THEIMPACTOFTHEGREATFAMINEof184551withspecialreferencetoULSTER ByamonPhoenix*

Introduction: TheGreatFamine,AnGortaMr(184551)hasthegrimdistinctionofbeingthemostcostly naturaldisasterofmoderntimes.Inasensetherewasnothingexceptionalaboutthe Famine.Toquoteoneauthority,DudleyEdwardsinthe1950s,itwasbutaperiodof greatermiseryinaprolongedageofsuffering.Therehadbeenpreviousfaminesandfood

shortagesbuttheeventsofthe1840swereonavastlydifferentscale. Yetthetriggerfactorsbehindthehumancatastropheof184551areclear:

1Between1750and1845thetotalpopulationmushroomedfromabout2.6to8.5millions (orby225%inacentury).Irelandwasnotaloneinexperiencingsuchgrowthattheturnof the18thcentury.ButwhatmadeitexceptionalbycontemporaryEuropeanstandardswas a/therapidrateofexpansion,and b/therelativelackofanyaccompanyingindustrialisation.(IndeedmuchoftheIrish countrysidewasbeingdeindustrialisedwiththecollapseofthecottageindustryunderthe impactoftheindustrialrevolutioninBritainandLaganValley.

2.Secondly,some80percentofthisteemingpopulationlivedontheland,makingIreland oneofthemostdenselypopulatedcountriesinEuropewithsome400peoplepersqmilein somecountiessuchasArmagh. 3.AsthehistorianJamesDonnelly,junior,observes:Itwasaboveallthepovertyofsucha largesegmentoftheIrishpopulationthatmadetheGreatFaminesodestructiveofhuman life.1Bythe1840scloseontwofifthsofthepopulationsome3.3millionpeoplewere totallydependantonthepotatoforsubsistencewhilealmost5millionupto4.7million reliedontherootasthedominantitemintheirdiet.Suchasituationwasfraughtwith danger:whilepreviouscropfailureshadcausedlocaldistress,itwasclearthatanymajor potatofailurewouldtriggerasocialandeconomiccrisisofcataclysmicproportions. DominatingtheranksofthepotatoeatersinpreFamineIrelandwere a/thelandlessagriculturallabourers: b/thecottierclass(thesmallestlandownersonplotsoflessthan5acres),especiallyinthe westandsouthwest; c/andthesmallercultivators(on515acres). ApreFaminedietarysurveyshowslargemealsofpotatoesconsumedwithbutterandmilk byalargesegmentofthepopulation.Thisexplainstheenormityofthecrisisof184551.

JaqmesSDonnelly,Jr,TheGreatIrishPotatoFamine(TheHistoryPress,2010),p1.

CAUSES: 1.TheFamineoriginatedinanecologicaldisaster.Intheautumnof1845afungaldisease (phythopthorainfestans)reachedIrelandfromcontinentalEuropeviaEngland.Fromthe southwestofthecountryitsoonspreadto17counties.Afurtherblowcameintheshape ofthewet,humidsummerof1846whichleftthecropatotalfailure.Thewinterof184647 wastheworstinlivingmemory.The1847harvestwasgoodbuttheautumnof1848 broughtyetanothertotalfailurewhichwascompoundedbyapoorgrainharvest. Thusbetween1846and1849theIrishpotatocropfailedinthreeseasonsoutoffour.By 1849theworstwasover.Buttheharrowingnightmareofthose6years184551had wroughtradicalandenduringchangesonthestructureofIrishsociety: a/Populationchange:Thegreatestchangewasthedecimationofthepopulation.Thefull extentofthehumanholocaustwasevidentinthe1851census.Thisshowedthatbetween 1841and1851theIrishpopulationhadfallenfrom8.1millionto6.5millionafallofsome 20%.However,asthepopulationfigurein1845wascloserto8.5million,thefallisover 23%almostaquarterinthewholeisland. Asthehistorian,KevinWhelanhascommented:Itisdifficulttograspatanindividuallevel theimplicationsofatragedywhichwipedoutImillionpeopleinhalfadecade,asifthe modernpopulationofDublinwastobeobliterated[today] *** TableofPopulationloss

