Concrete and Masonry Housing

An overview of methods and benefits

Concrete and Masonry Housing

Introduction
The UK shortage of housing underlines the need for fast and efficient construction. However, this speed must not be at the expense of quality and long-term performance. The new homes to be built must not only be structurally robust and affordable, they also need to provide comfortable living space that has the flexibility to adapt to future needs. A further priority will be to ensure that these homes work with rather than against the environment and in so doing they should negate the need for air conditioning and reduce the need for heating, thereby helping to reduce energy consumption and fuel bills. The concrete industry can offer a range of construction methods from foundation methods to roof tiles, that are innovative and fast whilst offering the high performance and inherent benefits of heavyweight construction. These construction solutions offer the efficient delivery of long-term performance and best value and meet the highest level of the Code for Sustainable Homes. This is a combination that is welcomed by both social housing providers and their tenants, and by the private sector. Of course refurbishment and maintenance products are also available, however, these are outside of the scope of this guide.

Contents
The benefits of heavyweight construction Energy-efficient housing Heavyweight housing solutions Summary 3 5 8 11

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The benefits of heavyweight construction

Concrete and masonry construction offers a wide range of performance benefits that are inherent to the materials and are, consequently, available free of charge.

Long-term sustainability
The environmental impact of heating, cooling and lighting our homes is considerable. It accounts for some 27 per cent of total UK CO2 emissions. These operational emissions far outweigh the embodied CO2 of the construction materials which are used to build our homes. Using the inherent thermal mass of heavyweight construction together with passive solar design features such as window size, orientation and shading can provide a real, long-term sustainable solution by significantly reducing the heating and cooling energy demands of a home over its lifetime. Indeed, using concretes thermal mass can reduce the energy consumption of buildings. Of the nine design categories in the Code for Sustainable Homes, energy and CO2 accounts for 36 of the 100 available points. This reflects the importance placed on minimising operational CO2 emissions relative to the other impacts included in the Code. Concrete and masonry construction solutions are fully able to meet the requirements of the Code for Sustainable Homes, including those for the highest code level 5/6 (for more information download Achieving Code Level 5 with Concrete and Masonry from www.concretecentre.com/publications).

Locally sourced
The UK can be self-sufficient in concrete. Unlike, timber and steel, the UK is able to produce almost all the concrete it needs domestically. This selfsufficiency enhances concretes sustainability by allowing it to be locally sourced rather than reliant on imports. Some 90 per cent of timber used for construction is imported, often from as far away as Canada. Structural steel relies on the importation of raw material notably from Brazil. This has serious environmental consequences. The aggregates for concrete are from UK quarries and UK manufactured reinforcement is made from 100 per cent recycled UK scrap metal. In addition, in the UK the average delivery distance from a readymixed concrete supplier is six miles and reinforcement fabricators are located throughout the UK making it easy to locally source all materials.

Responsibly sourced
Both ready-mixed and precast concrete can easily be sourced from suppliers operating in accordance with an environmental management scheme (typically ISO 14001) and their products will score points for responsible sourcing in the Code for Sustainable Homes. In addition to this, further points can now be sourced in BREEAM if the supplier is accredited under the new BES 6001 standard for the responsible sourcing of construction products.

Built-in sound insulation

Up to 4.7 million people suffer as a result of noise from traffic, industry or noisy neighbours according to statistics from the 1996 English House Condition Survey. The mass, which is inherent in heavyweight materials such as concrete and masonry, provides improved sound insulation compared with lightweight construction techniques - without the need for additional sound proofing and finishes. There is a wide range of heavyweight construction options available and all are fully able to meet the new standards for reduction of sound transmission as specified by the revised Part E of the Building Regulations. New separating/party wall minimum values for airborne sound insulation are 45dB for purpose-built dwellings and 40dB for relevant internal partitions within all house types, including detached properties. The robust standard details developed for concrete blockwork separating walls are designed to exceed these levels and so ensure compliance with Building Regulations and avoidance of the pre-completion testing of dwellings. A similar range of other concrete products and systems have robust details for separating floors for both airborne and impact sound requirements. Under Document E, over 60 per cent of the approved systems or robust details for separating walls and floors use concrete and masonry.

