Pse Reed2006

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Psychology of Sport and Exercise 7 (2006) 477514

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The effect of acute aerobic exercise on positive activated affect: A meta-analysis

Justy Reeda,, Deniz S. Onesb
Department of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, Chicago State University, 9501 South King Drive, Chicago, IL 60628, USA b Department of Psychology, Elliot Hall, 75 E. River Road, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA Received 27 November 2004; accepted 23 November 2005 Available online 9 March 2006
a
Abstract Objective: The purpose of this meta-analysis was to examine the effect of acute aerobic exercise on selfreported positive-activated affect (PAA). Samples from 158 studies from 1979 to 2005 were included yielding 450 independent effect sizes (ESs) and a sample size of 13,101. Method: Studies were coded for moderators related to assessment time, exercise variables such as intensity, duration, and dose (combination of intensity and duration), and design characteristics. The analysis considered multiple measures of affect and corrected for statistical artifacts using Hunter and Schmidt [(1990). Methods of meta-analysis: Correcting error and bias in research ndings. Newbury Park: Sage; (2004). Methods of meta-analysis: Correcting error and bias in research ndings (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage] meta-analytic methods. corr ) and standard deviation (SDcorr) were .47 and .37, Results: The overall estimated mean corrected ES (d respectively. Effects were consistently positive (a) immediately post-exercise, (b) when pre-exercise PAA was lower than average, (c) for low intensity exercise o1539% oxygen uptake reserve (%VO2R), (d) for durations up to 35 min, and (e) for low to moderate exercise doses. The effects of aerobic exercise on PAA appear to last for at least 30 min after exercise before returning to baseline. Dose results suggest the presence of distinct zones of affective change that more accurately reect post-exercise PAA responses than corr :17, intensity or duration alone. Control conditions were associated with reductions in PAA (d SDcorr .25).
Corresponding author. Fax: +1 773 995 3644.
E-mail address: ereed@csu.edu (J. Reed). 1469-0292/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2005.11.003
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478 J. Reed, D.S. Ones / Psychology of Sport and Exercise 7 (2006) 477514
Conclusion: The typical acute bout of aerobic exercise produces increases in self-reported PAA, whereas the typical control condition produces decreases. However, large SDcorr values suggest that additional variables, possibly related to individual differences, further moderate the effects of exercise on PAA. r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Exercise; Affect; Well-being; Meta-analysis; Doseresponse
Introduction The majority of research on the exerciseaffect relationship has examined the impact of exercise on negative psychological states (e.g., Gauvin & Spence, 1996; McAuley & Rudolph, 1995). Since 1981, more than 70 reviews have been published and the vast majority of them, narrative and quantitative, have found that exercise reduces self-reported anxiety and depression (e.g., Biddle, 2000; Brosse, Sheets, Lett, & Blumenthal, 2002; Landers, & Arent, 2001). However, health is not merely the absence of disease and negative affect, but a condition of physical and psychological well-being as well (McAuley, 1994; USDHHS, 1996, p. 141). There is ample evidence to support the practical importance of well-being, dened as positive mood, engagement, life satisfaction, and meaning (Seligman, 2002). For example, well-being and positive mood predict job satisfaction and productivity (George & Brief, 1992; Hersey, 1932; Miner, 2001), and marital satisfaction (Rogers & May, 2003). Higher well-being and positive mood also correlate with better physical (Ostir, Markides, Black & Goodwin, 2000) and mental health (Diener & Seligman, 2004), lower all-cause mortality (Fiscella & Franks, 1997), greater longevity and lower rates of non-fatal heart attack (Kubzansky, Sparrow, Vokonas, & Kawachi, 2001), lower physiological stress reactivity (Smith, Ruiz, & Uchino, 2001), and improved immune function (Cohen, Doyle, Turner, Alper, & Skoner, 2003). In addition, studies show that people who report higher well-being exercise more compared to those reporting lower well-being (e.g., Lox, Burns, Treasure, & Wasley, 1999). In sum, people with higher levels of well-being are healthier and function more effectively (Diener & Seligman, 2004). This study addresses the affective component of well-being. For the purpose of this paper, affect is dened as the quality of a subjective experience relative to the two independent dimensions of valence and activation or what Russell describes as core affect (Russell, 2003). For most researchers, affect includes self-reportable states such as happiness, elation, tension, and relaxation (Russell & Carroll, 1999). Self-reported affect can be described as a circumplex formed by two dimensions of activation (activateddeactivated) and valence (positivenegative). This meta-analysis specically examines positive activated affective states as dened by the upper right quadrant of Fig. 1. Subscales from self-report instruments such as the Energy subscale of the ActivationDeactivation Adjective Checklist (AD-ACL; Thayer, 1996) and the Positive Affect subscale of the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS; Watson, Clark & Tellegen, 1988) have been shown to occupy this quadrant (see Yik, Russell, & Feldman Barrett, 1999). Although this area of the circumplex and its associated affective constructs has been named pleasant activated (Yik et al., 1999), positive activation (Watson, Wiese, Vaidya, & Tellegen, 1999), activated pleasant (Larsen & Diener, 1992), and energy (Thayer, 1996), we refer to these affective states as positive activated affect (PAA).
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J. Reed, D.S. Ones / Psychology of Sport and Exercise 7 (2006) 477514 479
Negative Activated (+) Activation (-) Negative Deactivated
Positive Activated
Positive Deactivated
(-) Valence (+)
Fig. 1. A circumplex model of self-reported affect. Adapted from Yik et al. (1999).
Why study PAA in the context of exercise? First, theoretically, there is evidence that changes in self-reported PAA could be a function of an evolutionary adaptive behavioral facilitation system (BFS; Depue & Iacono, 1989; Depue, Luciana, Arbisi, Collins & Leon, 1994) that mediates goaldirected approach behaviors (Depue & Collins, 1999; Depue, et al., 1994; Tomarken & Keener, 1998). Dopamine pathways are associated with the BFS (Depue & Collins, 1999) and recent data suggest that DNA sequence variations in dopamine receptor genes are related to self-reported physical activity levels (Simonen et al., 2003). Second, PAA appears to facilitate and reward behaviors mediated by the BFS (Watson, 2000) whereas low levels of PAA are associated with depressed mood (Mineka, Watson, & Clark, 1998). From an evolutionary viewpoint, exercise might be considered a behavioral means to obtain resources such as food and should increase feelings of vigor and energy, thereby providing both a reward and incentive to repeat the activity. Indeed, narrative reviews conclude that exercise improves PAA (e.g., Ekkekakis & Petruzzello, 1999; Gauvin & Spence, 1996) and individual studies report that these improvements are more consistent than changes in depression and anxiety (e.g., Gauvin, Rejeski, & Norris, 1996; Thayer, 1996; Watson, 2000). Third, several investigators have suggested that affective changes related to exercise are an important part of exercise adherence (Sallis & Hovell, 1990; Thayer, 1996; Wankel, 1993). The psychological states associated with exercise adherence may therefore be related to changes in positive and not just negative affect. Unfortunately, there are very few guidelines available to assist health professionals in planning and prescribing physical activity to increase the adoption and maintenance of exercise programs, largely due to the lack of data available to develop them (Dishman, 2001). The purpose of this meta-analysis is to provide data on the effect of acute aerobic exercise on PAA relative to three main questions. First, how does baseline PAA inuence the magnitude
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of change in post-exercise PAA? Second, how do various levels of exercise intensity, duration, and combinations of intensity and duration (dose) affect the magnitude of change in post-exercise PAA? Third, what is the magnitude of PAA change across various post-exercise assessment times? That is, how long do the acute effects of aerobic exercise on PAA last? This study improves and extends current knowledge and provides quantitative answers not found in prior narrative reviews. To this end, we tested the following potential moderator variables.