Thefallwasduetodeathsfromhungeranddiseaseandemigration.Historiansareagreed onafigureofImillionFaminedeaths.Inblack47aloneitisestimatedthat250,000died
3

ofstarvationorfever.Amajorcauseofmortalityintheseyearswasarangeofattendant Faminediseasessuchastyphus,choleraanrelapsingfeverordropsy(duetomalnutrition andovercrowdinginthecountrys130Workhouses).In1849therewasaseriouscholera outbreakinBelfastandothertownsduetotheinfluxofbeggarsfromruralIreland. Theimpactofthecatastrophewasgreatestinthewesternandsouthwesterncountiesina swathefromFermanaghtoCorkwheredependenceonthepotatowasgreatestandwhere subdivisionofholdingswasmostacute.Inaddition,tradeandcommunicationswerepoorly developedalongthewesternlittoralfromDonegaltoKerry,addingtothecatastrophe. ***[TableofExcessMortalitybycountyhigherestimateincludeslostbirths) Thusexcessmortalityrangedfromaround1016perthousandineasterncountiessuch asAntrim,ArmaghandMeathto2735perthousandinCork,ClareandFermanagh. ThehighestdeathrateswereintheConnachtcountiesofMayo,Sligo,Roscommonand LeitrimwithCavanhavingthehighestmortalityinUlster(42.7%)Theeasterncountieswere leastaffected.WhileUlstercountiessufferedlesstherewereblackspotsthroughoutthe province(asweshallsee). Whichsocialgroupswerehardesthit?Clearlythepoorestsectionofthepopulationthe labourersandcottiers(lessthan5acres)werethechiefvictimsoftheFamine,followedby thosecultivatingminuteholdingsofunder10acres.However,theranksofthebetteroff famers(withsome15acres)werealsobadlythinnedbytheholocaust.
4

EmigrationmainlytotheUnitedStateswasalsoahallmarkoftheGreatFamine.While emigrationhadbeenrisingbefore1845,thescaleofFamineemigrationwas unprecedentedaswasthescaleofitscasualties.In1847alone220,000emigratedwhilein 1852amassive369,000personsleftIreland.Manysailedinthenotoriouscoffinshipsand onesixthofthoseonthepassagetoGrosseisle(Quebec)died:therewereastaggering 4,500deathsthereinatwomonthperiodof1847alone. Thismassexodusandthecontinuanceofhighemigrationlevelscombinedwiththepost faminepatternofinfrequentandlatemarriagestoproduceapermanentpopulation decline. ThefullsignificanceoftheGreatFamineonIrishpeasantsocietycanbeseenintheTable comparingthenumberofholdingsofvarioussizesbetween1841and1851.Theseconfirm theannihilationofthecottierclassthroughdeathandemigrationandtheconsolidationof holdingsduetowiththeremovalofthecultivators. ***(TableofChangesinlandholdings184151) BritishGovernmentPolicy: Thescaleofthedisasterof184551raisesaseriesofemotivequestionsaboutthecrisis: Wasthecalamityavoidable?CouldtheBritishgovernmenthavedonemoretolessenits humanimpact?Thesequestionshavegeneratedcontroversyamongcontemporariesand laterhistorians.GovernmentapologistssuchasCharlesTrevelyan(AssistantSecretaryatthe
5

BritishTreasury)tendedtotakeaprovidentialviewoftheFamineasthesolutionofanall wiseProvidencetotheproblemofoverpopulationinIrelandwhiletheNewry NonconfomistandYoungIrelander,JohnMitchelaccusedtheBritishgovernmentof genocidalintent.Severalpointscanbemade: 1.Laissezfaire:DuringtheearlystagesofthecrisisGovernmentpolicywaslargely conditionedbytheprevailinglaissezfairedoctrine.Peelsadministrationsetuppublic worksandarrangedfortheimportationofIndiancorntokeepdownthepriceoffood.But thegovermentrejectedinprinciplethatitshouldacceptdirectresponsibilityfor maintainingtheafflictedpeasantry. In1846PeelsgovernmentwasreplacedbyaWhigMinistryunderLordJohnRussell.The newadministrationtendedtoreacttoevents,andeventhenverytentativelyasProfessor AlvinJacksonnotes.ThepublicworksschemescontinuedbutthenewWhigMinistryhada strongerideologicalcommitmenttolaissezfaireandtherightsofproperty.Asaresultit stoppedthedirectimportationoffoodandtooktheviewthatIrishpovertymustbe supportedbyIrishproperty.Theconsequencesweredisastrous:thepainfullyslowmanner inwhichreliefschemeswereinauguratedin18467reflectedthegovernmentsabidingfear ofpervertingmarketforces.AsJacksonnotes:Thistardinesscostlives,inparticularasthe greatkillersoftheFaminetyphusandrelapsingfeverwereabletospread.2 RussellandhisofficialsfailedtograsptherealnatureoftheIrisheconomy:Irishpeasants rarelyhandledmoneyandfacedwiththepitifullackofaretaildistributionsystemmany diedwiththepenniesintheirhands.