Concrete and Masonry Housing

Inherent flood resilience

Climate change could not only mean hotter summers but also more extreme weather conditions. According to new research it could also mean more flash floods and severe storms. This will test the flood resilience and robustness of our built environment. Research, carried out by Newcastle University, found that by 2070 some parts of the UK could see up to 8cm of rain in a day some 3cm more than is currently expected during a severe storm. The increased incidence of flooding and severe storms means that more homes will be at risk of flooding. Already in the UK some 570,000 homes are estimated to be at a high flood risk. This compares to the 202,000 predicted to be at risk in 2002. The figure looks set to rise due to the pressure to build on land liable to flood and due to the impacts of climate change. For house construction, the choice of building materials and finishes should maximise flood resilience by minimising damage and the time taken to refurbish. Masonry and concrete homes can be designed to be flood resilient to not absorb significant amounts of water or require any finishes, such as plasterboard, to be stripped off. In addition, concrete and masonry homes will not warp or rot following a flood and the damage caused by flooding is less likely to threaten the structural integrity of a modern heavyweight constructed home.

Built-in fire resistance

High-density housing raises concerns over the potential for the spread of fire. Concrete is a non-combustible material and has a slow rate of heat transfer which makes it an effective barrier to the spread of fire. Heavyweight homes exceed regulatory requirements because, unlike other construction materials, concrete has an inherent fire resistance of up to four hours and does not produce smoke or toxic fumes. This means that heavyweight homes can offer a greater degree of protection from fires in neighbouring homes and longer times for people to escape. In addition, concrete homes are far more structurally sound after a fire and so can be quickly repaired rather than having to be demolished thus reducing the period required for alternative accommodation.

Inherent robustness
The predicted increase in severe storms could have a significant impact on our homes. Concretes inherent robustness enables buildings to better weather such high winds and rain. In addition, the robustness of heavyweight construction makes it a more secure and durable construction solution. For example, concrete and masonry party walls cannot be simply cut into for unauthorized entry.

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Energy-efficient housing
Housing accounts for 27 per cent of all UK CO 2 emissions. Reducing this figure is a high priority and is being addressed with increased levels of insulation and airtightness in new build properties. The utilisation of the thermal mass in heavyweight construction can also help, and is provided in the form of concrete and masonry block walls and precast or in-situ concrete floors and wall panels.

Embodied and operational CO 2

The use of concrete often raises questions regarding its embodied CO2, which can be slightly higher than that associated with some alternative materials, however, in reality the difference is relatively small when compared to lightweight systems. And, when you evaluate this in whole-life terms, the operational CO2 savings provided by the heavyweight solution are much more significant. To establish the facts of the embodied CO2 versus operational CO2 issue, The Concrete Centre commissioned research to examine performance of a simple semi-detached house built using a typical lightweight frame, with that of several heavyweight solutions with varying levels of thermal mass. The embodied CO2 for each option was calculated and thermal modelling was undertaken to see how each performed across the 21st century, taking account of the likely impacts of climate change. The results [1] showed that a typical concrete and masonry house with a medium level of thermal mass, has around four per cent more embodied CO2 than an equivalent lightweight frame construction, but that this could be offset in as little as 11 years due to the energy savings provided by its thermal mass. Increasing the mass through additional concrete elements, such as precast upper floors, resulted in a longer offset period, but ultimately led to the lowest whole life CO2 emissions of all the options, with a saving in CO2 over the 21st century approximately six times greater than the difference in its embodied CO2 when compared to the lightweight frame solution. Due to the predicted increase in summer temperatures resulting from climate change, the lightweight home was found to need airconditioning by 2021.This compared with 2041 for the medium-weight home and 2061 for the medium-heavy and heavyweight homes. At the point that air conditioning was required its energy consumption was included in the overall energy use of the homes. The research highlights the inherent ability of masonry and concrete construction to provide a good long-term sustainable building option through energy efficient passive design and adaptability to the impacts of climate change.

Case Lightweight

Description External walls: timber framed wall with exterior brick and internal plasterboard finish Internal partitions: timber stud and plasterboard Ceilings: timber with plasterboard/chipboard finish Ground floor: solid concrete/screed Roof: timber/tile As lightweight but with: External walls: mediumweight concrete block cavity wall with exterior brick and internal plasterboard finish As mediumweight but with: Ground floor ceiling: pre-cast concrete floor units Ground floor partitions: mediumweight concrete block with plasterboard finish External walls: heavyweight concrete block cavity wall with exterior brick and fair-faced internal finish Internal partitions: heavyweight concrete block, fair-faced Ground and first floor ceilings: pre-cast concrete floor units Ground floor solid floor construction and roof construction: as above.

