos emitidos
por sus alumnos en sus trabajos de tesis. Solo velar porque no se
publique nada contrario al dogma y la moral catlica y porque
las tesis no contengan ataques personales contra persona alguna,
antes bien se vea en ellas el anhelo por buscar verdad y justicia
CONTENTS
1 theoreti cal framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1 Light Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.2 Types of Lamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.2.1 Incandescent Lamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.2.2 Solid-state Lamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.2.3 Discharge Lamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.3 Fluorescent Lamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.3.1 Working Principle and Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.1.3.2 Lamp Operating Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.1.3.3 Modeling Fluorescent Lamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2 Ballasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.1 Types of Ballasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.2 Lamp-Ballast Starting Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3 Resonant Inverters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3.1 Half Bridge Inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3.2 Push-Pull Inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3.3 Class E Inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.3.4 Comparison between Inverters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2 analysi s and desi gn of a class e i nverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1 Steady-State Analisys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1.1 Basic Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.1.2 Power and Eciency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1.3 Final Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2 Resonant Tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3 Final Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3 control ci rcui t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.1 Control Circuit Design and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.1.1 Block Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.1.1.1 Sensing Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.1.1.2 Switched Control for Operation Phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.1.1.3 Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.1.1.4 Voltage Controlled Oscilator (VCO) and MOSFET Driver . . . . . . 26
4 si mulati ons and experi mental results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.1 Simulations Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.2 Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.2.1 Prototype Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.2.2 PCB Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.2.3 Comparison between Sensing Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.2.4 Comparison with others implemented Ballasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3
Contents
5 conclusi ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
a pspi ce models code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
b full ballast schemati c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
c experi mental waveforms of the i nverter i n the prototype . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
d pri nted ci rcui t board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4
I NTRODUCTI ON
Due to the changes in illumination technologies, the inuence of lighting on the global energy consump-
tion (15% of the total electricity consumption[1]), and its indirectly eects on the environment; one of the
applications of Power Electronics is the development of ecient lighting systems[2].
Fluorescent lamps have been preferred over incandescent lamps and have become a major method of
lighting, because of its high eciency, long lifetime and low heat dissipation[3]. For a correct performance,
each uorescent lamp requires a ballast to ignite the discharge and to prevent an uncontrolled current owing
into the lamp [4].
Electronic ballasts compared with electromagnetic ballasts: get rid of icker, have lower size and weight,
can be fed by a DC or AC source, and improve the luminous ecacy, as they work in higher frequencies
where uorescent lamps produce more lumens per watt [4].
The main objective of this work is to present the design and implementation of an electronic ballast for a
uorescent lamp, powered by a 12 V battery with frequency control. Applications of this technology might
include emergency lighting, outdoor equipment, or any system in which the battery portability provides a
lighting system where a connection to an electric grid is not available.
In order to reach the main objective, the following specic objectives were set:
1. Design a resonant converter DC/AC (inverter).
2. Design a control circuit to compensate the battery voltage variations and regulate the light intensity or
the current in the lamp.
3. Compare the performance of the control variables in the circuit (Light intensity and Current), measur-
ing the light intensity and the lamp power.
4. Compare the nal results with other systems as the electromagnetic ballast, through the eciency
LPW (Lumen per Watt).
This document is divided into ve chapters:
In the rst chapter the theoretical framework is presented. It contains the initial study of the most relevant
subsystems of the circuit: uorescent lamps, ballasts and resonant inverter.
The second chapter presents the specications, restrictions and design of the selected inverter. First, the
analysis of the circuit will be explained in detail, then the resonant tank will be included in the inverter, and
nally the complete design will be presented.
In the third chapter the control circuit is described. The proposed solution will be explained with its two
control variables (Light Intensity and Lamp Current), so that all the operation phases and the power control
can be performed.
In order to achieve all the operation phases and carry out the power regulation, the proposed circuit will
be explained in detail with its two variables of control (Light intensity or Lamp Current).
The fourth chapter is divided in two sections. In the rst section, the simulation of the resonant inverter
is displayed. In the second section the behavior of the inverter is presented, followed by the results of the
control circuit and a comparison between the two variables of control. In order to complete the analysis of
results, is carried out a performance comparison of the designed ballast with others ballasts.
Based on the objectives of this work and its results, in the nal chapter the conclusions are presented.
5
1
THEORETI CAL FRAMEWORK
1.1 li ght sources
This section will introduce the light sources, it presents the description and working principles of the variety
of lamps available in the marketplace, deepening in uorescent lamps.
1.1.1 Background
Light sources can be classied according to the type of light generated (natural - articial) or the type of
energy conversion [5]:
Thermal radiation: Caloric radiation that depends on temperature of the transmitter body. The emis-
sion in the visible spectrum is called incandescence, some examples are the sunlight, incandescent
lamps and halogen lamps.
Luminescence: Emission of light from a body caused by the excitation of atoms by a external agent.
According to the agent it can be classied as electrical or no electrical.
Electroluminescence: It is produced when the body emits light in response to the passage of an electric
current or to a strong electric eld (e.g. LED).
Photoluminescence: It is produced when the body absorbs the radiation and then re-radiates it in
a dierent wavelength. The most outstanding eect is uorescence, which converts the ultraviolet
radiation into light in the visible region of the spectrum.
To be able to compare the dierent light sources, and types of lamps, is important to dene some basic
terms and properties [6]:
Correlated color temperature (CCT): Measured in kelvins (K), describes the appearance of light generated
by a hot object. At lower temperatures reddish "warm" light is generated. As the temperature increases the
light appears bluish "cool".