AlvinJackson,Ireland17981998(Blackwell,1999),p79

2.Roleoflandlords: Secondly,theIrishlandlordsasaclasswereunabletobeartheburdenimposedonthem andmanyusedtheopportunitythecleartheirestatesbywholesaleevictions.Oneauthority (WilliamVaughan)estimatesthat70,000evictionoffamiliesoccurredbetween184653 withoverhalfoftheseconsistingoflargescaleclearancesoftenantsbylandowners. Observerswerequicktomakethelinkagebetweenmassevictionandmassdeaths.Thus, theLimerickandClareExaminerprotestedinMay1848that: nothing,absolutelynothingisdonetosavethelivesofthepeopletheyaresweptoutof theirholdings,sweptoutoflife,withoutaneffortonthepartofourrulerstostaythe violentprogressofhumandestruction.3 3.Administrativeblunders: ThedecisiontoswitchfromthepublicworksprogrammetooutdoorreliefintheSpringof 1847causedafataldelayasaresultofwhichmanydied.Again,theamendmentofthe PoorLawinIrelandin1847meantthattheGovernmentfixedalmosttheentirefiscal burdenofalleviatingtheFamineonIrelandthroughitsPoorLawunions.Manyofthese wereunabletocopewiththesheerenormityofthecrisis.Also,thenotoriousGregory Clauseexcludedfromreliefthosewhoheldmorethanaquarterofanacreofland.4

Donnelly,opcit.,p27 Jackson,opcit,p76

TheRateinAidissue: TheRateinAidissueof1849confirmedthedeepseatedpoliticalandsectariandivisionsin thecountryasthewealthierUnionsinUlsterprotestedatthelevyingofataxof6dinthe poundofthemoreprosperousunionstosubsidisethepoorerunionsinthewest.TheBill wasopposedbymanylandlords,especiallyinthenorth.TheprobityofUlsterversusthe slothofConnaughtwasaninterpretationthatwasinvokedfrequently.AseniorPoorLaw Commissionerinthenorthdescribedthetaxasasubsidytotheindolenceofthewest whileJosephNapier,MPforTrinityCollege,arguedthattheonlyeffectoftheBillwdbein keepingupanarmyofbeggars,fedoutoftheindustryofUlster.5 5.TheOfficialMind: Itisclearthattodescribegovernmentpoliciesasgenocidalinmotivation(asMitcheldid)is simplynotsupportedbytheevidence.However,thereisnodoubtthatmuchofficial commentismarkedbyarroganceandcallousness.TypicalwastheremarkofCharles TrevelyanthattheFaminewasthesolutionofanallwiseprovidencetotheproblemof overpopulationinIreland.AsProfessorPeterGrayobserves,TrevelyanscontroloverIrish policygrewastheFaminecontinuedandheimposedhisownrigidmoralisticagenda6 Trevelyanwasnotonlyanadvocateofprovidentialismandlaissezfairebutwasalso convincedofthemoralflawsintheIrishnationalcharacter. COULDMOREHAVEBEENDONEBYGOVERNMENTTOOVERCOMETHECRISIS?:

ChristineKinealy,AdeathdealingFamine(PlotoPress,1997),p143 Donnelly,opcit,pp20,2829