Mediumweight Mediumheavyweight

Heavyweight

140 120

CO 2 Emissions (tonnes)

100 80 60 40 20 0 2000

Heavyweight blockwork walls & concrete floors Mediumweight blockwork walls & concrete floors Mediumweight blockwork walls Lightweight timber frame

Medium weight: Carbon offset achieved in 11 years

2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 2060

Year
Figure 1: Cumulative CO2 Emissions (Air-conditioned mode)

Concrete and Masonry Housing

Thermal mass and passive solar design

The ability of thermal mass to avoid or reduce overheating problems is being increasingly recognised. Perhaps less appreciated is its ability to save heating energy when used in passive solar design (PSD) which includes consideration of the buildings orientation, glazing provision and size plus appropriate shading. Using PSD enables concrete and masonry constructed dwellings to exploit their inherent thermal mass on a year-round basis. During the summer, heat is absorbed on hot days, helping to lower the internal temperature and prevent overheating problems. The stored heat is then removed by night-time ventilation. During the winter, the thermal mass will absorb solar gains through south facing windows, and slowly releases the heat at night. This process is effectively the same as that which occurs on summer nights, the only difference being that during the winter the stored heat is beneficial, so windows and openings are kept shut to minimise heat loss. Shutters and blinds can be used to prevent overheating in the summer and can also help reduce heat loss during the winter. Part L of the Building Regulations and the Code for Sustainable Homes For dwellings the calculation methodology (known as SAP) used to evaluate Part L compliance assumes a fixed, comparatively low level of thermal mass for all types of construction. This assumption is currently being re-evaluated as part of the revision process that Part L is undergoing during 2009. The current consultation document suggests that thermal mass will be more accurately accounted for in the methodology. The benefits of optimisation of building form, fabric and orientation as a low cost design measure for reducing CO2 emissions may therefore now be formally reflected in the revised edition of Part L1 for dwellings, which will be introduced in 2010.

Optimising the mass in floors

Key concrete structural elements can be used to provide a medium or high level of thermal mass, whilst also satisfying other design requirements such as acoustic performance, fire resistance and air tightness. Ground floors cast in situ slabs Ground floors can provide a good source of thermal mass in all types of dwelling providing the insulating layer is located below the slab. The Nu- Trench Floor System offers an effective way of achieving this, and uses expanded polystyrene for the insulating layer. To maximise heat exchange to and from the slab, the screed finish should be tiled rather than carpeted. An effective finish can be achieved by fixing materials such as high density concrete or terracotta tiles directly to the slab using a full bed mortar based adhesive. Alternatively, a vinyl floor covering will provide an intermediate level of admittance. Cast in situ floors work well with under floor heating, which are in turn ideally suited to high thermal mass dwellings. The pipe work for an under floor system is located within the screed, with the water distribution manifold located at low level in a cabinet or other discreet enclosure. Ground floors beam and block/precast hollowcore units To maximise the thermal mass, insulation must be located beneath the beams/units, not the usual location for this type of flooring. However, at least one proprietary hollowcore system is available where the insulation is already bonded to the underside of the unit. As with in-situ floors, the screed can be used to locate the pipe work for an under floor heating system. As the insulation is non-load bearing, a greater range of products can potentially be used. Recommendations for floor finishes are the same as for in-situ floors. Upper floors The benefit of installing a concrete upper floor was highlighted in a 2006 study by Arup (see page 5) looking at the impact of climate change on comfort, which included a comparison of the additional passive cooling/ heating effect provided by this approach as compared to a suspended timber flooring system. There are a range of solutions available; precast hollowcore units, solid precast units, precast soffit units with in-situ topping and in-situ flooring. The high quality fair-faced finish that can be specified for precast units makes them an ideal choice for high thermal mass dwellings as the soffit only requires painting, leaving the concrete fully exposed for good thermal linking. Installation of precast units can also be a fast and simple process. An alternative is to use modern formwork systems to provide shuttering for in-situ concrete. This too can provide high quality finishes and rapid construction.