Color rendering index (CRI): Measure the capability of the light source for maintaining the natural colors
of the surfaces. High values represent a better CRI and a more natural light, the maximum value is 100.
Luminous Ecacy: It is the rating of the total luminous ux emitted in relation to the total lamp power
input. It is expressed in lumen per watt LPW (lm/W).
1.1.2 Types of Lamps
The electric light sources (lamps) fall into three general classes [6]: incandescent, solid state and discharge
lamps. In the rst class, when a current ows through the lament, it is heated until it glows and produces
light. The solid state lamps work due to a semiconductor devices that generate light by the movement of
6
1.1 li ght sources
electrons in the material. And the discharge lamps produce light by ionizing a gas through electric discharge
inside the lamp.
1.1.2.1 Incandescent Lamps
According to the Thermal Radiation, the exposure of a body to high temperatures produces a certain amount
of light. Therefore, this principle is used to analyse the simple operation of an incandescent lamp.
To generate visible light, the coiled tungsten lament of the incandescent lamp is heated to the incan-
descence, by passing a current through it. The glass bulb is lled with a mixture of nitrogen and argon
[6].
Although, the incandescent lamp is simple, economic and does not need an auxiliary circuit to ignite it,
the principal disadvantage is its low luminous ecacy; 95 % of the energy is dissipated as heat and just the
remaining 5% is converted into light [7].
Unlike incandescent lamps, halogen lamps are lled with a halogen gas that extends the lifetime from
1000-2000hrs to 2000-5000hrs, also they increase the luminous ecacy and produce a "cooler" light with a
higher correlated color temperature (CCT) [6].
1.1.2.2 Solid-state Lamps
Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs), convert electrical energy directly into light. When a current ows through
the p-n junction in semiconductors the light is generated. The materials forming the junction determine the
wavelength and light color.
As they do not have laments that burn out, they last longer than traditional lamps (lifetime up to 100000
hours) [6].
1.1.2.3 Discharge Lamps
The working principle of this type of lamps is the luminescence eect, in which by applying a high volt-
age between the electrodes of the tube (lled with ionized gas), a ux of ions called electric discharge is
generated.
The main two categories of discharge lamps are: high-intensity discharge and uorescent lamps. In the
rst category the three lamps most widely available in the marketplace are [6]:
High-Pressure Mercury Vapor Lamps: Light is produced by an electric discharge through gaseous mer-
cury. The Spectral Power Distribution (SPD) of this lamp has discrete spikes at specic wavelengths,
reason why, it has low values in the chromatic properties CRI and CCT.
Metal-Halide Lamps: To improve the chromatic performance and luminous ecacy of the Mercury
Vapor Lamps, it was added metal components (known as halides) to the arc tube.
High-Pressure Sodium Lamps: Sodium dominate the spectral radiation, in which the electric discharge
produces light. The sodium is combined with a low amount of mercury to improve the spectrum.
Finally, uorescent lamps will be thoroughly studied in the next subsection. An explication of its operation,
parts, construction, and electrical model will be presented.
1.1.3 Fluorescent Lamps
Due to the high luminous ecacy of uorescent lamps, two-thirds of all electric light systems use them
instead of incandescent lamps [6].
7
1.1 li ght sources
To dene the specications of the ballast and have a greater understanding of uorescent lamps, the
working principle is presented below.
1.1.3.1 Working Principle and Parts
The mixture of gases contained in the glass bulb (mercury vapor at low pressure, with a small amount of inert
gas) has an initial high resistance to current ow. To ignite the electric discharge and allow the emission of
light, is necessary to apply a high enough voltage between the laments of the lamp to preheat them. Once
the laments have been preheated, the voltage is increased further and the discharge is established, the gas is
ionized and electrons can ow through it [6].
While the current is owing through the lamp, the mercury vapor emits ultraviolet radiation. To convert
this radiation into visible light, a phosphor coating in the inner walls of the bulb is used, which responds
emitting wavelengths in the visible spectrum [6].
Figure 1.: Parts of Fluorescent Lamps
Figure 1 shows the parts of an instant-start uorescent lamp [6]:
Electrodes has a coiled tungsten lament wrapped by a substance that easily allows the emission of
electrons. The lifetime of the lamp has a directly relation with the quality of that substance, when it
loses its properties is harder to ignite the electric discharge.
The gas inside the lamp facilitates the discharge start, when the electric discharge is established allows
a faster transport of electrons, and protects the substance of the electrodes.
Finally, the phosphor-coating converts the UV radiation into visible light and allows obtaining a white
light.
1.1.3.2 Lamp Operating Frequency
The operating frequency is an important factor to consider in uorescent lamps due to its eects in the
luminous ecacy, lifetime and icker[8]. When the lamp is powered by a low frequency AC signal, the
transition from positive to negative currents happens each half-cycle; as it is too slow, the ionized gas is
cooled and the electric arc disappears. Each time that the current decreases to zero, the electric discharge is
extinguished, so to restore it, the voltage should suciently increase to ignite the discharge again [5].
Some eects of continuously restoring of the arc are: stroboscopic eect caused by the icker of light,
wear of the electrodes and consequently the reduction in lifetime[8].
As the frequency is increased, the ionized gas and the electrodes can not be cooled, so the electric discharge
is continuous, the aforementioned problems are solved and the luminous ecacy is improved. As can be
shown in the Figure 2 at frequencies over 20kHz, the luminous ecacy increases by 10 %.
8
1.1 li ght sources
Figure 2.: Lamp Ecacy vs. Operation Frequency
1.1.3.3 Modeling Fluorescent Lamps
Fluorescent Lamps can be statically represented as a positive resistance with a negative dynamic behavior, in
other words, when the RMS current in the lamp decreases the voltage increases [9]. Figure 3 shows the static
characteristic of the 32W T8 Sylvania lamp
1
, it can be seen that the RMS lamp V-I (Voltage vs Current)
curve has a negative slope.
Figure 3.: 32W T8 lamp RMS V-I characteristics
In order to verify the ballast operation and execute computer simulations, lamps can be replaced by their
models. The most complete models of uorescent lamps are focused on physical performance, they can
predict the electrical behavior, as well as the spectral distribution of light and luminous ecacy [10]. These
models will not be considered, since they are very complex and are used for lamps design.
The electrical models of the lamps are complete enough to design the ballast. They just describe the
electrical behavior without thermal or chemical eects. All the electrical models found in the literature do
not consider the preheating stage, in which the electric discharge is still not generated, so the lamp can be
considered as an open circuit.
Electrical models consider the equivalent resistance of the lamp as a function of the power or the RMS
current. The V-I characteristics of the models that will be evaluated are summarized in Figure 4. Figure 4.c
shows the simplest model, as it use a xed resistance, does not consider the dynamic characteristics of the
lamp [11].
In addition to have the dynamic behavior of the lamp represented by the negative slope, the model pre-
sented in Figure 4.a considers a non linear relation function, where the instantaneous lamp voltage is given
by a cubic polynomial function of the instantaneous lamp current, and depends on the average power [12] in
function of the average power. The equation describing this model is shown in (1):
1 Figure 3 was experimentally obtained with the 32WT8 Sylvania lamp used to in the experimental results.
9
1.1 li ght sources
Figure 4.: Instantaneous V-I characteristics at dierent power
v
Lamp
(t) = A