Potential moderators Baseline PAA Acute studies (e.g., Focht, 2002; Reed, Berg, Latin, & La Voie, 1998; Rejeski, Gauvin, Hobson, & Norris, 1995), chronic studies (e.g., Blumenthal, Emery, & Rejeski, 1988; Simons & Birkimer, 1988; Wiley & Kunce, 1986), and quantitative reviews (e.g., Craft & Landers, 1998; North, McCullagh, & Tran, 1990) show that participants with less positive or more negative preexercise affect report greater post-exercise improvement compared to those with higher baseline scores. The relation appears to hold for active and sedentary participants (e.g., Reed et al., 1998), but has yet to be quantied for PAA across various self-report scales. From a theoretical and practical standpoint, Thayer (1996) proposed that exercise serves as a self-regulatory strategy to improve low mood and energy and delay the urge to snack or smoke (Thayer, Peters, Takahashi, & Birkhead-Flight, 1993). Also, based on the law of initial value (Wilder, 1957) those with less positive baseline affect and energy might be expected to improve more because they have more room for improvement. Thus, we hypothesize that there would be larger effects for lower baseline scores. Exercise intensity Ekkekakis and Petruzzello (1999) reviewed 31 studies and found a general inverse relation between intensity and post-exercise PAA. Walking increases PAA (e.g., Ekkekakis, Hall, Van Landuyt, & Petruzzello, 2000; Thayer, 1987a) while maximal exercise produces deceases (e.g., Pronk Crouse, & Rohack, 1995). On the other hand, others have suggested that optimal benets occur following moderate, but not low or high intensity exercise (Berger & Motl, 2000). These suggestions point to the notion of either a critical intensity, i.e., threshold stimulus (Raglin & Morgan, 1985) or inverted-U (Ojanen, 1994) relation between intensity and affective benet. However, high-intensity exercise may result in affective improvement by way of a rebound effect whereby the post-exercise affective state rebounds from an affective decline during exercise (see Bixby, Spalding, & Hateld, 2001). Theoretically, intensity appears to be a key variable moderating post-exercise affective response (Ekkekakis, 2003) and is of practical importance as a potential exercise-related barrier to the adoption and maintenance of exercise (Dishman, 2001). Because the intensity literature appears mixed, it is tentatively hypothesized that there will be a general inverse relation between intensity and post-exercise PAA improvement.
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Exercise duration Exercise of at least 20 min has been proposed for PAA improvement (Berger & Motl, 2000). However, individual studies (e.g., Blanchard, Rodgers, Courneya, & Spence, 2002; Petruzzello & Landers, 1994; Rudolph & Butki, 1998) and quantitative reviews (e.g., North, et al., 1990; Petruzzello, Landers, Hateld, Kubitz, & Salazar, 1991) do not appear to support this threshold duration. Shorter bouts (10 min) might result in better exercise adherence than longer bouts (e.g., Jakicic, Wing, Butler, & Robertson, 1995) and lack of time is a barrier to exercise participation (Trost, Owen, Bauman, Sallis, & Brown, 2002). The importance of shorter bouts for adherence and psychological benet should therefore be emphasized, but the effects of duration on post-exercise PAA have not been quantied across studies. Therefore, we hypothesized that there will be no differential effect of exercise time on PAA across typical exercise durations (e.g., 1540 min). Exercise dose Dose is the product of exercise frequency, intensity, and duration (Kesaniemi, et al., 2001). For acute exercise, dose is the product of intensity and duration. Establishing a doseresponse effect is one form of evidence for evaluating whether the exerciseaffect relationship might be interpreted as causal (Mondin et al., 1996). Practically, exercising at the dose likely to improve affect may lead to better exercise adherence (Dishman, 1995). An important point about dose is that the strenuousness of any exercise bout is a function of intensity and duration (McArdle, Katch, & Katch, 2001, p. 195) and therefore conclusions about exercise dose and affective change based on either intensity or duration alone may be misleading (He, 1998). Generally, studies employing low doses (e.g., Thayer, 1987a) nd short-term increases in PAA and those examining extreme bouts show decreases (e.g., Hassmen & Blomstrand, 1991). Based on this information, we hypothesize that there will be a general inverse relationship between dose and post-exercise PAA improvement. Post-exercise assessment time Post-exercise assessment time is an important consideration. For example, when affect is measured only once following a delay of several minutes, the results are limited because any immediate effects of the exercise bout may have dissipated (Ekkekakis & Petruzzello, 1999). Increases in PAA often peak within 5 min (e.g., Ekkekakis, et al., 2000; Petruzzello, Hall, & Ekkekakis, 2001; Petruzzello, Jones, & Tate, 1997; Steptoe & Bolton, 1988; Steptoe, Kearsley & Walters, 1993a), and remain signicantly elevated above baseline for 20 (e.g., Bixby et al., 2001; Van Landuyt, Ekkekakis, Hall, & Petruzzello, 2000) to 30 min (e.g., Steptoe & Bolton, 1988; Focht & Hausenblas, 2001), or longer (e.g., Daley & Welch, 2004). With the exception of extreme exercise, in which PAA is typically reduced after exercise (e.g., Acevedo, Gill, Goldfarb, & Boyer, 1996), the literature supports a pattern of initial improvement followed by gradually decreasing effects. The consistency of this pattern has been noted for both positive and negative affect (Ekkekakis & Petruzzello, 1999), but the magnitude of this pattern of change for PAA remains
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unknown. Therefore we expected to nd the largest effects within the rst 5-min post-exercise and lower effects thereafter. Study quality and source Study quality (internal validity) and source (published vs. unpublished) warrant examination. While Eysenck (1994) and Slavin (1986) contend studies with methodological faults should not be meta-analyzed, others disagree (Dickersin & Berlin, 1992; Glass, 1983; Hunter & Schmidt, 2004, p. 382). Excluding poorer quality and unpublished studies may produce inated results since journals tend to accept methodologically superior studies and studies with larger effects (e.g., Cook et al., 1992; Greenland, 1998; Hunter & Schmidt 1990, p. 509). Meta-analyses on exercise and negative affect have found either larger effects for studies with moderate levels of internal validity (North et al., 1990), or have failed to nd differences between validity levels (Long & Stavel, 1995; Petruzzello, et al., 1991). Findings are also equivocal for source. Differences between published and unpublished studies have been shown in some meta-analyses (Craft & Landers, 1998; North et al., 1990; Petruzzello et al.), but not in others (Arent, Landers, & Etnier, 2000; Long & Stavel, 1995). The conicting results and lack of comparative data for PAA preclude justication of a formal hypothesis for these two potential moderators.
Method Description of the database Searches were performed for studies on mood or affect in relation to aerobic exercise to include activities such as aerobic dance, walking, jogging, running, swimming, and cycling. Relevant English-language studies from 1979 to December 2005 were identied using computer databases (PsychINFO, ERIC, Medline, SPORTDiscus, World Cat, Pub Med, and Dissertation Abstracts International), manual searches of narrative reviews published between 1980 and 2003, quantitative reviews (e.g., McDonald & Hodgdon, 1991; North, et al., 1990; Petruzzello et al., 1991), and books (e.g., Biddle, 2000; Seraganian, 1993; Thayer, 1996; Watson, 2000). Reference lists of published articles, theses, and dissertations were examined for additional studies. We contacted the authors of all studies with missing information for the calculation of effect sizes (ESs), the standardized unit of analysis in meta-analysis. A total of 47 authors were contacted. Twenty-six authors responded, the others either did not respond or could not be located. Of those who responded, 13 provided the requested data. We included studies that assessed affect with scales considered representative of PAA. To avoid confounding theoretically separate constructs, we did not include scales representative of positive deactivated affect (lower right quadrant in Fig. 1). The right now time set represented 85.35% of the samples. Although time set was not reported in 14.65% of the samples, studies using extended time sets such as the today or past month were excluded. Table 1 lists the instruments and subscales contributing to the meta-analysis. The psychometric work of Yik et al. (1999) serves as a logical anchor for the inclusion of the affect subscales in Table 1. Briey, Yik et al., using structural equation modeling, found that
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J. Reed, D.S. Ones / Psychology of Sport and Exercise 7 (2006) 477514 Table 1 Mood instruments, subscales and effect sizes (ESs) contributing to the meta-analysis Instrument name (Reference) ActivationDeactivation Adjective Checklist (AD-ACL; Thayer, 1986) Brunel University Mood Scale (BRUMS; Terry, Lane, & Fogarty, 2003) Exercise-Induced Feeling Inventory (EFI; Gauvin & Rejeski, 1993) Eigenzustands-Skala (The Self-State Scale; Nitsch, 1976) Modied Morris Mood Questionnaire (Williamson et al., 2001) Mood Adjective Checklist (MACL; Nowlis, 1965) Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS; Watson et al., 1988) Prole of Mood States Bi-Polar (POMS-BI; Lorr & McNair, 1988) Prole of Mood States Long Form (POMS-LF; McNair et al., 1992)a Prole of Mood States Short Form (POMS-SF; McNair et al., 1992)b Stress Arousal Checklist (SACL; Makay, Cox, Grenville, & Lazzerini, 1978) Subjective Exercise Experiences Scale (SEES; McAuley & Courneya, 1994) UWIST Mood Adjective Checklist (UMACL; Matthews et al., 1990) Visual Analogue Mood Scale (VAS; Folstein & Luria, 1973) Subscale Energy Vigor Positive Engagement Revitalization Activation Positive Mood Pleasantness Activation Positive Affect Energetic-Tired Vigor Vigor Arousal Positive Well-Being Energetic Arousal Joy Euphoria ESs 137 9 72 5 6 4 84 6 15 23 2 140 2 6 483