Akeythemeoftheplaywright,ThomasMurphysdramaticrenditionoftheFaminetragedy isthenoiseofaconvoyofcorncartsonaroad.7Couldmorehavebeendoneby governmenttoreducethehighmortality? Thereisnodoubt,asProfessorsMaryDalyandJamesDonnellyhaveconcluded,thatthe IrishFaminewasreal,notartificial;foodwasextremelyscarce;itcouldnothavebeen solvedbyclosingtheports;thechargesofgenocidecannotbesustained.However,Itis clearthatmoremoneycouldhavebeenspentonreliefwhile(asProfessorCormacOGrada argues)atemporaryembargoongrainexportsinearly1847mighthavealleviated starvationinthosecriticalearlymonths. TheresearchofDrChristineKinealyontheadministrationofrelief,especiallyonthe operationoftheamendedPoorLaw(1847),amountstoascathingindictmentofthewhole approachoftheBritishgovernmenttotheFamine:Byimplementingapolicywhichinsisted thatlocalresourcesmustbeexhaustedbeforeanexternalagencywouldintervenedespite localadvicetothecontrary,theGovernmentmadesufferinganunavoidableconsequence thesufferingwasexacerbatedbythefrequentdelaysintheprovisionofreliefandbythe smallquantityofreliefprovided,whichwasalsooflownutritionalvalue.8 KinealyshowsthatsomeBritishpoorlawofficialsinIrelandwerecriticalofthepolicies pursuedbyTrevelyanandGovernmentMinisters.Oneofficial,EdwardTwistleton,resigned in1849onthegroundsthatthedestitutionhereissohorribleandtheindifferenceofthe

CormacGrda,TheGreatIrishFamine(Macmillan,1989),pp612;MaryEDaly,TheFamineinIreland (Dundalk,1986),pp4352
8 7

Donnelly,opcit,p25,citingKinealy

HouseofCommonstoitsomanifest,thatheisanunfitagentofapolicythatmustbeoneof extermination.9 CharitableWork: RegardlessoftheshortcomingsofIrishproperty,individuallandlordsofferedminoractsof philantrophy.Theclergyofalldenominationswereactiveinreliefwork;in1847alone40 ProtestantministersdiedoftyphusorFaminefever.However,thereligiousdenomination mostconspicuouslyassociatedwithfaminereliefwastheSocietyofFriends.Thescaleof Quakerreliefwasbyprivatestandardsenormous.Notonlydidtheyprovidesoupkitchens intheworstaffecteddistrictsbuttheycollatedaccurateinformationontheactualstateof affairs.10 Therewerealsoinstancesofstrikinggenerosityandhumanitarianismfrommarginalised communitiesoverseassuchastheChocktawIndiansofOklahoma.Forcedfromtheirtribal landsin1831theysentadonationof$710fordistributioninravagedCountyMayo. TheFaminealsorevealedsomeofthegrimmeraspectsofIrishsocialrelationsinthe19th century.Inthestruggleforsurvivaltherewasmuchruthlessness:oflandlordsandfarmers

Donnelly,opcit,pp256.TwistletonwastheChiefIrishPoorLawCommissioner Jackson,opcit,pp778

10

10

inevictingcottiers;privatetradersinsistingonthefreeexportofgrainintheFamineyears andgombeenmenexploitingthepoorbylendingmoneyatexorbitantrates.11 THEIMPACTOFTHEFAMINEONULSTER: TheclaimthattheFaminedidntaffectUlsterhasbeenoneofthemostunchallenged mythsinrecentIrishhistory.Asrecentlyasthe1960s,therespectedhistorianJCBeckett remarkedthatthememoryofblackfortysevenplayslittlepartinUlstertradition.12 Researchoverrecentdecades,however,hascorrectedthisdistortionandrevealedthe significantimpactwhichtheFaminemadeontheprovinceasawholeandonthepolitical Northinparticular. Thefullimpactofthecatastropheof184551onUlsterisrevealedinthe1851census. Thisshowsthatintheninecountiesthepopulationfellby340,000between1841and1851, adropof15.7percentcomparedwith19.9percentforthewholeoflreland.13 ThenorthhadfaredbetterthanthesouthandwestbutnotaswellasLeinster(which recordeda15percentloss).Toobtainatruepictureoftheravagesofdeathfromhunger anddiseaseandtheeffectsofemigration,historiansestimatethatUlstersuffered224,000 excessdeathsor8.6percent,iethenumberoverandabovethosewhowouldhavedied fromnaturalcausesduringthatdecade.