P
Lamp
i
Lamp
(t) + [B

P
Lamp
i
L
(t)]
3
(1)
where, A

P
Lamp
= a
1

P
1
Lamp
+ a
2
+ a
3

P
Lamp
+ a
4

P
2
Lamp
B

P
Lamp
= b
1

P
1
Lamp
+ b
2
+ b
3

P
Lamp
+ b
4

P
2
Lamp
Values for Aand Bdepend on the average lamp power

P
Lamp
, and the parameters a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, a
4
, b
1
, b
2
, b
3
, b
4
should be experimentally determined.
On the other hand, the model presented in [13] does not take into account the variations of instantaneous
lamp voltage, and it describes the lamp as a rms current-controlled resistor (Figure 4.b).
As can be seen in Figure 5, the dynamic behavior of the lamp can be approximated to a line equation.
Thus, to be able to describe the line, this model proposes the measuring of the rms voltage and current of the
lamp at 20% and 100% of the full power rating [13].
R
S
=
V
100%
V
20%
I
100%
I
20%
(2)
V
H
= V
20%
I
20%
R
S
(3)
Figure 5.: 32W T8 lamp RMS V-I characteristics [13]
The voltage V
H
denotes the value at the intersection of line and the V axis and R
S
is the slope of the line
which links the points (I
100
%,V
100
%) and (I
20
%,V
20
%). Therefore, the steady-state lamp equivalent resistor
(R
Lamp
) is determined by the slope of the line connected between the operating point on line with the origin
and the instantaneous voltage is given by: [13]
10
1.1 li ght sources
R
Lamp
=
_
R
S
+
V
H
I
O
_
(4)
v
Lamp
(t) =
_
R
S
+
V
H
I
O
_
i
Lamp
(t) (5)
Where I
O
is the rms current of the lamp at the operation point.
The simulations of both models were carried out in Pspice and their code can be found in Appendix A.
Figures 6 and 7 show the simulation results of the nonlinear model, and Figures 8 and 9 shows the result of
the linear model.
Figure 6.: Current and Voltage waveforms of the
Nonlinear Model for dierent powers
Figure 7.: Dynamic Characteristics V-I of the
Nonlinear Model for dierent powers
Figure 8.: Current and Voltage waveforms of the
Linear Model for dierent powers
Figure 9.: Dynamic Characteristics V-I of the
Linear Model for dierent powers
Both simulations showed the negative dynamic behavior of the lamp, in which by applying a high voltage
(RED Curves) the current is lower than by applying a lower voltage (BLUE Curves).
Also, the non-linearity of the rst model is clearly seen in its current waveforms (Figure 6).
To compare the aforementioned models, Table 1 summarize them.
11
1.2 ballasts
Table 1.: Comparison between Models
MODEL EXPERIMENTAL
PARAMETERS
CHARACTERISTICS
Fixed Resistance None It does not modelate the dy-
namic characteristics, and does
not require experimental param-
eters since the resistance can
be calculated with the nominal
power and nominal rms current
in the lamp.
Linear Model 2 Parameters (R
S
and V
H
)
Describes the dynamic behavior
of the lamp reducing it to a linear
equation.
Nonlinear Model 8 Parameters
(a
1
...a
4
and b
1
...b
4
)
Describes the dynamic behavior
of the lamp by a nonlinear func-
tion allowing a better approxima-
tion.
1.2 ballasts
In order to correctly operate uorescent lamps a ballast is required to stabilize the current ow. Otherwise the
negative dynamic behavior of the lamps make them inoperable [14]. Besides to limit the current delivered to
the lamp, the ballast also [4], [14]:
1. Provide a symmetrical bipolar signal, to avoid damages an preserve lamp lifetime.
2. Provide a high enough voltage to ignite the lamp. Unlike incandescent lamps, uorescent lamps can
not be connected directly to the electric line because the ignition voltage in a uorescent light tube is
higher than the peak voltage of the line (170V
P
) [15].
3. Maintain a preheating voltage for a dened time to increase the lamp lifetime and reduce ignition
voltage.
1.2.1 Types of Ballasts
There are three types of ballasts commonly used for commercial applications [8]: magnetic ballast, hybrid
ballast, and electronic ballast.
The magnetic ballast contains a magnetic core of several laminated steel plates wrapped with copper
windings [8]. Although, the power losses in the magnetic ballast are usually greater than the losses
in electronic ballast, the magnetic ballast has a simple design which makes it cheaper. It operates the
lamp at the line frequency [8],[15], which produces a ashing light emission and also produces an
slight audible sound.
The Hybrid ballast uses a magnetic core-and-coil transformer and an electronic switch to the electrode-
heating circuit. As with the magnetic ballast, the hybrid ballast operates the lamp at the line frequency,
but it has lower power losses [8].
12
1.3 resonant i nverters
The electronic ballast revolutionized the design and specications of uorescent lighting systems [14].
The advances in solid state technology allow the replacement of the core-and-coil transformer with
electronic components [8]. As a consequence, electronic ballasts reduce power losses and operate at
much higher frequency than hybrid and magnetic ballasts [4],[8]. This ballasts can be powered by AC
or DC voltage, an important characteristic for the development of this work.
In Figure 10.a and Figure 10.b the general stages of the electronic ballast are shown, according to its
supply voltage. The most important part is the high frequency resonant inverter.
Figure 10.: Stages of Electronic Ballast Powered by: a) AC Volage b) DC Voltage
If the power supply is AC, the ballast is connected directly to the electric line and a rectier, a power factor
correction circuit and the control circuit along with the inverter are necessary. If the power supply is DC,
only the control system and the frequency resonant inverter is needed.
1.2.2 Lamp-Ballast Starting Methods
In order to ignite uorescent lamps, ballasts use one of the following methods [8]:
1. Preheat: The ballasts that use this method are all magnetics ballasts. Initially, ballast heats the lamp
electrodes for several seconds at high temperature, then, a switch opens in order to apply a voltage
across the lamp and ignite it.
2. Instant-Start: This method starts the lamps with a high initial voltage and without delay. Instant-Start
ballast do not provide heating voltage to the electrodes either before or during operation, so that this
ballast has lower losses t han the rapid start ballast. This method reduces lamp lifetime because starting
a lamp without heating the electrodes accelerates degradation of the electrodes emissive coating.
3. Rapid-Start: This ballast extends lamp lifetime while preventing lamps from ashing. They have a
separate set of windings in order to heat the electrodes. This reduces the necessary voltage to ignite
the lamp. While the lamp is heating, rapid-start ballasts apply the ignition voltage to start it.
4. Programmed-Start: Unlike rapid-start, programmed-start ballast preheat the lamp for a few seconds
rst, and then apply the ignition voltage. This was the starting method developed in this document.
1.3 resonant i nverters
Inverters use a continuous electrical power supply to generate an alternating output waveform of a given
magnitude and frequency (current or voltage). By operating a uorescent lamp at high frequencies is possible
to obtain a higher luminous ecacy than at line frequency, as said before. To achieve the desired frequency,
a resonant inverter must be used. This generates a high frequency sinusoidal output, produced with a square
waveform ltered by the resonant tank.
13
1.3 resonant i nverters
To be able to select an appropriate resonant inverter for this application, some current-fed resonant invert-
ers will be outlined, and a comparison between them will be presented.
1.3.1 Half Bridge Inverter
Figure 11.: Half Bridge Inverter
This topology is composed by a capacitive divider which provides a return path for the load current. As
the transistors conduct alternately each half-cycle, the resonant load causes alternate polarity half sinewaves
with peak voltages of /2 Vdc. The sum of these half sines produces a full sinusoidal wave, that is halved
due to the half bridge capacitors, so the resulting peak to peak voltage is /2 Vdc.
The full bridge inverter has two switches instead the capacitive divider, therefore the voltage stress is
halved but the cost of four transistors does not compensate the reduction of the voltage rating.
1.3.2 Push-Pull Inverter
Figure 12.: Push Pull Inverter
As can be seen in the Figure 12, the current-fed push pull inverter has two switches referenced to ground,
the switches are driven with 50% duty cycle alternatively, the inductor Lck provides a nearly constant current
source [16] and the capacitor C across the transformer primary forms a parallel resonant load in combination
with the primary winding inductance [16].
Figure 13 presents the waveforms of this inverter. In the center tap appears a full rectied sine wave with
a theoretical peak amplitude of Vp = /2 V
DC
. By operating the inverter at the resonance frequency, the
commutation occurs when v1 and v2 passes through zero, ensuring the zero voltage switching and eliminat-
ing the commutation losses.
Since each half-cycle the current ows in opposite direction through the two half windings, in the sec-
ondary winding a sinewave is produced with a peak to peak amplitude of 2 V
DC