Note: For instruments with two subscales, ESs were computed for each and the average of the two used in the metaanalysis. The POMS-Bi, SACL, UMACL, AD-ACL (bipolar version) and VAS are scored using bipolar format. We assumed that bipolar terms acted as reciprocal pairs such that a decrease in unpleasant deactivated states (e.g., tired, drowsy) resulted in a corresponding increase in pleasant activated states (e.g., active, lively) allowing for comparable ESs with the other unipolar scales in the database. Bipolar scales comprised 6% of the total number of ESs. a Additional versions of the POMS included: Prole of Mood States-A (POMS-A; Terry et al., 1999); Prole of Mood States-C (POMS-C; Terry et al., 1996); Prole of Mood States-Japanese Version (Yokoyama et al., 1990). b The analysis also included the POMS-SF versions of Grove and Prapavessis (1992) and Shacham (1983).
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FeldmanBarrett and Russells Activated (Feldman Barrett & Russell, 1998), Watson, Clark, and Tellegens Positive Affect (PA; Watson et al., 1988), Thayers Energy (Thayer, 1986), and Larsen and Dieners Activated Pleasant (Larsen & Diener, 1992), all fell within the quadrant of the affect circumplex we call PAA (see Yik et al. (1999, Fig. 6). We determined the number of affect terms from these subscales that matched terms in the subscales of the instruments listed in Table 1 and found the following: ActivationDeactivation Adjective Checklist (AD ACL; Thayer, 1986), 5 of 5, Brunel University Mood Scale (BRUMS; Terry et al., 2003), 4 of 4, Exercise-Induced Feeling Inventory (EFI; Gauvin & Rejeski, 1993), 3 of 6 (2 terms from Positive Engagement and 1 term from Revitalization), Eigenzustands-Skala (The Self-State Scale; Nitsch, 1976), 5 of 6, Modied Morris Questionnaire (Williamson, Dewey, & Steinberg, 2001), 6 of 8, Mood Adjective Checklist (MACL; Nowlis, 1965), 7 of 8, Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS; Watson et al., 1988), 10 of 10, Prole of Mood States Bipolar (POMS-BI; Lorr & McNair, 1988), 5 of 7, Prole of Mood States Long Form (POMS-LF; McNair, Lorr, & Droppleman, 1992), 6 of 8, Prole of Mood States Short Form (POMS-SF; McNair et al., 1992), 5 of 5, Stress Arousal Checklist (SACL; Makay, Cox, Burrows, & Lazzerini, 1978), 6 of 8, Subjective Exercise Experiences Scale (SEES; McAuley & Courneya, 1994), 1 of 4, UWIST Mood Adjective Checklist (UMACL; Matthews, Jones, & Chamberlain, 1990), 4 of 4, and Visual Analogue Mood Scale (VAS; Folstein & Luria, 1973), 3 of 3. For other versions of the POMS we found: POMS-A (Terry, Lane, Lane, & Keohane, 1999), 4 of 4, POMS-C (Terry, Keohane, & Lane, 1996), 4 of 4, Japanese POMS (Yokoyama, Araki, Kawakami, & Takeshita, 1990), 6 of 8, POMS-SF (Grove & Prapavessis, 1992), 5 of 6, and POMS-SF (Shacham, 1983), 5 of 6. Two subscales deserve further justication. First, although only the terms upbeat, refreshed, and revived of the 6 terms from the EFI Positive Engagement and Revitalization subscales were matches, Rejeski, Reboussin, Dunn, King, and Sallis (1999) argue for the inclusion of these subscales in the PAA quadrant (see Rejeski, et al., 1999, p. 98). To strengthen this argument, Positive Engagement and Revitalization correlate with PANAS PA at r :69 (po:001) and r :58 (po:001), respectively (see Gauvin & Rejeski, 1993). Second, for the SEES, while only the term strong on the Positive Well-Being (PWB) subscale was a match, we believe the other terms, great, positive, and terric, qualify as positively activated. In support of our position that PWB should occupy the PAA quadrant, McAuley and Courneya (1994) found that PWB correlated with PANAS PA (r :71, po:01). Finally, Lox, Jackson, Tuholski, Wasley, and Treasure (2000) found high correlations between the SEES PWB and EFI Revitalization (r :81, po:01), SEES PWB and EFI Positive Engagement (r :78, po:01), and EFI Revitalization and Positive Engagement (r :86, po:01) indicating a substantial amount of common variability between these subscales and suggesting a common underlying construct. Thus, based on logical, semantic, and statistical grounds, we believe the subscales in Table 1 are representative of PAA. We excluded studies where investigators introduced confounders before the post-exercise assessment such as mental arithmetic (e.g., Szabo et al., 1993), or manipulation of efcacy expectations (e.g., McAuley, Talbot, & Martinez, 1999). Table 2 lists studies of potential relevance that were eventually excluded. Studies with similar authors were evaluated for sample overlap. When sample overlap occurred, studies with more complete data were included. Duplicate articles were excluded. The database included 158 studies and 450 independent ESs with a sample size of 13,103 (total number of ESs was 711). Study year ranged from 1979 to 2005 (M 1997:10; SD 5.20). Age
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J. Reed, D.S. Ones / Psychology of Sport and Exercise 7 (2006) 477514 Table 2 Relevant studies not included in the meta-analysis Study Allen and Desmond (1987) Annesi (2002a) Barabasz (1991) Berger et al. (1988) Berger and Owen (1988) Berger and Owen (1992b) Bird (1981) Boutcher and Landers (1988) Butki et al. (2003) Courneya and McAuley (1993) Daniel et al. (1992) Fallon and Hausenblas (2005) Fillingim et al. (1992) Friedman and Berger (1991) Gurley, Neuringer, and Massee (1984) Hobson and Rejeski (1993) Hochstetler et al. (1985) Jin (1989) Jin (1992) Jerome et al. (2002) Johnson (1994) Kell et al. (1993) Kerr and Svebak (1994) Kerr and Vlaswinkel (1993) Kilpatrick, Hebert, Bartholomew, Hollander, and Stromberg (2003) LaCaille et al. (2004) Laguna and Dobbert (2002) Lane et al. (2005) Lichtman and Poser (1983) McAuley et al. (1999) McAuley et al. (2000) McGowan et al. (1985) McIntyre et al. (1990) Moore (1997) Morris and Salmon (1994) Naruse and Hirai (2000) Nelson (1994) Otto (1990) Oweis and Spinks (2001) Pernell (1997) Parente (2000) Reason for exclusion Dependent t test; prepost correlation not reported. Insufcient data for ES calculation. POMS Vigor not reported. POMS Vigor nor reported. POMS Vigor means and SDs not reported. POMS Vigor not reported. Insufcient data for ES calculation. POMS Vigor not reported. Affect assessed only post-exercise. Affect assessed only post-exercise. Dependent t test; prepost correlation not reported. Positive affect not assessed. Post-exercise POMS confounded by imagery manipulation. POMS Vigor means and SDs not reported. Dependent t test; prepost correlation not reported. Post-exercise PANAS confounded by mental stressor. Affect assessed only pre-exercise. POMS means and SDs not reported. POMS means and SDs not reported. Post-exercise affect confounded by efcacy manipulation. POMS Vigor not reported. Insufcient data for ES calculation. SACL SDs not reported. SACL SDs not reported. Affect assessed only post-exercise. Affect assessed only post-exercise. Affect assessed only post-exercise. Post-exercise BRUMS not reported POMS Vigor SDs not reported. Post-exercise affect confounded by efcacy manipulation. Insufcient data for ES calculation. Affect assessment confounded by mental stressor PANAS SDs not reported. Post-exercise affect confounded by distraction and mastery information. Positive affect SDs not reported. Prepost UWIST MACL scores not reported. Positive affect not reported. Post-exercise affect assessment confounded by induced mood. AD-ACL means and SDs not reported. Unable to determine exercise type. Insufcient data for ES calculation. 485
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486 Table 2 (continued ) Study Prusaczyk et al. (1992) Rehor et al. (2001) Rejeski et al. (1991) Rejeski et al. (1991) Rocheleau et al. (2004) Rosenfeld (1998) Rudolph and McAuley (1996) Sakolfske et al. (1992) Steinberg et al. (1997) Steptoe and Bolton (1988) Steptoe and Cox (1988) Steptoe et al. (1993b) Szabo et al. (1993) Takenaka (1993) Thayer (1987a) Thayer et al. (1993) Tredway (1978) Turnbull and Wolfson (2002) Tuson et al. (1995) Vasilaros (1988) Watson (1988) Reason for exclusion Unable to determine when affect was assessed relative to exercise bout. Insufcient data for ES calculation. Post-exercise POMS confounded with introduction of stress task. AD-ACL SDs not reported. Positive affect not assessed. Prepost SEES means and SDs not reported. Affect assessed only pre-exercise. AD-ACL SDs not reported. Dependent t test; pre-post correlation not reported. POMS Vigor SDs not reported. POMS Vigor SDs not reported. Post-exercise POMS Vigor means and SDs not reported. Affect assessment confounded by mental stressors. Insufcient data for ES calculation. AD ACL SDs not reported. Dependent t test; prepost correlation not reported. Affect scale SDs not reported. Prepost POMS means and SDs not reported. Insufcient data for ES calculation. POMS Vigor SDs not reported. Temporal sequence of exercise and affect not given. J. Reed, D.S. Ones / Psychology of Sport and Exercise 7 (2006) 477514
Note: Contact the rst author at ereed@csu.edu to obtain a complete list of all studies reviewed.