11

Jackson,opcit,p81 JCBeckett,AShortHistoryofIreland(London,1973).Pp1456 JonathanBardon,AHistoryofUlster(Belfast,1992),pp3078

12

13

11

ThegreatestlossesofpopulationwereinthesouthUlstercountiesofCavan,Fermanagh andMonaghanwheretheratesperthousandofexcessmortalitywere42.7percentfor Cavan,29.2forFermanaghand28.6forMonaghan.Tyrone,AntrimandArmaghwereclose tothenationalaveragewithratesofaround15percent.Theexcessdeathratesforthe remainingcountieswere10.7forDonegal,6.7forDownand5.7forDerry.Suchstatisticsdo notincludethevastnumberswhodiedsoonafterarrivalinBritainorenroutetoAmerica. Nordotheyincludetheestimated200,000lostbirths. WhileitisclearthatsouthUlstersufferedmostseverely,researchshowsthattheevents of184551affectednormallyprosperouspartsofthenortheast,includingBelfast,north DownandparticularlythelinentriangleofnorthArmagh.TheFamineyearscoincidedwith thedeclineofthedomesticlinenindustryandadownturninthelinentradeinUlsterwhich mademanyweaversandtheirfamiliesvulnerabletohungeranddisease. InCountyCavan,where82percentofthepopulationof240,000livedinthirdorfourth classhousesandwereneverfarfromstarvation,theareasworstaffectedbyblightand diseasewereinthedenselypopulatedparishesofeastandmidCavan;forexample, Castlewardlost31percentofitspopulation,InniskeenandKillsherdany36percent.The extentofdistressisreflectedintheinvolvementof3,500inthecuttingoftheBallinamore BallyconnellcanalasaFaminereliefschemein1846. InCavanthecrisiswasexacerbatedbytheactionsofabsenteelandlordswhoevicted manycottiers.InJanuary1849RevMattMcQuaid,PPofKillsherdanycomplainedofthe terriblepersecutionofthepoorbytheagentsofthelandlords.Heremarkedonhow
12

mothersandchildrenhadbeendrivenoutlikeaparcelofswineonastormywintersnight. In1847alonetherewere633deathsinCavanworkhouseduetofeverwhichclaimedthe livesofdoctorsandclergyofbothdenominationsincludingRevCharlesBeresford,the rectorofBailieborough,anactivereliefworker.14 IntheadjoiningcountyofMonaghan,thegreatestimpactofhungeranddiseasewason thelandlesscottierclasswith11ofits65electoraldivisionslosingmorethan40percentof theirpopulations.IntheShirleyestateinsouthMonaghan,thelandagent,WSTrench reducedthetenantryby20percentthroughassistedemigration.15 WithintheareaofthefutureNorthernIrelandthegreatestimpactwasonFermanagh.Four ofitseightbaroniessufferedpopulationlossesof2731percentoverthedecade184151.16 ByDecember1846thefirstdeathsfromstarvationwerereportedinthelocalpress.Byearly 1847cholerawasspreadingthroughthecountywiththeErnePacketreporting:InGarvary Woodhundredsofcorpsesareburied,theywerethevictimsofcholeraandtheirrelatives tooweaktocarrythemtothegraveyard. By1847thecountysworkhouseswereovercrowdedwiththeinmatesdrawnfromboth religioustraditions.InLisnaskeaovertheFamineperiodonethirdofthoseadmittedwas ProtestantandtwothirdsCatholic.Bythesummerof18472,000werebeingfedbythe soupkitcheninEnniskillenand2,700inMaguiresbridge.