Ns
Np
.
14
1.3 resonant i nverters
Figure 13.: Waveforms of Push Pull Inverter
1.3.3 Class E Inverter
Unlike the aforementioned inverters, the Class E inverter has a single switch which allows improving the
ballast eciency. A capacitor parallel to the transistor is used to commute the switch at the instant in which
the voltage is zero, so that the power losses produced by the overlapping of the current and voltage in
commutation could be negligible (Zero Voltage Switching - ZVS) [17]. When this is achieved the circuit
could be operated at higher frequencies, with only conduction losses produced by the parasitic elements.
The control circuit also takes some power, reducing the eciency.
The class E inverter will be used to design the ballast in this, therefore the next chapter contains a thorough
explanation of its design and working principle, but before, the argumentation of the selection of Class E
Inverter as the most appropriated topology for ballasts powered by batteries will be presented.
1.3.4 Comparison between Inverters
Table 2 presents a summary of the advantages and disadvantages of the resonant inverters previously ex-
plained to easily compare them.
The selection of the inverter was based on the following characteristics:
The current-fed resonant inverters allow the parallel operation of the lamps, in which the failure of one or
more lamps will not disable the remaining lamps [16].
The driven requirements of the inverter can be simplied by reducing the number of switches and elimi-
nating the oating transistors. As can be seen in Table 2 the Half bridge inverter has two transistors and one
of them is oating, whereas the Class E just has one non-oating transistor, therefore it has the benet of
reduced control and driver circuit complexity.
Although Half Bridge and Push Pull inverters have lower voltage stresses [18], the reduction of active
devices in Class E inverter, results in a considerably higher eciency (Statistically 20% more ecient than
other classes of inverters [18]). Also, the Class E resonant inverter does not use a transformer, which de-
creases the implementation cost.
15
1.3 resonant i nverters
Table 2.: Comparison between Push-Pull, Half Bridge and Class E Inverters [5]
INVERTER ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Push-Pull
Works at high frequencies
All its switches are referenced
to ground
Low voltage stress
Has two switches
Uses a transformer
Half Bridge
Works at high frequencies
Low voltage stress
Has two switches
Has a oating switch
The output amplitude just can
be controlled by an input con-
verter
Uses a transformer
Clase E
Works at high frequencies
Has just one switch
Highest eciency
High voltage stress
That said, the Class E inverter was the chosen inverter to design the ballast; the next chapter contains a
thorough explanation of its design and working principle.
16
2
ANALYSI S AND DESI GN OF A CLASS E I NVERTER
The basic circuit of Class E resonant inverter is shown in gure 14. This converter has two stages when it is
working in optimum operation mode [19]:
Figure 14.: Class E Inverter
1. MOSFET (M) ON (ideal switch): The equivalent circuit is a LCR series. All the source energy is
stored in Li, and does not ow through R
L
(the load) [19]. The sinusoidal output voltage depends on
L
1
y C
1
.
2. MOSFET (M) OFF: The voltage across C
T
increases from zero to a maximum value and decreases to
zero again. In order to achieve a high eciency, the inverter must have Zero Voltage Switching (ZVS),
therefore v
CT
should be brought back to zero at time of transistor turns-on. The slope of v
CT
should
be zero at the same time, so that ideally there will be no switching losses. Throughout the second
operation mode the current on C
T
will be sinusoidal.
Figure 15 shows the waveforms of Class E inverter operating in optimum mode. The current i , is the
current that ows through the switch and capacitor C
T
, it has a DC component due to Li and a sinusoidal
component due to the resonant tank.
The sub-optimum operation mode, is presented when the voltage across C
T
decreases to zero with a nite
negative slope, therefore the internal diode of the MOSFET conducts [19]. This operation mode will not be
considered in this document.
2.1 steady-state anali sys
In order to design Class E resonant Inverter, is necessary to analyse its steady-state behavior. For this analysis
it is assumed that [17]:
17
2.1 steady-state anali sys
Figure 15.: Waveforms in Class E In-
verter in optimum mode
Figure 16.: Detailed waveforms
The inductance Li has a reactance suciently high that the current owing through it may be regarded
as constant (dc input current), and it has no series resistance.
The Quality Factor (Q) of the resonant tank should be high enough to keep the output current and
output voltage as a sinusoid at the switching frequency.
MOSFET acts as an ideal switch, lossless, and the action of the transistor is instantaneous.
2.1.1 Basic Relationships
Figure 16 shows in more detail some of the waveforms of the inverter so that the analysis can be clearly
presented. y is an angle equivalent to the duty cycle and is dened as the phase angle between the output
voltage (V
0
) and the gate-source voltage in the MOSFET ( V
GS
). According to this, the output equations of
the inverter are:
v
0
= V
out
sin( +)
i
0
=
V
out
R
L
sin( +) (6)
Where, i
0
is the output current, V
out
is the amplitude of the output voltage and R
L
is the load resistance.
To begin the analysis, a series reactance jX produced by the dierence in the reactances of the inductor
and capacitor of the series tank (X = L
1

1
C
1
) is considered [17]; the voltage v
1
() is dened as the sum
between the output voltage and the voltage across this series reactance ( v
x
):
18
2.1 steady-state anali sys
v
1
() = v
0
+ v
x
v
1
() = V
out
sin( +) + L
1
dI
0
dt
+
1
C
1
_
I
0
dt (7)
Replacing and simplifying:
v
1
() = V
o1
sin( +
1
) (8)
Where,
V
o1
=
_

_
V
out
_
1 +
_
X
R
L
_
2
_

_
(9)

1
= + tan
_
X
R
L
_
= + (10)
Now, the voltage across C
T
is:
v
C
T
=
1
C
T
_
i
C
T
dt =
1
C
T
_
i
C
T
()d =
1
C
T
_

0
I
DC
i
0
(u)du
v
CT
=
1
C
T
_

/2y
I
DC

V
out
R
L
sin(u +)du
v
C
T
=
1
C
T
_
I
DC
_


2
+ y
_
+
V
out
R
L
cos( +) sin(y )
_
(11)
Since the resonant tank has zero resistance at the fundamental frequency, there is no voltage across it. This
means that, in the fundamental frequency, the voltage across C
T
should be the same that the voltage v
1
. The
magnitude (V
o1
) of the fundamental component of the voltage across C
T
can be calculated through Fourier
analysis [17]. Once the equation of V
o1
is found, is possible to determine the value of V
out
through equation
(9):
V
out
=
I
DC
R
L
(2y cos
1
cos y 2 sin y cos
1
2y sin
1
+ sin y)
2 sin(y ) sin
1
sin y +
1
2
[sin(2 +) sin(2y) + 2y cos ]
V
out
= I
DC
R
L
g(, , y) (12)
Where, g is a function of y (Figure 16),
1
and (dened in equation (10)) that allows simplifying some
calculations.
2.1.2 Power and Eciency
In order to continue the study of the inverter, is necessary to realize the power analysis. To nd the eciency
of the circuit, the resistance that the inverter shows to the power supply should be determined
_
R
DC
=
V
DC
I
DC
_
.
Firstly, as there is no dc voltage drop across the inductance Li, the relation between the voltage V
DC
and the
rest of the parameters is:
19
2.1 steady-state anali sys
V
DC
=
1
2
_
2
0
v
C
T
d
V
DC
=
I
DC
2C
T
_
2
+y

2
y
__
y

2
+ g sin( y)
_
+ + g cos( +)
_
d
V
DC
=
I
DC
2C
T
([2y
2
+ 2yg sin( y)] 2g sin sin y) (13)
Then, dividing by the input current I
DC
, the resistance R
DC
can be expressed as:
R
DC
=
[2y
2
+ 2yg sin( y)] 2g sin sin y
2wC
T
(14)
Relating the output and input power is possible to obtain the eciency of the inverter
P
in
=
V
2
DC
R
DC
(15)
P
out
=
1
2
V
2
out
R
L
=
I
2
DC
g
2
R
L
2
= V
2
DC
g
2
R
L
2R
2
DC
(16)
=
g
2
R
L
2R
DC
(17)
A high eciency operation is possible if the circuit parameters are chosen to drop the voltage drain to
zero at the instant in which the transistor turns on, that can be calculated setting equation (11) equal to zero
at ( = /2 + y) [17],
0 = 2y 2g cos sin y
g =
y
cos sin y
(18)
represents the normalized slope of the voltage across C
T
at the time of turn-on:
=
1
V
DC
dv
C
T
d

=

2
+y
(19)
=
1
R
DC
C
T
[1 g cos(y +)] (20)
Replacing equation (19) into equation (14), followed by an expansion of the trigonometric functions is
possible to determine an expression for :
tan =
sin y
y
cos y
y

cos y (1 +

) sin y
(21)
2.1.3 Final Considerations
In [17] some performance curves with variations in the slope of the voltage V
CT
( ) and variations in the
duty cycle (y) are shown. According to that curves, the determined values were: = 0 and y =

2
. The rst
20
2.2 resonant tank
condition does not allow negative voltages over C
T
(Optimum mode), and the second one (50 % duty cycle)
produces the peak power output.
According to these values, and assuming a 100% eciency is possible to nd the parameters of the circuit.
From equation (21):
tan =
sin

2

2
cos

2
sin

2
=
2

= 32, 4816 = 0, 5669rad (22)