was reported in 91.80% of the studies with a mean age of 24.47 (SD 11.64). Gender was reported in 97.00% of the studies. Male participants comprised 22.40%, female participants 34.90%, and mixed gender 39.70% (mixed gender was dened as having less than 75% of either gender). Participant source was provided in 97.80% of the studies. College students represented 62.40% of samples, community samples 19.00%, athletes 7.80%, clinical participants 3.90%, and mixed samples of faculty, staff and students, 4.70%. Studies conducted in the US represented 74.68% of the ESs, those from the UK, 10.73%, Canada, 4.29%, Australia and Japan, 3.43%, Sweden, 1.72, Korea, 1.29, and Estonia, Greece, and Norway .43%. Coding Baseline PAA We examined the inuence of pre-exercise affect using the following method. First, we copied affect scale names, pre-exercise means, and sample size values from the original database to a separate database then sorted by affect scale name. Because some affect scales had a relatively small number of pre-exercise means, we increased the number of pre-exercise means for these scales by adding pre-exercise means from studies not included in the meta-analysis and from normative data reported in test manuals. Distribution sample sizes ranged from 180 for the
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POMS-LF (McNair et al., 1992) to 6 for the MACL (Nowlis, 1965) and the VAS (Folstein & Luria, 1973). Next, in order to compare ESs associated with pre-exercise means from different affect scales, we standardized the pre-exercise means for each affect scale by computing separate sets of z-scores with the sample-size weighted mean and SD from the respective scale. Scores from instruments with more than one version or alternative scoring methods were converted to the same scale before calculating z-scores. Each z score was then placed in the original database in a new column next to the appropriate pre-exercise mean. Z scores were then sorted from low to high and divided into three groups: less than .5z, .5z to .5z, and greater than .5z. This procedure allowed for a comparison of ESs between samples of participants having average pre-exercise affect scores either in the lower third (less than .5 z), middle third (.5 z to .5 z), or upper third (greater than .5 z) of the distribution for the affect scale on which they were assessed. Exercise intensity and duration Intensity was coded using the classication system of the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM). In this system, intensity can be classied as a percentage of oxygen uptake reserve (%VO2R), a relative measure of intensity, which permits consistent coding of intensity whether expressed as percent oxygen uptake (%VO2max), heart rate, or perceived exertion (Howley, 2001). When necessary, we converted %VO2max to %VO2R using the appropriate equations (see Swain & Leutholtz, 1997; Swain, Leutholtz, King, Haas, & Branch, 1998). The database allowed for the formation of low (1539% VO2R), moderate (4059% VO2R), and high (6085% VO2R) categories based on these guidelines (see Howley, 2001). We coded intensity as moderate for the 5 studies in the database where participants self-selected exercise intensity. Duration was coded in minutes of exercise, excluding the warm-up and cool-down. Exercise dose We quantied dose as the product of the relative exercise intensity and duration. The following four dose categories were formed from natural gaps in dose values: (a) low, 1030 min low intensity to 720 min moderate intensity, (b) moderate, 3040 min moderate intensity to 2030 min high intensity, (c) high, 6090 min moderate intensity to 4060 min high intensity, (d) very high, 1801400 min moderate to 300 min of high intensity exercise. Post-exercise assessment time Post-exercise assessment times were coded for all ESs. We sorted post-exercise times and created intervals based on natural breaks in the coded values: 02, 510, 1530, and 401440 min post-exercise. Additional ESs were available for this moderator because all individual ESs for each time interval were entered instead of being averaged as in the overall analysis. Study quality and source Based on questions concerning the use of a control group, randomization procedures, etc., we coded the number of threats to internal validity that investigators attempted to control, a higher number indicating greater internal validity and study quality. The following threats were considered: history, maturation, testing, statistical regression, selection bias, experimental mortality, compensatory rivalry, resentful demoralization, Hawthorne effect, demand characteristics, halo effect, and expectancy effect (see Cook & Campbell, 1979; Thomas & Nelson, 2001).
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Due to limited drop out rates, experimental mortality was controlled in 86% of the studies. Maturation and selection bias were controlled in 63% of the studies, followed by testing (62.30%), history (51.30%), statistical regression (50.60%), compensatory rivalry, resentful demoralization, Hawthorne effects and demand characteristics (13.60%), and halo and expectancy effects (2.60%). To address publication bias, we coded source as an unpublished masters thesis or doctoral dissertation, or as a published journal article or abstract. It should be noted that the database contained only two abstracts both from the same author who we corresponded with concerning this information. Thus, we feel condent the abstract data does not bias the results of the source moderator analysis. Coder reliability The rst author recoded 12 randomly selected studies 2 weeks after the coding phase for data relevant to the results (moderator variables, reliability coefcients, sample sizes, and ESs). Data that could be coded without error such as publication dates were not included to avoid overestimating coder reliability (Kuncel, Hezlett, & Ones, 2001). The agreement rate was 99.10% (464 agreements out of 468 items). Two discrepancies involved estimating the length of the warmup and cool-down resulting in exercise durations that differed by about 2 min between the recoded and original values. An internal validity disagreement resulted from not recoding a threat controlled for in one of the studies (the Hawthorne effect). A reliability difference occurred in a study using the Exercise-Induced Feeling Inventory (EFI; Gauvin & Rejeski, 1993). This inventory required Mosiers formula (Hunter & Schmidt, 2004, p. 438) to estimate reliability from two subscales. The recalculated reliability differed trivially from the original (87 vs. .89). Coding errors were therefore minor and agree with prior research on the reliability of meta-analytic data (Zakzanis, 1998).
Analysis The data were analyzed with the Hunter and Schmidt (1990, 2004) meta-analytic method. This method employs a random effects approach, which, unlike the xed-effects model, allows for the possibility that population effects vary from to study to study (Hedges, 1992). Because varying population effects appear to be the rule rather than the exception for most real-world data, the random-effects model is preferred to xed-effects models and procedures (Field, 2003; Hunter & Schmidt, 2000). The Hunter and Schmidt method corrects ESs for the attenuating effects of error such as measurement unreliability and provides an estimate of the amount of ES variance due to sampling error and other artifacts. Calculation of ESs Mean values and pooled standard deviations (SDp) were used to calculate ESs. The use of SDp resulted in Cohens d statistic (Cohen, 1977). For within-subjects study designs, the following within-subjects ESs were calculated: prepost treatment, prepost control, pre-treatment vs. precontrol and post-treatment vs. post-control. For between-subjects study designs both within and
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between-subjects ESs were calculated. The between-subject ESs included pre-treatment vs. precontrol and post-treatment vs. post-control and the within-subjects ESs included prepost treatment and prepost control. For studies having both within and between ESs, the average was entered to maintain statistical independence (Hunter & Schmidt, 2004, p. 431). Three r-values were converted to ds using formulas described by Hunter and Schmidt (2004, Chapter 7). Within ESs comprised 75.33% of the total number of ESs, between 17.68%, average of within and between 6.57%, and r-values .42%, respectively. Effect size calculations based on paired t and F ratios from studies without the necessary means and SDs were not included because r-values were not reported in these studies. Calculation of ESs for paired-sample data without appropriate r-values results in an upward bias of the effect (Dunlap, Cortina, Vaslow, & Burke, 1996). Each ES was weighted by the study sample size and corrected for measurement error using the affect scale internal consistency reliability (a) reported in the study. When the reliability was not reported, the internal consistency reliability either from the validation study for the affect scale or from the appropriate test manual was used. Descriptive statistics for the internal consistency reliabilities for the main meta-analyses are presented in Table 3. Further corrections were made for small sample size bias, unequal sample size, and treatment by subject interaction (Hunter & Schmidt, 2004, pp. 266, 279, 282). Sampling error variance was calculated separately for within and between ESs (Hunter & Schmidt, 2004, p. 305, 370) and the average sampling error variance of a within and between ES was entered when appropriate for a particular study. Most data sets contain errors, which can arise from various sources such as transcriptional or computational mistakes (Gulliksen, 1986). Some of these data errors are likely to be outliers (Schmidt, et al., 1993) and any meta-analysis containing a large number of ESs should be examined for outliers to eliminate cases of bad data (Hunter & Schmidt, 1990, p. 262). Unlike other approaches, the Hunter and Schmidt method employs a random effects model that focuses on the accurate estimation of the standard deviation of population ESs (SDcorr) because they play an important role in the interpretation of the results of the meta-analysis (Hunter & Schmidt, 1990, p. 453). Unfortunately, the presence of a single outlier can bias the estimation of SDcorr by producing variance above that predicted by sampling error and other artifacts (Schmidt, et al., 1993). Therefore, we employed Tukeys (1977) method to identify and omit outlier ESs prior to the meta-analyses. This method is roughly equivalent to removing values greater than 2.5 SDs from the mean, a common benchmark for outliers (Kirk, 1995, p. 169).