Benefits of designing with thermal mass

Exploiting thermal mass on a year-round basis is not difficult, but does require consideration at the outset of the design process when requirements for the building form, fabric and orientation are being established. Providing this is done sympathetically, a more passive approach to design can realise benefits which include: Enhanced energy efficiency and carbon savings over the life of the building. Improved daylighting, ventilation and air quality. Optimal decrement delay (time lag) and decrement factor (heat flow) for reducing heat gains in summer. Good summertime comfort and a reduced risk of overheating. A measure of future proofing against the effects of a warming climate. Reduction in the need for more expensive low and zero carbon technologies to meet CO2 targets. For more information on thermal mass download Thermal Mass Explained from www.concretecentre.com/publications

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Case study : Barratts Green House, BRE, Watford

The use of concrete in Barratts Green House prototype demonstrates how design quality and sustainability may be achieved in mainstream volume housebuilding of the future. Barratts new prototype house at the BRE Innovation Park in Watford is the first home built by a major housebuilder to achieve level 6, the highest level possible, using concrete under the Code for Sustainable Homes. The Code for Sustainable Homes sets out a grading system for new homes against nine categories: energy and CO2 emissions; water; materials; surface water run-off; waste; pollution; health and wellbeing; management and ecology. For the Barratt Green House, the architect, Gaunt Francis, took the view that in-use energy over the lifetime of a typical UK house, 120 years, was much more significant than the initial embodied energy of the components which even for a standard blockwork house is just four per cent more than timber. Therefore, reducing future cooling requirements easily offsets the small additional energy taken to produce the material. To exploit the benefits of concrete, including thermal mass, extensive use was made of it in the form of an in-situ ground-floor slab, precast concrete upper floors and a precast aerated concrete wall panel system. For more information on this case study, download Lessons Learned from the Barratt Green House from www.concretecentre.com/publications.

Concrete and Masonry Housing

Heavyweight housing solutions

The concrete industry offers a range of construction methods that are innovative and fast whilst offering traditional high performance and the inherent benefits of heavyweight construction. These construction solutions include blocks, precast and in-situ concrete. All are designed to deliver affordable and fast construction with long-term performance, to the higher code levels in the Code for Sustainable Homes.

Masonry solutions
The focus on efficiency and innovation has also been embraced by what is often viewed as the traditional method of house building: masonry. An example of the innovation in masonry construction is the use of aircrete blocks. This product is well placed to answer the requirement to reduce waste. Pulverised fuel ash, a by-product of coal-burning power stations, is used for their manufacture and the waste material generated during the production process is recycled back into the manufacturing process. The high compressive strength of aircrete means that only a single blockwork leaf for external walls is necessary. This enables fast construction times. Construction times are further accelerated by the use of thin-joint mortar. The 3mm mortar joints do not need to be trowel applied and it reaches full bond strength within two hours enabling more than one traditional lift in a day. Aircrete blocks are widely used for both load bearing and non-loading bearings walls and as infill units in beam and block floor systems. The use of aircrete provides an excellent combination of structural stability, acoustic insulation, energy conservation and fire resistance.

Aircrete blocks A complete insulation solution is achievable using aircrete blocks. The inherent thermal qualities of these blocks provides a highly effective barrier against the penetration of moisture and frost. They can be used with full or partial fill insulation without necessarily increasing cavity widths, and if used below the ground can reduce heat loss by up to 25 per cent. Whilst aircrete has a relatively low density (460-730 kg/m3), it still provides a useful amount of thermal mass. Large format blocks Large format blocks are produced from the same material as aircrete, and offer the same level of thermal performance. They are also suitable for the same applications as conventional sized aircrete blocks. Time and labour costs can be reduced when using large format blocks due to the speed of laying. They are suitable for use with conventional mortar or thin joint mortars.