With the calculated value and the equation (18):
g =

2
cos(0, 56) sin

2
g = 1, 8621 (23)
Considering an ideal eciency in equations (17) and (23):
1 =
g
2
R
L
2R
DC
R
DC
=
g
2
R
L
2
= 1, 7337R
L
(24)
1
2
V
2
out
R
L
=
V
2
DC
g
2
R
L
2R
2
DC
V
out
=
V
DC
gR
L
1, 7337R
L
=
V
DC
gR
L
1, 7337R
L
=
1, 8621V
DC
1, 7337
= 1, 074V
DC
(25)
The nal parameter to determine is X, from the equation (10) is known that X and are related. In [17]
a detailed explanation of the mathematical procedure to nd is presented.
= arctan
_

8
_

2
2
2
__
= 49, 052 = 0, 85613rad (26)
X = R
L
tan()
X = 1, 1525R
L
(27)
2.2 resonant tank
In order to accomplish all the ballast requirements, mentioned in chapter 1, this section presents the selection
of the appropriate resonant tank.
Although the series resonant tank of the basic Class E inverter (Figure 17.a) can limit the output current
due to its impedance in series with the lamp (represented by R
L
), it can not reach the ignition voltage, since
at the preheating stage the lamp resistance is considered to be extremely high so the load of the resonant
circuit is represented by an open circuit, therefore there is no current owing through the tank.
On the other hand, using the tank of the Figure 17.b the capacitor Cr
2
has no eect when the lamp ( R
lamp
)
behaves as an open circuit, whereas Cr
1
forms the series resonant circuit with L
1
. There is no resistance
to damp resonance in this circuit, other than the ESR of these components, and the MOSFET that excites
21
2.3 fi nal desi gn
Figure 17.: Resonant Tanks: a) Series Tank LC, b) Parallel Tank LCC
them. So this circuit in the ignition stage has a very high Q, limited only by parasitic elements, which allows
reaching the elevated ignition voltage.
The equations relating the two resonant tanks are given by [20]:
R
L
=
R
lamp
XC
R1
2
R
lamp
2
+ (XC
R1
+ XC
R2
)
2
(28)
XC
1
=
XC
R1
[R
lamp
2
+ XC
R2
(XC
R1
+ XC
R2
)]
R
lamp
2
+ (XC
R1
+ XC
R2
)
2
(29)
Once the resonant tank has been chosen, and taking under consideration the equations governing the basic
Class E inverter ((6)-(26)) it is possible to design the ballast, but there is a last restriction to consider: Some
solutions of equations (28) and (29) can result in complex numbers. In order to avoid this, the circuit must
meet the following inequality [20]:
_
1
R
L
R
lamp
__
1 +
R
2
L
(QR
L
X)
2
_
< 1 (30)
2.3 fi nal desi gn
Based on the equations and constraints presented in this document, a Class E resonant inverter for a 32WT8
uorescent lamp was designed by a calculative spreadsheet. The input voltage, desired eciency, working
frequency and load resistance are specications of the system that were used as the input parameters to
design the inverter.
The input voltage was set to 12 V, the chosen eciency was 90%, the selected frequency was 130 kHz
in order to increase the luminous ecacy [21] and the lamp (load) was replaced by its equivalent resistance,
according to [22] the nominal voltage of that lamp is 135 Vrms, thus R
Lamp
=
V
2
lamp
P
lamp
= 580.
In order to calculate the components, the equations and analysis of the inverter with the series resonant
tank were used at rst, then the equations (28), (29), (30) allow the calculation of the equivalent values in
the selected tank.
By manipulating equations (16) and (17) is possible to nd V
out
in terms of known parameters. As the
resistance of the series resonant tank R
L
is not the same R
Lamp
(Figure 17).
V
out
=
V
DC
gR
L
g
2
R
L
2
=
2V
DC

g
(31)
With (16) and V
out
, R
L
can be found. Once it has been obtained R
DC
is determined with equation (17).
22
2.3 fi nal desi gn
R
L
=
V
2
out
2P
out
(32)
R
DC
=
g
2
R
L
2
(33)
The capacitor C
T
is calculated according to equation (14), where the value of was given by equation
(22):
C
T
=
[2y
2
+ 2yg sin( y)] 2g sin sin y
2wR
DC
(34)
The nal components calculations were made taking under consideration the minimum allowed Q (equa-
tion (30)). From the denition of quality factor in a series resonant tank Q =
wL
1
R
L
, so L
1
can be solved.
L
1
=
QR
L

(35)
As X = L
1

1
C
1
= 1, 1525R
L
, is possible to nd C
1
and nally solve the equations (28) and (29) to
obtain C
R1
and C
R2
.
The spreadsheet was used to select the components as close as possible to standard values. Figure 18
shows the designed Class E resonant inverter.
Figure 18.: Final Design Class E Inverter
In order to assemble the circuit the following considerations were taken:
1. The MOSFET should be able to withstand voltages greater than the peak voltage over C
T
. In [17] the
device stress is determined by nding the time at which that peak occurs (
max
) through:
v
C
T
=
1
C
T
_

_
I
c
_


2
+ y
_
+
V
out
R
L
(cos( +) sin(y ))
_

_
(36)