Table 3 Descriptive statistics for internal consistency reliabilities (a) for the main meta-analyses Artifact distribution Pre-exercise vs. pre-control Pre-post control Pre-post exercise N 2666 1666 8362 K 66 66 230 Mean a .89 .89 .89 SD a .02 .04 .03 Mean .95 .94 .94 p a SD .01 .02 .01 p a
Note: N, total number of participants; K, number of reliability values in the distribution; Mean a, average alpha p p reliability; SD a, standard deviation of alpha reliabilities; Mean a, average square root of alpha reliabilities; SD a, standard deviation of the square root of alpha reliabilities.
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Meta-analyses We computed the following for all meta-analyses (including moderator analyses): total sample obs 95% condence obs ), d size (N), number of ESs (K), mean sample-size weighted observed ES (d interval (95% CI), mean sample-size weighted corrected ES (d corr ), corrected standard deviation (SDcorr), residual standard deviation (SDres), percent of dobs variance due to sampling error corr fail-safe N (d fs ). The d corr fail-safe N (%Vare), 90% credibility interval (90% CrI), and d estimates the number of unlocated ESs with null results needed to reduce d corr to the lowest critical ES considered practically or theoretically important (Hunter & Schmidt, 2004, p. 500; corr and Orwin, 1983). The critical ES was set at .20, considered a small effect (Cohen, 1988). The d SDcorr were interpreted as best estimates of the population parameters. We employed a random effects model for the calculation of the 95% CI, which provided an obs . The 90% CrI represents a distribution containing 90% of estimate of the sampling error in d the true population values of d. The SDcorr and the 90% CrI were used to identify moderators. corr and the 90% CrI The width of the 90% CrI depends on SDcorr. If SDcorr is large relative to d includes zero, d corr is the mean of several population parameters, indicating the presence of corr estimates a single population parameter moderators. If the 90% CrI does not include zero, d corr is and moderators are not operating (Whitener, 1990). This interval also determines whether d a generalizable effect. When the 90% CrI does not include zero, the magnitude of ESs may vary, but 90% of the true ESs will retain a positive sign (or a negative sign for negative ESs) and generalize across settings (Ones, Viswesvaran, & Schmidt, 1993). Overall meta-analyses The rst meta-analysis compared exercise and control groups prior to treatment using between and within ESs. We tested pre-activity equivalence because large differences may confound conclusions about moderator variables associated with exercise groups. For this meta-analysis, positive ESs indicated greater average PAA in exercise samples. The second meta-analysis tested pre- to post-changes for control samples using within ESs. Attention controls such as lecture contributed 90.62% and activity controls such as very light exercise 6.25% of the control ESs, respectively. Control type was not reported for 3.13% of the control ESs. The third meta-analysis examined prepost changes in PAA across exercise samples using within, between, and average of within and between ESs, the majority being within ESs. Positive ESs reected increased PAA relative to baseline. For all analyses, the average ES was entered for studies with multiple post- or post-exercise assessments to ensure independence and we used the study sample sizes as the weight for the average ES (Hunter & Schmidt, 2004, p. 432). Moderator analyses As a rst step, a moderator variable correlation matrix was generated to explore the possibility that moderators were substantially intercorrelated, making the results difcult to interpret. Next, the appropriate ES subgroups for each moderator variable were meta-analyzed. Moderators were corr values and changes in the SDcorr across explored by examining differences between d moderator subgroupings (Hunter & Schmidt, 2004, p. 293). The 90% CrI values were used to determine the generalizability of a subgroup effect, or to suggest the presence of additional unexamined moderators.
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Results Overall meta-analyses corr :05 Pre-test differences between exercise and control groups were very small, d (SDcorr .10). This indicates that on average, there was only .05 of a SD difference in selfreported PAA between exercise and control samples prior to experimental conditions. It appears safe to assume equivalence between groups on the dependent variable at pre-test. The mean corrected ES of .17 (SDcorr .25) for the control group meta-analysis indicated that control obs for exercise groups was .45 (95% conditions are associated with small decreases in PAA. The d CI: .40 to .50) and the d corr was .47 (SDcorr .37), which is a robust, moderate ES, nearly four times that associated with control samples. The SDcorr suggests the presence of moderators and the 90% CrI included zero indicating that the effects of exercise on PAA do not generalize. Failsafe Ns of 48297 suggest good tolerance to availability bias. That is, 48 additional ESs with a corr of .40 for prepost corr of .40 for pre-exercise vs. pre-control, and 117 additional ESs with a d d corr values to control would have to be found and included in the analysis to increase the current d .20, the critical ES we set based on Cohens (1988) criterion. For prepost exercise, 297 additional corr to .20. corr of .00 would have to be found and included to reduce the current d ESs with a d Results are presented in Table 4. Moderator analyses Results for moderator correlations are presented rst, followed by baseline PAA, exercise characteristics, study quality, and source. Table 5 displays the moderator correlations and correlations between moderators and corrected ESs (dcorr). Tables 6 and 7 display results for baseline PAA, exercise characteristics, post-exercise assessments time, study quality, and source. Moderator correlations The majority of correlations were small to negligible, suggesting moderator variables were unrelated. As anticipated, however, duration and dose were moderately correlated indicating the general inuence of duration on dose. The number of threats controlled was inversely related to
Table 4 Overall meta-analyses of the effects of acute exercise on post-exercise positive activated affect Analysis Pre-exercise vs. pre-control Prepost control Prepost exercise N 2582 1602 8094 K 64 63 223 obs d .05 .17 .45 95% CI .02 to .12 .23 to .10 .40 to .50 corr d .05 .17 .47 SDcorr .10 .25 .37 SDres .10 .25 .35 %Vare 88.28 18.54 17.64 90% CrI .08 to .18 .49 to .14 .01 to .94 fs d 48 117 297
obs , mean sample-size weighted observed ES; 95% CI, d obs 95% Note: N, total sample size; K, number of ESs; d corr , mean sample-size weighted corrected ES; SDcorr, sample-sized weighted corrected standard condence interval; d deviation; SDres, residual standard deviation; %Vare, percent of dobs variance due to sampling and measurement error; fs , d corr fail-safe N with d critical :20, d unlocated :00 for d corr values above .20 and 90% CrI, 90% credibility interval; d corr values below .20. Boldface entries are best estimates of the population mean ES. unlocated :40 for d d
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Table 5 Intercorrelations between moderators and moderators and corrected ESs Moderator 1. Baseline PAA 2. Exercise intensity 3. Exercise duration 4. Exercise dose 5. Post-exercise assessment time 6. Threats controlled 7. Publication status 8. Corrected ES (dcorr) 1 2 .06 (167) 3 .11 (195) .05 (180) 4 .12 (166) .03 (180) .69 (180) 5 .01 (196) .10 (179) .20 (205) .21 (179) 6 .02 (197) .04 (185) .24 (216) .26 (180) .01 (218) 7 .09 (200) .04 (185) .08 (216) .08 (180) .09 (218) .03 (227) 8 .20 (200) .11 (185) .40 (216) .44 (180) .14 (218) .28 (227) .11 (230)
Note: All moderators were correlated using actual coded values such as time (min) for duration, except for publication status where published 1 and unpublished 2. Values in parentheses are sample sizes.