14

CKinealyandTParkhill(eds),TheFamineinUlster(Belfast,1997),pp5975 Ibid,pp1846 Ibid,pp1306

15

16

13

AnaspectoftheFamineinFermanaghwasthehighpercentageofyoungpeopleunder15 amongtheworkhousepopulation.(some48%inEnniskillenby1848).Some150female orphansfromFermanaghworkhousesweresentaspartofaconsignmentof4,000Irish femaleorphanstoAustraliaduring184850.17 TodaythereareFaminegraveyardsatKesh(inthecareoftheChurchofIreland)andatthe formerWorkhouseatIrvinestowninCoFermanagh. InCoTyronethestatisticsmaysuggestthatitwasoneofthoseIrishcountiesleast affectedbytheFamine,yet11,500weredependentonpublicworksduring184647. Overall,thecountyavoidedextremedestitution.TheworstaffectedareaswereOmaghand Clogherpoorlawunions,eachofwhichhadalmost21%ofthepopulationinreceiptof food.Acrossthecountytheworkhouseswereinundatedwithapplicantsfrom1846 onwards,reflectingthesocialcollapseofthelabourersandsmallfarmers.FromClogher( thebirthplaceofthewriterWilliamCarleton)inearly1847theparishpriestreportedthat thepeoplewerestarvingmanyofthemlivingsolelyoncabbages. ThepictureinStrabaneonDonegalborderwasoneofdestitutionandheartrending privationwhileRevRobertMaude,theProtestantDeanofClogher,notedthatinhisdistrict thecircleofdestitutionisrapidlyincreasingandextendingtoahigherclassofthe agriculturalpopulationaccordingastheirlittlestoreisreduced18FromDromoreinwest Tyronetherector,RevHenryStGeorge,wroteinMarch1847thatmanyhavediedof

17

Ibid,pp1415 Ibid,pp2156

18

14

actualwantwhilemothersandinfantswerestarving.InallpartsofTyronedistresswere intensifiedbythegeneraldeclineofthedomesticlinenindustry. InDonegalJohnTukeoftheSocietyofFriendsdescribedhumanmiseryineverypartof thecountyduringavisitinlate1846andearly1847.Hefoundconditionsintheworkhouses ofGlenties,BallyshannonandLetterkennyappalling.InInishowendistressaffectedall sectionsofthepopulationwhileinthenorthofthecountygreathardshipwasreported amongthemiserableandneglectedtenantsoftheMarquisofConyngham,anabsentee landlordwith120,000acres.19 InsouthDonegaltheinabilityofstarvingtenantstopaytheirrentsresultedinmass evictions.ThefamineyearssawlargescaleemigrationtotheUnitedStatesthroughtheports ofDerryandSligo. AmongthemementosoftheperiodisamonumenttotheFaminedeadinBallyshannon, DunfanaghyWorkhouse,theFamineVillagenearBuncranaandanumberofBrachan Roadsrecallingthedistributionofbrachnorporridgetothestarvingpoor. OneofthemostsurprisingaspectsoftheFamineinthenorthwasitssearingimpactin traditionallyprosperouspartsofeastUlster.ParticularlyhardhitwastheLurganPortadown linentriangleofnorthArmagh.Bytheearlymonthsof1847Lurgan,oncedescribedasa prosperousandthrivingtown,wassufferingalevelofworkhousemortalityonaparwith theworstafflictedareasofthecountry.Asinotherflaxgrowingcounties,thepotatoblight andsubsequentfevercoincidedwithdistressamongtheunemployedweaversfamilies whiletheareawasdominatedbysmallholdingsoflessthanoneacre.