max
= arcsin
_
1
g
_
(37)
Replacing equation (37) in (36) it is possible to nd stress voltage in the MOSFET.
2. Li should be high enough to keep I
C
constant with a negligible superimposed ripple current.
3. The large sinusoidal current owing through L
1
, along with the high switching frequency produces
skin eect and a small skin depth that can be mitigated by using Litz wire.
4. In order to avoid major losses in the circuit, all the components were selected with their ESR as low
as possible.
23
3
CONTROL CI RCUI T
3.1 control ci rcui t desi gn and analysi s
The input impedance of the resonant circuit is a function of the switching frequency. When the switching
frequency varies, the energy transferred to the output will also change. Thus, the output power can be
controlled by changing the switching frequency.
Figure 19.: Lamp Voltage in dierent resonant states [23]
The control circuit regulates the control variable and assures that all the operation phases are completed.
The rst stage is the preheating, although it is not indispensable, it is desirable to include this phase in order
to increase the lamp lifetime [23]. In this work, preheating phase is performed at a frequency above the
resonance, as shown in Figure 19.
Once the laments have been preheated, the lamp is prepared to ignite the discharge. The output voltage
is increased by lowering the switching frequency until the lamp resistance breaks down abruptly and the
resonant circuit shows strong damping.
3.1.1 Block Diagram
In order to achieve the aforementioned behavior, the control circuit shown in Figure 20 is proposed. In
this gure the two possibles variables of control are clearly state: the light intensity or lamp current. Each
variable passes through a block to obtain a dc voltage equivalent to its measure. The selection between the
two control variables is manually performed.
24
3.1 control ci rcui t desi gn and analysi s
Figure 20.: Control Block Diagram
When the circuit is turned on, the block "Switched control for operation phases" keeps in its output a
voltage equal to V
re f
, so that the voltage error is zero and the VCO (Voltage Controlled Oscillator) input
remains constant during the necessary time to heat the laments.
Then, the input of the error amplier switches to the output of the selected sensing circuit; as the lamp
is still o, the measurement is zero, and because of the controller, the frequency decreases until the output
voltage is high enough to ignite the lamp. At that time the resistance of the lamp changes, and the control
reaches the nominal frequency.
The description of each block will be presented below, and the complete schematic can be seen in the
Appendix A.
3.1.1.1 Sensing Circuits
The current sensing circuit, obtains a voltage equivalent to the output current through a resistance in series
with the lamp (Rsense). This circuit has two stages, the rst stage inverts the input signal and applies a gain,
then in the second stage a half wave rectier in series with a low pass lter gets an equivalent value of the
peak current in the lamp. Figure 21 shows the topology used.
Figure 21.: Topology Current Sensing Circuit
In order to sense the light intensity, the light sense circuit uses the integrated circuit OPT101 [24]. It is a
monolithic photodiode with on-chip transimpedance amplier, the output of the amplier increases linearly
with light intensity, so the gain of the amplier is adjusted to accomplish the desired luminosity (Figure 22).
25
3.1 control ci rcui t desi gn and analysi s
Figure 22.: Topology Light Sensing Circuit
3.1.1.2 Switched Control for Operation Phases
In order to commute the circuit between the preheating stage and free-running stage, the multiplexer CD4052B
was used. One of the two binary control inputs of the integrated circuit commutes the output of the "Switched
Control for Operation Phases Block" between a reference voltage (equal to the reference of the error ampli-
er) and the output of the respective sensing circuit.
The state of the control input was realized through a timer which controls the preheating time.
3.1.1.3 Controller
The error amplier along with the PI controller were designed to be able to ignite the lamp and then regulate
the variable of control. The principal limitation to design this stage was the closed loop gain, since when the
control is released (immediately after the preheating stage) the lamp is o, therefore the error signal will be
high and the response of the controller can be so fast that the lamp fails to ignite.
As the limitation in the response of the controller is an unknown parameter, the controller was manually
adjusted to guaranty the ignition of the lamp.
3.1.1.4 Voltage Controlled Oscilator (VCO) and MOSFET Driver
Considering the high operating frequency of the ballast (130kHz), the IC CD4046 (Phase Locked Loop -
PLL) was selected to generate the switching signal. Apart from reaching the operating frequency, the VCO
of the PLL allows the programming the minimum and maximum working frequencies. This programming is
done by selecting the values and relationships of two resistors and a capacitor.
As can be seen in Figure 19 all the operation phases are performed at higher frequencies than the resonance.
If the control circuit tries to drive the lamp belowthe resonance, the control loop will have a positive feedback
and therefore it can not be controlled. To prevent this, the VCO was adjusted with a frequency oset equal
to the resonance of the inverter and a maximum frequency equal to the preheating frequency.
Finally to complete the explanation of the block diagram , the chosen MOSFET Driver was the IR2110.
As it requires a certain voltage amplitude in its input (10 - 20V) a comparator was used between the VCO
output and the Driver.
26
4
SI MULATI ONS AND EXPERI MENTAL RESULTS
4.1 si mulati ons results
Due to the replacement of the lamp by its equivalent resistance (580), the output voltage and the output
current (Figure 23) are completely sinusoidal. Instead of the equivalent resistance model, the electrical
behavior of the lamp can be modeled more precisely as a non linear function of the power, as was presented
in the theoretical framework; therefore in the experimental results the lamp signals will show some distortion.
Figure 23.: Simulations Results of the Voltage and Current on the lamp equivalent resistance.
As can be seen in Figure 24, the ZVS operation was achieved since the waveform of v
C1
drops to zero at
the instant the transistor turns-on ( v
GS
).
Figure 24.: Simulations Results of the Voltage across the MOSFETv
C
1
and the Switching Signal v
GS
27
4.2 experi mental results
Figure 25 shows the frequency response of the inverter during the preheating stage (blue curve) and in
the steady-state stage (red curve), according with the simulation, the resonance frequency occurs at 130 kHz,
which corresponds to the switching frequency chosen for the inverter. In this gure is possible to see the
dierence between the quality factor of the two stages in order to ignite the lamp with a high enough voltage
in the preheating.
Figure 25.: Simulation of the frequency response of the inverter in the preheating (BLUE) and steady-state
(RED).
4.2 experi mental results
Before the nal assemble of the ballast in the printed circuit board (PCB), a prototype was implemented. In
this section will be shown the experimental results of both circuits.
4.2.1 Prototype Results
As a result of the series resistance and tolerance of the components, the Zero Voltage Switching was not
achieved with the theoretical values calculated. It is possible to adjust the network load for nominal Class
E operation (ZVS) by observing the v
CT
waveform [25]. Figure 26 illustrates the eect of adjusting the
components and Table 3 presents the nal values.
Figure 26.: Eects in V
CT
waveform by adjusting the component values[25].
After the tuning procedure, an eciency of 87% (without the control circuit) was achieved.
As seen in Figure 27, with the aforementioned adjustments, the inverter operates with ZVS when it has a
12V input and a 32W output power.
28
4.2 experi mental results
Table 3.: Final Components Values
Component Value
Li 800 H
L
1
65 H
C
1
139 n F
C
r1
22 n F
C
r2
2.1 n F
Figure 27.: Voltage on C
T
and V
gs
. Scale : 1.2
s
div
; 10
V
div
Figure 28 shows the output waveforms and the power over the lamp. In steady-state the ballast presents a
peak voltage of 198 V and peak current of 340 mA consistent with the nominal power specications [22].