duration and dose. This shows that studies with greater internal validity (e.g., Petruzzello & Tate, 1997; Van Landuyt et al., 2000), typically conducted in a lab setting, tended to employ shorter bouts, while most of the higher dose longer duration studies were conducted outside a laboratory with less experimental control (e.g., Odagiri, Shimomitsu, Iwane, & Katsumura, 1996). Most moderators were inversely related to dcorr with an exception being the number of internal validity threats controlled suggesting a trend toward higher ESs in studies with greater internal validity. Baseline PAA We had hypothesized larger effects for lower baseline scores. Individuals reporting less favorable pre-exercise affect experienced greater affective improvement than those reporting a corr more favorable affect (e.g., Partt, Rose, Markland, 2000; Nabetani & Tokunaga, 2001). The d for the lower third of the distribution was .63 (SDcorr .37), nearly twice the magnitude of the other two categories and the 90% CrI did not include zero, indicating that lower than average baseline scores produce generalizable increases in PAA. The smaller effects associated with higher baseline scores were not confounded by studies examining extreme bouts. The 90% CrI for the middle and upper third of the distribution included zero indicating the presence of additional moderators. The ndings show that when baseline affect is below average, aerobic exercise results in consistent, generalizable increases in PAA, in line with our hypothesis. Exercise intensity We had tentatively hypothesized a general inverse relation between intensity and post-exercise corr of .57 (SDcorr .33) for low intensity (e.g, Ekkekakis et al., 2000; PAA improvement. The d Thayer, 1987b) was nearly twice that of moderate (e.g., Partt & Gledhill, 2004; Reed et al., 1998)
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J. Reed, D.S. Ones / Psychology of Sport and Exercise 7 (2006) 477514 Table 6 Moderator analyses for baseline PAA, exercise characteristics, and post-exercise assessment times Analysis Baseline PAA o.5 z .5 z to .5 z 4.5 z N K obs d .60 .33 .39 .54 .34 .31 .49 .55 .44 .55 .36 .72 .36 .44 .46 .09 .98 .48 .60 .41 .27 .09 .52 95% CI corr d .63 .34 .39 .57 .35 .31 .53 .56 .46 .57 .37 .72 .38 .45 .46 .09 .98 .52 .61 .43 .27 .10 .58 SDcorr .37 .30 .32 .33 .39 .42 .31 .38 .31 .33 .31 .66 .14 .30 .34 .27 .37 .32 .40 .35 .34 .31 .21 SDres .35 .29 .32 .31 .38 .42 .29 .37 .30 .32 .30 .66 .13 .29 .34 .27 .37 .30 .39 .33 .34 .29 .19 %Vare 18.97 24.24 23.45 22.71 14.70 12.48 21.69 16.51 25.20 19.94 30.15 5.28 41.72 26.51 21.07 36.31 15.99 20.30 13.89 17.10 19.28 25.01 34.16 90% CrI fs d 162 47 48 42 70 29 67 56 91 113 29 55 12 92 108 8 35 65 179 125 21 15 27 493
2861 2159 1686
75 66 49 23 91 60 41 33 69 62 35 12 13 73 82 15 6 41 timea 87 110 57 29 14
.51 to .69 .25 to .41 .30 to .48 .40 .26 .20 .39 .41 .36 .46 .24 1.11 .27 .36 .37 .07 1.31 .38 .51 .34 .17 .03 .40 to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to .69 .43 .43 .59 .68 .52 .64 .48 .33 .45 .52 .54 .26 .66 .58 .68 .48 .37 .21 .64
.16 to 1.10 .04 to .72 .02 to .79 .16 .14 .22 .13 .07 .07 .15 .02 1.56 .21 .06 .02 .25 1.45 .11 .10 .03 .16 .28 .32 to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to .98 .85 .84 .92 1.05 .86 .99 .76 .13 .56 .84 .91 .43 .51 .92 1.12 .88 .71 .48 .85
Exercise intensity Low 748 Moderate 2732 High 1679 Not reported 2578 Exercise duration (min) 7 to 15 1317 20 to 28 2063 30 to 35 1940 40 to 60 1323 475 331 Not reported 1102 Exercise dose Low Moderate High Very high Not reported 2447 2146 279 216 2754
Post-exercise assessment 0 to 2 3512 5 to 10 3184 15 to 30 1744 40 to 1440 677 Not reported 1033
obs , mean sample-size weighted observed ES; 95% CI, d obs 95% Note: N, total sample size; K, number of ESs; d condence interval; d corr , mean sample-size weighted corrected ES; SDcorr, sample-sized weighted corrected standard deviation; SDres, residual standard deviation; %Vare, percent of dobs variance due to sampling and measurement error; fs , d corr fail-safe N with d critical :20, d unlocated :00 for d corr values above .20 and 90% CrI, 90% credibility interval; d d unlocated :40 for d corr values below .20. Boldface entries are best estimates of the population mean ES. a Post-exercise assessment time in minutes (min).
and high (e.g., Springer, Bartholomew, & Loukas, 2003; Steptoe, et al., 1993a) lending support to the tentative hypothesis of larger effects for lower intensity aerobic exercise. Based on the 90% credibility intervals, effects for low intensity also generalize across settings while those for moderate and high intensity do not. Large SDcorr values leave room for additional moderators, especially for moderate and high intensities. One possible moderator for high-intensity aerobic exercise is tness level. Ekkekakis and Petruzzello (1999) have suggested that affective benets following high-intensity exercise occur
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Table 7 Moderator analyses for study quality and source information Analysis N K obs d .28 .47 .49 .47 .26 .45 95% CI corr d .30 .49 .50 .49 .26 .47 SDcorr .45 .25 .29 .48 .37 .39 SDres .42 .24 .28 .46 .37 .37 %Vare 5.13 43.61 31.11 12.83 15.62 18.59 90% CrI fs d 33 37 162 23 14 252
Threats controlled 12 2687 34 1267 56 3202 710 489 Source Unpublished Published 1173 7082
67 25 107 16 44 184
.17 .35 .43 .23
to to to to
.38 .60 .55 .71
.28 .17 .14 .12
to to to to
.88 .81 .87 1.09
.14 to .38 .39 to .51
.22 to .74 .03 to .97
obs , mean sample-size weighted observed ES; 95% CI, d obs 95% Note: N, total sample size; K, number of ESs; d corr , mean sample-size weighted corrected ES; SDcorr, sample-sized weighted corrected standard condence interval; d deviation; SDres, residual standard deviation; %Vare, percent of dobs variance due to sampling and measurement error; fs , d corr fail-safe N with d critical :20, d unlocated :00 for d corr values above .20 and 90% CrI, 90% credibility interval; d corr values below .20. Boldface entries are best estimates of the population mean ES. unlocated :40 for d d
only for t participants. To test this claim, we recoded high-intensity ESs for tness level (active corr :48 (SDcorr .39), vs. sedentary) and found a difference in the predicted direction: active d sedentary d corr :14 (SDcorr .30). In sum, low-intensity effects were generalizable and larger than moderate and high-intensity exercise. Some caution is warranted in interpreting the lowintensity subsample results because the smaller K can result in greater sampling error and a less stable ES estimate. Exercise duration We had hypothesized that there would be no differential effect of exercise time on PAA across corr values for bouts from 7 to 60 min were within typical exercise durations (e.g., 1540 min). All d .20 of a SD, providing support for the hypothesis of no differential effect of exercise duration on post-exercise PAA. Additional moderators may be operating due to the relatively large SDcorr values. Generalizable effects were found for bouts ranging from 7 to 35 min, although the lower bound 90% CrI values for bouts less than 30 min were close to zero. Bouts from 40 to 60 min produce increases, (e.g., Bodin & Hartig, 2003; Janal, Colt, Clark, & Glusman, 1984; McInman & Berger, 1993), but effects do not generalize. Exercise durations longer than 75 min likely result in decreased PAA (e.g., Hassmen & Blomstrand, 1991), but the smaller K for this subsample warrants some caution in the interpretation of the results. corr :57, SDcorr .33). To assess the The 3035 min duration produced the largest effect (d extent to which higher ESs associated with studies using lower intensity bouts inuenced this generalizable result, we correlated ESs and intensity for this subsample. The correlation was small and in the opposite direction of the expected confounding inuence: r (60) .15, p .25, adding to the strength of the generaliziblity of this nding. Ekkekakis and Petruzzello (1999) also point out that duration effects may be difcult to substantiate because many studies assess affect several minutes after exercise, potentially allowing duration effects to subside. To address this, we also analyzed duration using the same time
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intervals with only the 87 ESs measuring affect within 2 min post-exercise and found comparable results: ESs ranged from .60 to .37 for bouts from 7 to 15 and 4060 min, respectively, and all 95% condence and 90% credibility intervals were comparable. Exercise dose We had hypothesized a general inverse relation between dose and post-exercise PAA corr values of .98 (SDcorr .37) for very high, .46 (SDcorr .34) for improvement. The d moderate, and .45 (SDcorr .30) for low doses, supports the hypothesis of an inverse relation between exercise dose and ES. The lower 90% credibility values for low and moderate doses are close to zero, indicating that while not likely to be negative, effects may be small in some instances. Moderators inuence high dose effects due to the large SDcorr and the 90% CrI straddling zero. Very high doses are associated with reduced post-exercise PAA that generalizes across settings. That is, in most situations, very high doses of aerobic exercise result in at least temporary reductions in PAA below baseline scores (e.g., Hassmen & Blomstrand, 1991; Knapik et al., 1991). Note that the high and very high dose subsample analyses are based on small sample sizes (K) and should be interpreted with some caution. Post-exercise assessment time We had expected to nd the largest effects within 5 min post-exercise and lower effects thereafter. PAA peaked shortly after exercise then declined, a result in line with the hypothesis. corr from .61 (02 min) to .10 (401440 min) and the associated change in SDcorr The reduction in d across intervals suggest a moderating effect of post-exercise assessment time. The immediate postexercise increase generalized, but the 90% credibility intervals for the other subsamples indicate that a declining pattern across the time intervals examined might not hold in all settings (e.g., Cox, Thomas, & Davis, 2001; Tate, 1991) and may be dependent on unexamined moderators. The 401440 min subsample results are based a relatively small K and should interpreted with some caution. In sum, the results show that post-exercise assessment time is an important consideration in the interpretation and comparison of these studies. Study quality and source There was no hypothesis for these two potential moderators. A positive relationship emerged between ESs and the number of threats controlled suggesting a trend toward greater effects for studies attempting to control more threats to internal validity (e.g., Jarvekulg & Viru, 2002; Van Landuyt et al., 2000). It should be noted, however, that the potential moderating effect of study quality is tempered by the almost complete overlap of the 90% credibility intervals. This result indicates that population ESs across the categories occupy nearly the same range of values. The results for the 34 and 710 threats controlled subsamples should be interpreted with some caution because of the relatively small K in these categories. There were 184 and 44 ESs associated with published and unpublished studies, respectively. The d corr for published studies of .47 (SDcorr .39) was nearly double that for unpublished studies at .26 (SDcorr .37). However, the overlapping 90% CrI indicate that the potential moderating fs ) for unpublished effect of source is not as apparent at the population level. The fail-safe N (d studies also points to the possibility of a le drawer effect inuencing this moderator analysis. That is, there is a reasonable possibility of 14 additional unlocated theses or dissertations with