Figure 2: External wall examples in concrete and masonry. For more information on these solutions, and their resulting U-values, download Energy and CO2: Achieving targets with concrete and masonry from www.concretecentre.com/publications

Full fill cavity wall: 100mm block and 100mm block with render

Full fill cavity wall: brick and 100mm block

Insulating concrete formwork with brick slips

Partial fill cavity wall: 100mm block and 100mm block with render

Partial fill cavity wall: brick and 100mm block

Partial fill cavity wall: brick and 100mm block

Precast concrete sandwich panel

Solid masonry wall: 215mm block, mineral fibre insulation and reinforced render

Solid masonry wall: 215mm block, extruded polystyrene and reinforced external render

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Aggregate blocks A wide range of aggregate blocks are available, with densities varying from around 1400kg/m3 for a lightweight block to around 2000kg/m3 for a heavyweight block, which can provide a very high admittance of around 6W/m2K when used with a wet plaster finish. To ensure good thermal linking between the walls and internal space, a fair-faced or a wet plaster finish is the most effective option. Although wet plaster is normally slower to apply than plasterboard, the introduction of sprayed or projection plaster has changed this. It is fast to apply and better than plasterboard at sealing walls, improving both air tightness and sound insulation (although allowance has to be made for drying out time). Thin-joint blockwork More commonly associated with aircrete/aerated concrete blockwork, the thin joint system permits a faster build time than standard 10mm joints. The recommended height of build per day for standard 100mm blocks with 10mm joints would be no more than seven courses (1.5metres). With the thin joint system special mortars are used which typically enable three metres (or one storey height) per day to be achieved.

Tunnel form
Tunnel form is a formwork system that allows the on-site casting of walls and slabs in one operation on a daily cycle. During the tunnel form process, a structural tunnel is created by pouring concrete into high quality formwork to make the floor and walls. The space formed can span from 2.4m to 6.6m and can be easily sub-divided to create smaller rooms. Where longer spans of up to 11m are required, the tunnel form is extended using a mid-span section. After 24 hours, the formwork is moved horizontally so that another identical tunnel can be formed. When the storey has been completed, the process is repeated on the next floor. The system creates an efficient load-bearing structure that is particularly well suited for repetitive cellular construction such as residential apartment blocks. The solid monolithic structure can be used for small blocks of six apartments or for residential towers of 40 or more storeys high and the accuracy of the system suits the installation of prefabricated elements such as cladding panels and bathroom pods. Tunnel form combines the speed, quality and accuracy of off-site production with the flexibility of on-site cast construction. For more information on tunnel form, download High Performance Buildings using Tunnel Form Concrete Construction from www.concretecentre.com/publications.

Insulating concrete formwork

Fast construction is also a major benefit with insulating concrete formwork (ICF). The ICF provides permanent formwork for in-situ concrete structures and is left in place for the life of the building as thermal insulation. Used on the Continent and in North America for many years, in the UK ICF is increasingly being used by the self-build market and is attracting the attention of social housing providers and volume housebuilders. In essence, ICF consists of twin-walled expanded polystyrene (EPS) panels or blocks that are built up to create walls. This formwork is then filled with ready-mixed concrete to build a structure ready for the next floor or roof construction. The EPS remains in place to provide complete thermal insulation for the walls of the finished building and to provide a uniform surface ready for the direct application of most internal finishes and external cladding systems. For more information on ICF, download Insulating Concrete Formwork from www.concretecentre.com/publications.

The Nightingale Estate in Hackney is the largest residential tunnel form development in the UK. Residents in the new estate are already reporting how delighted they are living with robust concrete construction, mentioning sound insulation and reduced heating costs as major advantages.

ICF consists of twin-walled expended polystyrene (EPS) panels or blocks that are built up to create walls.

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Concrete and Masonry Housing

Crosswall
A precast concrete cellular system is crosswall, which provides the benefits of speed and on-site productivity. The components - floors and load-bearing walls, with preformed window apertures - combine swiftly to form room shells. Concrete finishes to walls and soffits are of good quality as a result of their production in steel moulds and enable minimum plastering or finishing with directly applied coatings. Crosswall construction delivers buildings that are fast to erect, durable, have excellent inherent fire resistance and acoustic performance and are virtually maintenance free. For more information on crosswall, download Crosswall Construction from www.concretecentre.com/publications.