19

Ibid,pp805

15

LurganWorkhousewasovercrowdedandbyFebruary1847recordedthethirdhighest mortalityofanyworkhouseinIrelandafterBantryinwestCorkandGlentiesinDonegal. ThedeathratepromptedaninquirybytheReliefCommissionersin1847whichblamedthe crisisonovercrowding,thefactthattheclothesinwhichpaupersdiedwerereusedto clothelivinginmateswhilethecorpsesoffevervictimswereinterredbesidetheworkhouse well.Theresultwasacycleofdeath.Theworkhousewaspoorlymanagedwithan incompetentMedicalOfficerwhiletheProtestantchaplain,RevOulton,complainedtoLord Lurgan,thelocallandlord,thattheinmateswerefedbrothmadefromputridbeef. ThefamineandpestilenceinnorthArmaghduring184648affectedbothProtestantsand Catholicswhileitsleadinglandowner,LordLurganhimself,diedfromtyphusfeverinApril 1847.20 InnearbyPortadownLordGosforddescribedthepopulationasbeinginamostwretched statewhilethemillvillageofDonacloneysufferedawfulwant.InArmagh,aselsewherein Ulster,ProtestantandCatholicclergycooperatedinestablishingreliefcommitteesand soupkitchenswhileRevClements,aProtestantclergyman,complainedoftheindifference ofthelocallandlordstowardstheirstarvingtenants.InTartaraghan,aruraldistrictnear Portadown,theSocietyofFriendsreporteddeathsfromstarvationandfearedastate paralleltotheworstpicturesfromtheCountyofCork. ThefaminealsoimpactedonAntrim,DownandDerry.IntheNewtownardsareaofnorth Downthepotatoblightcoincidedwiththedownturninthelinenindustry,placingthe handloomweaversingreatdistress.Reliefcommitteesandpublicworksweresetupwhile

20

Ibid,pp4357

16

thenumbersintheworkhousealmosttrebled.InNewtownardsitselftherewerequeuesat thesoupkitchenofemaciatedandhalffamishedsouls,coveredwithrags.In1847the worstaffectedareasinDownincludedtheMournes,thefishingportofKilkeelandthe weavingdistrictofBallymacarrett,closetoBelfast.21 Thereactionsofthelandlordsvaried.LordLondonderry,thelargestlandownerinnorth Down,rejectedrentreductionsduetopersonalinconvenienceandwasmuchcriticisedfor donatingonly30tofaminerelief.IntheLoughbricklandarea,nearNewry,thelocal landlord,SquireWhyteusedthecrisistoevictalargenumberofhistenants,thereby consolidatingfarms.22 InNewrythelocalpopulationwaslittleaffectedastheportreliedoncommerce.However, thelocalworkhouseswelledfrom465inmatesin1845to1116by1847duetotheinflux fromdistressedareasofsouthDown,southArmaghandLouth.Newrybecameakeycentre ofemigrationfromsouthUlsterandnorthLeinsterwithvesselscarryingthousandsmainly toLiverpoolbutalsodirecttoCanadaandtheUnitedStates. NewryhasanotherindelibleconnectionwiththeGreatFaminebecauseofitsassociations withJohnMitchel(181575),theProtestantYoungIrelanderwhowasrearedthereandwho wrotemovinglyoftheimpactoftheFamineonthepeasantry.Hisstatuestandstodayin JohnMitchelPlaceinNewry. InCountyAntrimthepotatoblighthadasevereimpactintheGlensandRathlinIsland,in BallymoneyinthenorthandinLisburninthesouth.InGlenarmonthecoastallfour

21

Ibid,pp1028 Ibid,pp123

22

17

churchesworkedtogethertoestablishasuccessfulsoupkitcheninfaceofthecommon threat.ThereweredeathsfromstarvationontheLondonderryestateatDunloydespitethe Marquissremissionofrents.Rathlinislandexperiencedgreatdistressamongallsectionsof its(Irishspeaking)populationwithpeoplereducedtoeatinglimpetsandseaweed.Asin Donegal,thefolkmemoryoftheBrachnmenlingeredintheGlens.Soupkitchens operatedintheBallymenaareaandinLisburnwhere1200werefeddailyin1847. ThiserainNorthAntrimisrecalledbytheFamineStoneerectedbytheMarchionessof Londonderry(aMacDonnellofAntrim)ontheAntrimCoastRd.Itwasherintentionthatthis stonewouldbeanimperishablememorialofIrelandsafflictionandEnglandsgenerosityin theyear184647.23 Belfast: Recentresearchhasrevealedthetrueimpactofthefamineonthegrowingindustrialtown ofBelfast.Intheearlymonthsof1847thetownattractedlargenumbersoffamishedand diseaseriddenpeoplefromallpartsofUlster.InMarch1847typhusfeversweptthetown followingthearrivaloftheSwatara,anemigrantshipfromConnacht,intheport.Asfever, dysenteryandtyphussweptthetown,bothrichandpoorandallsectionsofthecommunity wereaffected.Bythespringof1847feverwasrampantintheProtestantShankilland CatholicCromacdistrictswherethedepressionintradehadrenderedpeoplesusceptible.24