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corr to the critical corr of .00 in le drawers that, if added to the analysis, would reduce the d d value of .20.
Discussion The results indicate that, in general, exercise is associated with increased PAA. This corr :47). The improvement is nearly one half of a SD higher after exercise than before (d corr :17). On typical control condition produces decreases in PAA of about one fth of a SD (d corr :05). average, exercise and control groups do not report different pre-test levels of PAA (d These ndings provide support for the favorable effects of exercise on positively activated affective states. Studies with individuals having pre-exercise scores in the lower third of the distribution were corr for associated with greater increases in PAA than those in the middle and upper thirds. The d lower pre-exercise scores was nearly twice that of the other two levels and generalizes across participants and settings. This difference held for observed and corrected ESs, supporting the hypothesis that baseline scores moderate PAA (see Rejeski et al., 1995). An important implication of this nding is the practical application of exercise as a self-regulatory strategy to improve feelings of energy and positive affect (Thayer, 1996). Our results challenge suggestions of a moderate intensity threshold for optimal PAA benets because moderate and high-intensity exercise produced similar, non-generalizable post-exercise improvements that were smaller on average than those for low-intensity exercise. For lowintensity exercise, reviewers often cite Thayer (1987a) who found that short bouts of brisk walking signicantly increased feelings of energy. Recently, Ekkekakis et al. (2000) replicated these ndings across different measures and exercise settings. Our data agree: low-intensity exercise produced generalizable improvements, a nding with implications for exercise adherence. Overall, the results agree with the narrative literature for low-intensity exercise. We found little evidence to support a moderate intensity threshold or inverted-U hypothesis. Exercise of at least 2030 min has been suggested as a duration threshold for improvement of PAA (Berger & Motl, 2000). This meta-analysis suggests that shorter and longer bouts, even up to 60 min, result in affective improvement while decreases are likely for durations longer than 75 min, results that remained even when the effects were controlled for post-exercise assessment time. In agreement with quantitative reviews on negative affect (e.g., Craft & Landers, 1998; Landers, 1997; North et al., 1990; Petruzzello et al., 1991), our results do not provide evidence to support a threshold hypothesis for typical exercise duration. In line with public health recommendations regarding dose to improve exercise adherence (e.g., USDHHS, 1996) low doses were generally associated with improved PAA. Identical results were found for moderate doses, which may consist of 30 min of higher intensity exercise, as dened in this meta-analysis. Low and moderate doses represent optimal zones for PAA change because improvements tend to generalize. High doses represent an unstable zone. This level resulted in nearly null effects on average, but may produce improvements or decrements depending on moderators such as tness level (see Ekkekakis & Petruzzello, 1999) or other individual differences related to the preference and tolerance of various exercise intensities (see Ekkekakis, Hall, & Petruzzello, 2005b). Another explanation for the instability at high doses may be related
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to the method of dening exercise intensity. For example, higher exercise intensities (e.g., X70% VO2max) associated with higher doses may force many less t participants to rely more heavily on anaerobic processes, resulting in greater physiological and perceptual discomfort during, and less positive affect post-exercise, compared to more t individuals, even though the relative intensity of the exercise stimulus is the same for all participants (see Bixby et al., 2001; Ekkekakis & Petruzzello, 1999). This potential metabolic response variability within samples may have produced smaller ESs in samples with a greater percentage of participants exercising above the aerobicanaerobic transition and larger ESs for samples with a greater percentage of participants exercising at or below the aerobicanaerobic transition. Individual metabolic response variability may therefore explain some of the instability around the null effect for high doses. A shift to dening exercise intensity relative to the aerobicanaerobic transition may help clarify affective responses to higher doses. Very high doses, bouts outside the norm of a typical exercise session, represent an aversive zone. These bouts are associated with substantial physiological and psychological fatigue resulting in short-term affective decrements in nearly all situations. Dose results point to the importance of understanding affective changes as a function of intensity and duration together (He, 1998). In contrast to the generally positive effects found for intensity and duration separately, a clear interaction effect occurred with dose whereby corrected ESs dropped dramatically from low and moderate to high doses. Inspection of the database revealed that the decline in ES magnitude started at 40 min, as intensity increased from ESs coded as moderate intensity at 40 min (upper end of moderate dose) to those coded as high intensity at 40 min (lower end of high dose), a result not apparent from duration or intensity effects alone. Explanations for this obvious drop in post-exercise PAA may be related to peripheral and central factors associated with fatigue such as changes in blood glucose (Coyle, Coggan, Hemmert, & Ivy, 1986), or brain serotonin (Davis & Bailey, 1997). The psychological consequences of these changes may also vary with tness level, but the signicance of this apparent transition requires further investigation. Post-exercise time points produced a pattern of immediate increase followed by progressively smaller effects. At the population level, the immediate post-exercise effect generalizes, a result consistent with narrative reviews (Ekkekakis, 2003; Ekkekakis & Petruzzello, 1999). However, others have found improvements lasting anywhere from 1 (e.g., Cox et al., 2001; Daley & Welch, 2004) to 4 h post-exercise (e.g., Thayer, 1987a). Our data clarify these conclusions by showing that sustained increases do not appear to generalize across participants and settings. For example, Petruzzello et al. (2001) found that treadmill running produced immediate increases in PAA for high and low to moderately t individuals, but affect remained elevated above baseline during 30-min of recovery only in the high-t group. The moderators associated with different patterns of post-exercise affective response should be a continued area of examination in future research. Publication status results agree with some meta-analyses in the exercise psychology literature (e.g., Craft & Landers, 1998; Petruzzello et al., 1991), but not others (e.g., Arent et al., 2000; Long & Stavel, 1995). Methodological weaknesses are likely reasons for lack of publication. However, similar to North et al.s (1990) meta-analysis, we found no relationship between the number of threats controlled (internal validity) and publication status, indicating that the source bias in our results is more likely related to the size of the effect than study quality per se. This argues for the importance of including both published and unpublished studies to avoid positively biased conclusions in meta-analyses (Begg, 1994).