In addition, basements can reduce the energy consumption of houses. Heat losses through basements floors and walls are less than those at ground and upper floor levels. Research carried out by the BRE found that given two houses of the same floor area and construction, the one with a basement would be 10 per cent more energy efficient. Basement living space also offers better sound insulation. This makes the lower ground floor an ideal location for a study, play or work room. For more information on concrete basements visit www.basements.org.uk

Flood prevention using SUDS

Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS) is a design philosophy which uses a range of techniques to manage surface water by attenuation and filtration with the aim of replicating, as closely as possible, the natural drainage prior to a site being developed. A useful and versatile SUDS technique is Concrete Block Permeable Paving (CBPP). This provides important attenuation and pollution source control and in addition CBPP does not need additional land take unlike soft SUDS landscaping techniques which may require wetlands and ponds. CBPP works by allowing water to pass through the surface between each block and into the underlying permeable sub-base. Here, it is stored and released slowly either into the ground, to the next SUDS management stage or to a drainage system. An alternative concrete-based SUDS system is pervious concrete. This is a special ready-mixed concrete that has a single-sized coarse aggregate, a low fines content, and typically a 20 per cent voids content. A SUDS system using pervious concrete in the surface layer is designed in the same manner as a concrete block permeable pavement. For further information on SUDS visit www.paving.org.uk

Twinwall
Twinwall construction is a hybrid combination of precast and in-situ concrete. It provides fast and efficient construction that capitalises on the benefits of both factory and on-site production. Each wall panel consists of two skins of precast reinforced concrete which are temporarily held in position by lattice girder reinforcement. The concrete skins are effectively permanent formwork, with the benefit that they are used structurally in the finished building. The weight of a twinwall panel the same size as a fully precast panel is reduced, which permits the use of larger panels or smaller cranes. The wall panels are placed into position using similar methods to the crosswall elements, For the floors, lattice girder slabs are used. These have a thin precast concrete soffit often called the biscuit, which includes the bottom reinforcement and acts as permanent formwork. Once the walls and floor units are positioned, reinforcement for the slab and to tie the walls and slabs together is fixed. In-situ concrete is then poured into the void in the twinwall panels and on top of the biscuit of the lattice girder slabs.

Basements
Limited land availability means that new homes will have to use space more efficiently. The provision of a basement can provide 50 per cent more living space for a two-storey house. This means more living space for a smaller foot print. In mainland Europe and throughout America, basements are seen as a way forward to maximise land-use for a small cost increase. Sloping sites are ideally suited to provision of semi-basements with one side below ground and the other at ground level. On brownfield sites, the poor ground conditions encountered can often require deep excavations and foundations and basements can easily be provided in this economically excavated space.

Adding a basement could provide as much as 50 per cent more floor area for a typical two-storey dwelling and 100 per cent for a bungalow.

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Summary
Concrete and masonry offer a wide range of affordable, sustainable and efficient construction solutions for social housing to the highest levels of the Code for Sustainable Homes, each of which come with the full range of inherent long-term performance benefits including energy efficiency, robustness, low maintenance, enhanced sound insulation and security, fire resistance and flood resilience. The whole life performance and wide range of benefits of heavyweight construction makes it particularly well suited for housing solutions. These solutions are long term and holistic due to their ability to meet economic, environmental, social and aspirational requirements.

References and further reading

1. Hacker J et al, Embodied and Operational Carbon dioxide Emissions from Housing: A Case Study on the Effects of Thermal Mass and Climate Change, Energy and Buildings 40 (2008) 375-384. For further information see www.concretecentre.com/greenhomes The Concrete Centre has published a number of titles that are relevant to social housing. These include: Concrete and the Code for Sustainable Homes, The Concrete Centre, 2009 Energy and CO2: Achieving Targets with Concrete and Masonry, The Concrete Cent\re, 2008 How to Build Flood Resilient Homes using Concrete and Masonry, The Concrete Centre, 2009 Thermal Mass for Housing, The Concrete Centre, 2006 Concrete and Fire Safety, The Concrete Centre, 2008 Residential Cellular Buildings, The Concrete Centre, 2008 Design and Construction using Insulating Concrete Formwork, The Concrete Centre, 2007 Thermal Mass Explained, The Concrete Centre, 2009 Concrete and the Green Guide, The Concrete Centre, 2009

For more information on these titles and many more, visit www.concretecentre.com/publications

The Concrete Centre, Riverside House, 4 Meadows Business Park, Station Approach, Blackwater, Camberley, Surrey GU17 9AB Ref. TCC/04/08 ISBN 978-1-904818-77-9 First published 2009 MPA - The Concrete Centre 2009

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