Figure 28.: Voltage, Current and Power in the lamp. Scale 2
s
div
; 164
V
div
and 320
mA
div
The losses distribution among the components is presented in Table 4. The total sum of losses in the
circuit corresponds to the eciency of the ballast mentioned before. In Appendix C it is possible to nd the
voltage and current waveforms along with the dissipated power of the components showed in this table.
In gure 29 the operation phases of the control are shown
1
. During the preheating time (approximately
2 seconds) the inverter maintains constant the output voltage, after that, the control begins the regulation of
the chosen variable (current or light intensity).
1 For the prototype, the control was assembled only with the current sense circuit.
29
4.2 experi mental results
Table 4.: Distribution losses
Component Dissipated Power (W) Dissipated Power (%)
L
1
0.82 2.27
Li 0.2 0.55
C
T
0.3 0.83
C
r1
1.1 3.05
C
r2
0.2 0.55
Rsense 0.021 0.058
Control 0.8 2.21
Mosfet 1.6 4.43
TOTAL 5.05 14
Figure 29.: Operation phases (Voltage and Current). Scale .2
s
div
; and 340
V
div
and500
mA
div
Finally, the circuit measurements were taken varying the supply voltage in open and close loop, tables 5
and 6 present the obtained results. According to table 5 the control regulation is under 1% .
Table 5.: Output power of the circuit in open loop
V
in
(V) I
out
(Apk) P
out
(W) P
out
(%)
10.5 0.277 27.7 -13.5
11 0.297 29.3 -8.43
11.5 0.310 30.58 -4.44
12 0.330 32 0
13 0.362 34.32 +7.25
13.8 0.378 35.8 +11.88
Table 6.: Output power with current control
V
in
(V) I
in
(A) P
out
(W) P
out
(%)
10.5 3.67 32.1 0.83 +0.31
11 3.45 32.12 0.85 +0.38
11.5 3.45 31.8 0.85 -0.63
12 3.09 31.9 0.86 -0.31
13 2.86 32 0.859 0
13.8 2.73 32.3 0.857 +0.94
4.2.2 PCB Results
Once all the adjustments and measurements of the prototype were performed, it was possible to design
the printed circuit board (Appendix D). Although the components in the two circuits were the same, the
rst evaluation of the PCB showed strong dierences with the prototype in the eciency and ZVS. The
dierences between the circuits may be justied by the resistance of the traces and the connectors used by
the lamp and the inductor L
1
.
30
4.2 experi mental results
In order to obtain commutation at zero voltage and improve the eciency, the tuning procedure was
realized once again. As a result of the components adjustment, when the ZVS was achieved the eciency
was not the expected (80%), however the eciency was improved to 84% without ZVS.
Figure 30.: Voltage on C
T
and V
gs
without ZVS Scale 2
s
div
; 10
V
div
and5
V
div
Figure 31.: Voltage on C
T
and V
gs
with ZVS. Scale 2
s
div
; 10
V
div
and5
V
div
Figure 30 shows the v
CT
and v
gs
curves with the highest eciency obtained and Figure 31 shows the
same waveforms when the ballast was tuned in order to obtain the ZVS. These results may seem inconsistent
with the high eciency analysis of the class E since the commutation losses were increased, but as the
highest eciency is obtained by minimizing the total power dissipated [25], in this case the increment in the
commutation losses allows having a reduction in the dissipation of other components in larger amounts.
Figure 32.: Stabilization time of the lamp resistance
Due to the intrinsic parameters of the lamp, once the lamp have been ignited, it takes some time to stabilize
the electric discharge and keep its equivalent resistance constant. Figure 32 shows this behavior with two
31
4.2 experi mental results
dierent lamps, as can be seen the settling time is about 10 minutes. With this graphic is also concluded that,
the settling time is not depending on the hours of use of the lamp, but the nal power in the older lamp is
lower than in the new one.
4.2.3 Comparison between Sensing Circuits
To be able to select the best condition for operate the circuit (High eciency or ZVS), the measurements of
the control regulation varying the supply voltage with both sensing circuits were taken (Tables 7 - 10).
V
in
I
in
(A) P
out
(W) I
out
(mA)
10.7 3.79 32.47 356.8 0.80
11 3.65 32.33 355.3 0.80
11.5 3.47 32.31 355.5 0.80
12 3.31 32.31 355.5 0.81
12.5 3.18 32.31 355.8 0.81
13 3.06 32.35 355.8 0.81
13.5 2.49 32.37 355.8 0.81
Table 7.: Current Regulation (With ZVS)
V
in
I
in
(A) P
out
(W) I
out
(mA) Lum
10.5 3.88 31.94 350.5 0.78 9030
11 3.65 31.94 350.5 0.79 9050
11.5 3.47 31.92 350.8 0.79 9050
12 3.31 31.94 350.5 0.80 9070
12.5 3.17 31.94 350.3 0.80 9060
13 3.05 31.92 349.8 0.80 9060
13.5 2.94 31.96 349.5 0.80 9070
Table 8.: Light Intensity Regulation (With ZVS)
Whereas in the ZVS operation (Tables 7 and 8) both circuits can regulate all the supply voltage range
without exposing to majors power dissipation the components, when the circuit is not operating with ZVS
(Tables 9 and 10) neither the current control nor the light control regulate at low voltages. The lack of
regulation is caused by the abruptly decreasing of the eciency due to the worsening of the ZVS at those
voltages. According to these reasons the ZVS operation was chosen to realize the measurements and analysis
of the PCB ballast.
V
in
I
in
(A) P
out
(W) I
out
(mA)
10.5 3.71 27.29 293.2 0.70
11 3.74 31.01 339.5 0.75
11.5 3.44 32.14 353.8 0.81
12 3.23 32.14 354.8 0.83
12.5 3.07 32.12 354.8 0.83
13 2.94 32.1 354.8 0.83
13.5 2.83 32.1 354.5 0.83
Table 9.: Current Regulation (High eciency)
V
in
I
in
(A) P
out
(W) I
out
(mA) Lum
10.5 3.76 28.33 304.5 0.71 8200
11 3.79 30.6 320 0.72 8750
11.5 3.42 32 352.3 0.81 9100
12 3.20 32 352.5 0.83 9100
12.5 3.05 32 352.8 0.83 9110
13 32.29 31.98 353 0.84 9110
13.5 2.81 32 353 0.84 9110
Table 10.: Light Intensity Regulation (High eciency)
From Tables 7 and 8 it can be concluded that the regulation of each control variable is appropriately
performed (1%)
2
. The table 8 also shows the directly relation between the light intensity and the output
power, therefore, if one of the control variables is regulated, the other one is also regulated.
Figure 33 shows how the performance of the current control is limited by the settling time, and only after
that time the power remains constant.
2 This measurements were taken after the 10 minutes needed for the lamp stabilization.
32
4.2 experi mental results
Figure 33.: Current sensing circuit performance
On the other hand, when the control is working with the light sense circuit, the variation of the resistance
in the lamp does not aect the light regulation, as can be seen in Figure 34 the control takes less than four
minutes in regulate the light intensity, while the output power is still taking longer than 10 minutes to be
regulated.
Figure 34.: Light sensing circuit performance
4.2.4 Comparison with others implemented Ballasts
In this subsection will be presented the measurements and results of the instant-start electronic ballast (ILTEC
IT232I120EN) powered by the line voltage, in order to compare its performance with the ballast presented
in this document.
In Figure 35 the stabilization time of a commercial ballast is shown. As was expected, the settling time is
10 minutes.
The output voltage and current in steady state along with the lamp power can be seen Figure 36 and the
ignition stage is shown in Figure 37
33
4.2 experi mental results
Figure 35.: Stabilization Time of Commercial Ballast ILTEC
Figure 36.: Output waveforms of Commercial Ballast ILTEC
Figure 37.: Ignition Stage of Commercial Ballast ILTEC
The output power of the ballast was 27,83 W and its eciency was 83%. Accordingly with this eciency
and the results presented in [20] and [26], with a eciency of 85% and 83%
3
respectively, can be concluded
that the designed ballast achieved an optimal eciency.
3 The output power of the ballast in [20] is 25 W and in [26] is 18 W
34
5
CONCLUSI ONS
From the simulated and experimental results it was concluded that, although the uorescent lamp
models presented in [12] and [13] are very complete, a xed resistance allows a faster simulation of
the ballast without convergence errors and consistent with the experimentation.
As the ballast is regulated, neither in the power nor in the equivalent resistance of the lamp are changes,
consequently, the negative resistance behavior of the lamp can be neglected, so the dierences between
the simulations with the xed resistance and the experimental results are given just by the non linearity
of the lamp.
During the Class E inverter design and through the tuning procedure, the circuit sensitivity was clearly