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The dual-mode model of exercise and affect (Ekkekakis, 2003) offers some theoretical clarication for the intensity results. The model proposes that intensity is a key variable that produces changes in the salience of cognitive and physiological factors that inuence the pattern of affective response during and after exercise. Cognitive factors are proposed to dominate at low and moderate intensities. At higher intensities, hedonic tone (valence) decreases as physiological cues increase due to rising blood lactate levels. The model also suggests that low, moderate, or high intensities can result in post-exercise affective improvement. At low intensities due to cognitive factors and mild increases in activation that may be perceived as pleasant, and at higher intensities due to an affective opponent process (Solomon, 1980), possibly driven by endogenous opiates that quickly reverse the negative affective valence reported during exercise. The results concerning exercise intensity from the present meta-analysis t the model, as all levels were associated with positive effects, especially for low intensity, which generalized and was larger on average than moderate or high intensities. An additional albeit very speculative explanation for the low-intensity effects involves the notion of an activity-stat, an innate biological mechanism that promotes and rewards habitual spontaneous activity such as brisk walking or play behavior (Rowland, 1998). The affective changes related to these activities may serve as a reward to promote a balance between energy intake and energy expenditure through daily physical activity. Several lines of genetic research appear to support the concept of biological control of physical activity (e.g., Perusse, Tremblay, Leblanc, & Bouchard, 1989). If shown to exist, such a system may help further clarify the generalizable increases in PAA for low-intensity exercise. Moderate and high-intensity effects did not generalize, indicating the presence of unexamined moderators. A possible moderator of moderate intensity exercise is self-efcacy, a construct shown to correlate with affective valence during moderate exercise (e.g., Ekkekakis, Hall, & Petruzzello, 1999a). Blood lactate often begins to rise in sedentary individuals during moderate exercise, increasing the metabolic strain and effort perception. The interpretation of this challenge may depend on self-efcacy with higher efcacy related to affective improvement and lower efcacy with affective decline during exercise. According to the dual-mode model, either response can lead to improved post-exercise affect: those who report improved valence during exercise via cognitive factors and those reporting decreased valence via physiological factors related to an opponent process (Solomon, 1980). However, because Solomon (1980) hypothesized that the strength of the opponent process increases with repeated exposure to the stimulus, for sedentary participants with little prior exercise experience who report negative affect during exercise, the opponent process may be weak, resulting in decreased post-exercise affect. Thus, some of the unexplained post-exercise variability associated with moderate intensity effects may be due to the heterogeneity of affective responses during moderate exercise. From the conclusions of narrative reviews (Ekkekakis & Petruzzello, 1999) and the results of this meta-analysis, tness level appears to moderate post-exercise PAA for high-intensity exercise. One explanation for the moderating effect of tness, based on the dual-mode model, may be the perception of fatigue related to the increased salience of physiological cues such as respiration and blood lactate. Unt individuals may be more likely than t individuals to experience fatigue associated with these physiological changes. Because fatigue (an unpleasant deactivated affective state) exhibits bipolarity with PAA (see Yik et al., 1999), higher feelings of fatigue may result in lower reported PAA. Thus, tness level, possibly due to differences in self-reported fatigue,
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appears to be a moderator of post-exercise PAA particularly for high-intensity exercise. Taken as a whole, our intensity results appear consistent with the dual-mode model. A practical implication of this meta-analysis involves the development of guidelines for improving exercise adherence and maintenance of health-related quality of life. Dishman (2001) notes the lack of data regarding the dose of physical activity for the development of these guidelines. Feelings of energy and vigor are important aspects of health-related quality of life (Wilson & Cleary, 1995) and they tend to be good predictors of health over time (Dixon, Dixon, & Hickey, 1993). An important question, however, has been the effect that exercise has on these positive affective states. This study offers quantitative evidence that low to moderate doses represent zones that improve energy and vigor across a range of personal and situational variables. The present results, the consistency with which exercise is associated with increased positive affect (e.g., Steinberg et al., 1998; Watson, 2000), and the tendency for people to choose activities associated with positive affective experiences (Emmons & Diener, 1986), all point to the potentially important role of PAA in exercise adherence. This meta-analysis also adds to the literature in several ways. First, ndings are based on 158 studies and 450 independent ESs. A greater number of ESs improves the validity of the metaanalysis by increasing the accuracy of population estimates and enhancing the statistical power of the moderator analyses (Hunter & Schmidt, 2004, Chapter 9). Second, we examined only PAA rather than combine activated and deactivated positive affect, the objective being to eliminate the confounding relative to the different post-exercise patterns of change in each of these distinct affective states (Ekkekakis, 2003). Third, prior reviews have not considered the inuence of statistical artifacts related to methodological imperfections in research studies. This is a limitation as failure to correct for measurement error in the dependent variable results in attenuated mean ESs, while failure to correct for sampling error results in articial variation in ESs not due to true moderator variables (Hunter & Schmidt, 2004, Chapter 3). There are a couple of limitations that deserve mention. First, this meta-analysis did not consider affective responses during exercise. This poses a conceptual limitation because affective changes from pre to post-exercise are often not linear and the dynamic changes that take place during exercise allow for a more complete picture of the overall affective response. Second, in some of the moderator analyses, the number of ESs was small enough to warrant caution concerning the stability of the estimates of effect. For example, Field (2001) has shown that both xed and random effects methods do not control the Type I error rate in estimates of the mean uncorrected ES in meta-analyses with 15 or fewer studies. Any meta-analysis is limited by the number of available studies in a given research domain which has implications for second-order sampling error in meta-analyses (Hunter & Schmidt, 2004, p. 399400). For this reason, the results of some of the moderator analyses should be considered preliminary. Even with this limitation, however, a meta-analysis based on a theoretical framework can provide valid conclusions, including accurate estimates of the magnitude of an effect and the examination of potential moderator variables, procedures that overcome problems associated with other approaches to understanding the data, including the traditional narrative review. Future studies using theory-driven approaches (e.g., Ekkekakis, 2003) that test self-efcacy, tness, and other individual difference variables are needed as such variables may account for a sizeable portion of the true variance in post-exercise affective responses. A very important unanswered question is how these individual differences interact and change with repeated bouts
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of acute exercise. From a meta-analytic standpoint, because moderators only describe the conditions under which ESs vary, additional theory-driven research will not only increase the number of studies for future meta-analyses, but provide additional meaning to the results as well. Affective responses during exercise also appear to play an important role in the overall representation of the affective dynamics of acute exercise, but relatively few studies are currently available. In summary, the results indicate that increased PAA can last up to 30 min post-exercise. Furthermore, the effects remain positive across personal and situational settings immediately post-exercise, when pre-exercise PAA is lower than average, for low intensities, for durations up to 35 min, and for intensity/duration combinations (doses) ranging from low to moderate as dened in this meta-analysis. We did not nd evidence supporting a threshold hypothesis for intensity or duration. In contrast, dose results suggest the presence of distinct zones of affective change that more accurately reect post-exercise responses across the literature than intensity or duration alone. In this regard, the dose analysis is unique and informative. Beyond these generalizable effects, however, large SDcorr values suggest that additional variables, possibly related to individual differences, moderate the effects of exercise on PAA.
References References marked with an asterisk indicate studies included in the meta-analysis.
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Further reading
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Psychology of Sport and Exercise 7 (2006) 477514

The effect of acute aerobic exercise on positive activated affect: A meta-analysis

Corresponding author. Fax: +1 773 995 3644.

Negative Activated (+) Activation (-) Negative Deactivated

(-) Valence (+)

2861 2159 1686

.17 .35 .43 .23

.38 .60 .55 .71

.28 .17 .14 .12

.88 .81 .87 1.09

.14 to .38 .39 to .51

.22 to .74 .03 to .97

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