shown by the eects of the series resistances of the components. High resistances in the circuit apart
from decreasing the eciency, can aect the lamp ignition, since the quality factor of the resonant
tank in the preheating stage may not be high enough.
Usually, the highest eciency in the inverter is achieved guarantying the ZVS. But when the series
resistances are large enough, the ZVS should be infringed in order to minimize the total power dissi-
pated. As the increase of the commutation voltage reduces the RMS current in the resonant tank, the
decrease in the i
2
R power losses can outweigh the increase of the commutation loss.
Whereas a high eciency was accomplished in the prototype by reducing the losses in the converter
through the ZVS (86%), ensuring the ZVS in the printed circuit, the eciency was only 80%. In this
case, was possible to increase the eciency to 84%, loosing the ZVS
1
.
Although it is possible to obtain an eciency of 84% (in the PCB) with an input voltage of 12V and
without ZVS, this operation is not viable, since by varying the input voltage, the regulation can not be
assured. When the input voltage decreases, the commutation voltage rises sharply and the eciency
decays so far that it is impossible to regulate the expected output current with the designed resonant
tank.
Additionally, exposing the components to so low eciencies, produces high temperatures in the com-
ponents and consequently a reduction on their lifetime.
One of the tested physical characteristics of uorescent lamps, is the time that the lamp takes to sta-
bilize the electric discharge after the ignition (10 minutes approximately when the lamp is completely
cold). During the stabilization, the equivalent resistance of the lamps is changing, therefore, no matter
if the output current is being regulated, the lamp power will be changing. In consequence, the current
control is limited by the settling time of the lamp.
As uorescent lamps gradually lose their initial performance as they age, the current control can not
regulate every lamp at the same output power. Even if the lamps had the same time of use, the
1 The measures of the eciency were taken with a 12V input voltage
35
conclusi ons
dierences between them do not allow that by regulating the current, the lamps present the same
power and light intensity.
The light intensity as the variable of control instead of the lamp current allows controlling the circuit
without waiting for the stabilization of the lamp. Additionally, while current based control fails over
time as the lamp performance decays, the light based controller maintains its performance, by applying
a higher power to the lamp.
Both sensing circuits execute all the phases of operation (preheating, ignition, free-running), and with
variations in the supply voltage, both present a good regulation ( 1%).
36
BI BLI OGRAPHY
[1] Comisin Nacional para el uso eciente de la energa. Proyecto nacional de eciencia energtica
en alumbrado pblico municipal. http://www.conuee.gob.mx/wb/CONAE/alumbrado_publico/,
2012. [Accesado 10-Septiembre-2012].
[2] L. Halonen, E. Tetri, and P. Bhusal. Guidebook on Energy Ecient Electric Lighting for Buildings.
Aalto University School of Science and Technology, 2010.
[3] S. Thongkullaphat, P. Liutanakul, and V. Chunkag. Improvement of self-oscillating electronic ballast
with high power factor: A combination of charged-pump and valley-ll. Power Electronics and Drive
Systems (PEDS), 2011 IEEE Ninth International Conference on, pages 10901093, Dec.
[4] S. Y R Hui, W. Yan, H. Chung, P.W. Tarn, and G. Ho. Energy eciency comparison of dimmable
electromagnetic and electronic ballast systems. Industry Applications Conference, 2005. Fourtieth IAS
Annual Meeting. Conference Record of the 2005, 4:27752781, Oct.
[5] No Mrquez Avendao. Diseo y construccin de un balastro electrnico alimentado con cd para
encender una lmpara uorescente de 21 watts, 2005.
[6] Alma E. F. Taylor. Illumination Fundamentals. Lighting Research Center - Rensselaer, 2002.
[7] M. C Ndinechi, A. Oluwaseyi Ogungbenro, O. C Nwadiuko, and Igboebisi Ikechukwu. Reliability as-
sessment of incandescent light bulbs in nigeria market and case for energy saving alternative. Academic
Research International, 2, 2012.
[8] National Lighting Product Information Program. Specier reports: Electronic ballast, 2000.
[9] E. Ferreira and E. Hammer. F40 uorescent lamp considerations for operation at high frequency. Jour-
nal of the Illuminating, 15:6374, 1985.
[10] Allings W.R. Important design parameters for solid state ballast. Journal of the Illuminating, 25:203
207, 1989.
[11] M. C.and Cosby R. M. Nelms. A resonant inverter for electronic ballast applications,. IEEE Transac-
tions On Industrial Electronics, 41:418425, 1994.
[12] B. Hesterman and N. Sun. Pspice high frequency dynamic uorescent lamp model. IEEE APEC96,
2:641647, 1996.
[13] Jin-Chyan Hung Wu Tsai and Te-Hung Yu. A pspice circuit model for low-pressure gaseous discharge
lamps operating at high frequency. IEEE Transactions On Industrial Electronics, 44:428431, 1997.
[14] Philips. The ABCs of Electronic Fluorescent Ballasts. Philips Lighting Electronics N.A., 2009.
[15] Some basics facts and some advanced informationon ballast for uorescent lamps. http:
//ecospecifier.com.au/media/7231/European%20Copper%20Institute%20-%20Ballasts%
20for%20Fluorescent%20Lights.pdf, 2006.
37
Bibliography
[16] Phillips Semiconductors. Fluorescent Lamp Control. Power Semiconductor Applications Philips Semi-
conductors, 579-589.
[17] F. Raab. Idelized operation of the class e tuned power amplier. IEEE Transactions on Circuits and
Systems, 12:725735, 1977.
[18] A. Ekbote and D.S. Zinger. Comparison of class e and half bridge inverters for use in electronic
ballasts. Industry Applications Conference, 2006. 41st IAS Annual Meeting. Conference Record of the
2006 IEEE, 5:21982201, Oct.
[19] H.R Muhammad. Electrnica de potencia, circuitos, dispositvos y aplicaciones. Prentice hall, Mxico,
2003.
[20] M. Ponce, J. Arau, J.M. Alonso, and M. Rico-Secades. Electronic ballast based on class e amplier
with a capacitive inverter and dimming for photovoltaic applications. IEEE APEC 98, 2:11561162,
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[21] E.E. Hammer and Terry K. McGowan. Characteristics of various f40 uorescent systems at 60 hz and
high frequency. Industry Applications, IEEE Transactions on, IA-21(1):1116, Jan.
[22] Sylvania fo 32wt8 865, datasheet. Havells Sylvania, 2010.
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38
A
PSPI CE MODELS CODE
non li near model
.SUBCKT ModeloNoLineal 1 10
*Parmetros Datos Experimentales
+ PARAMS: A1=10468, A2=-431.85, A3=21.641, A4=-0.30272
+ PARAMS: B1=700.7, B2=11.521, B3=-1.1311, B4=0.016615
Rsense 1 2 1; Current sensing resistor
EL 2 10 VALUE={V(1,2)*V(5,10)+V(6,10)*V(6,10)*V(6,10)}; Lamp Voltage
EP 3 10 VALUE={V(1,10)*V(1,2)}; Instantaneous lamp power
RP 3 4 100; Resistor time constant
CP 4 10 1uf IC=5V; Average lamp power
EA 5 10 VALUE={A1/LIMIT(V(4,10),4,50)+A2+V(4,10)*(A3+V(4,10)*A4)}; Calculates A
EB 6 10 VALUE={(B1/LIMIT(V(4,10),4,50)+B2+V(4,10)*(B3+V(4,10)*B4))*V(1,2)}; Calculates
B*I
Rgnd 10 0 1G; Provides a DC path to ground
.ENDS ModeloNoLineal
Figure 38.: Schematic Diagram of the non Linear Model
li near model
.SUBCKT ModeloLineal 1 10
*Parmetros Datos Experimentales
+ PARAMS: Rs=-190 VH=177.5
Rsense 1 2 1; Current sensing resistor
EL 2 10 VALUE={Rs+VH/(V(5,10))*V(1,2)}; Lamp Voltage
EI 3 10 VALUE={V(1,2)*V(1,2)}; Instantaneous lamp current squared
RI 3 4 100; Resistor time constant
39
pspi ce models code
CI 4 10 1uf IC=.1; Capacitor time contast
EE 5 10 VALUE={sqrt(V(4,10))}; Calculates the RMS Lamp Current
Rgnd 10 0 1G;
.ENDS ModeloLineal
Figure 39.: Schematic Diagram of the Linear Model
40
B
FULL BALLAST SCHEMATI C
Figure 40.: Schematic of the Electronic Ballast
41
C
EXPERI MENTAL WAVEFORMS OF THE I NVERTER I N THE PROTOTYPE
Figure 41.: Lamp waveforms.
Scale 2
s
div
; 164
V
div
and320
mA
div
Figure 42.: v
CT
and v
GS
waveforms.
Scale 1, 24
s
div
; 160
V
div
and10
V
div
Figure 43.: Capacitor C
T
waveforms.
Scale 2
s
div
; 20
V
div
and320
mA
div
Figure 44.: Inductor L
i
waveforms.
Scale 2
s
div
; 10
V
div
and1
A
div
Figure 45.: Inductor L
1
waveforms.
Scale 2
s
div
; 20
V
div
and5
A
div
Figure 46.: Inductor L
i
waveforms.
Scale 2
s
div
; 2
V
div
and200
mA
div
42
D
PRI NTED CI RCUI T BOARD
Figure 47.: PCB Design - Bottom Layer
Figure 48.: PCB Design - Top Layer
43
pri nted ci rcui t board
Figure 49.: Picture of the Electronic Ballast
44