23

Ibid,pp2434

Bardon,opcit,pp2923:CKinealyandGMacAtasney,theHiddenFamine:Hunger,Povertyand SectarianisminBelfast(PlutoPress,2000),pp8697

24

18

ByJune1847thecrisisbroughttogetheracrosscommunitybodyledbytheCatholicbishop, CorneliusDenvir,andPresbyterianclergy.However,thecollaborationofCatholicand ProtestantclergyinthesuppressionofbeggarsevokedauniqueGaelicprotestpoem,Ceol namBacachfromthepenoftheGaelicscribe,AodhMacDomhnaill,broughttoBelfast fromCountyMeathbythePresbyterianindustrialistandGaeilgeoir,RobertMacAdamofthe SohoFoundry.25 MassgravesweredugforthevictimsinFriarsBush(theancientCatholicburialgroundat Stranmillis),Shankill(ChurchofIreland)andCliftonStreet(Presbyterian).Todayasimple stonemarksthePlagueyHillatFriarsBush,besideQueensUniversity,whereupto1200 victimsofthe1847pandemiclieburied.In1996BelfastCityCouncilmarkedthe sesquicentennialoftheGreatFaminewithastainedglasswindowintheCityHall. (InsertpicofPlaque) InCountyDerrythefaminebithardinboththenorthernandsouthernendsofthecounty. Itisestimatedthattherewere1,000excessdeathsinthecountyperyearduring184651.In theAghadoweyandAgiveydistrictsofnorthDerrydistressamongthecottiersalarmedRev JohnBrown,aChurchofIrelandclergyman,whourgedthelocallandlord,theMarquessof Waterfordtoattendtothepooronhisestate.TheMarquessrespondedbyestablishing soupkitchens.InAghanloo,nearLimavady,RevWilliamHughes,anotherrector,reported greatdistressinlate1846amongthelabouringorcottierclass.FromMagherafeltin southDerryLordLondonderrysagentreportedtohismasterthespreadoffeverinthe districtbyOctober1847.

25

IamindebtedtoDrFionntandeBrun(UniversityofUlster,Coleraine)forthisreference.

19

MeanwhiletheportofDerryplayedakeyroleintheflowofemigrantsfromnorthwest Ulster.InDecember1848theLondonderry,ashipenroutefromSligotoLiverpoolputinto Derrywhere72men,womenandchildrenwerefoundsuffocatedinthehold.26 WhileitistruethattheFamineaffectedeverysectionoftheUlsterpopulation,theRate inAidissueof1849showedthatsectarianismwasneverfarfromthesurface. TheGreatFaminehasmanylessonsforthosecopingwithfamineandfoodsecurityinthe ThirdWorldtoday: theslavishdevotiontolaissezfaireandtheprevailingeconomicorthodoxywhichsawfood exportedfromthecountry: thefatalsystemofsubdivisionandtheoverrelianceonasinglefoodsource; thelackofanycoherentnationalleadership; astrikinglackofcompassionamongGovernmentandofficials; thelackofanyrealnationalleadershiporconsensusonhowtocopewiththecrisis.As Mitchelputit,ThehighaspirationsafteranationalSenateandanationalflaghadsunktoa merecravingforfood.27 thegrudging,tardyandtritenatureoftheofficialresponse thetragedyoftheunregulatedcoffinships

26

KinealyandParkhill(eds),theFamineinUlster,pp15362 Beckett,opcit,p145

27

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TheFaminewouldleaveIrelandchangedunrecognisably.Itwouldtransformlandholding andagriculture,leavealegacyofcontinuousemigrationandacceleratethedeclineofthe Irishlanguage.Butregardlessofwhetheritactedasawatershedoranacceleratorof changesalreadyintrain,itsmostbrutalmonumentwasthemassivelossoflife.Inthe RossesareaofwestDonegaltheimpactofAnGortaMorwaspoignantlyrecalledbyits survivors: ThainigblaintaanGhortaagusandrochshaoghalagusantocrasagusbhrissinneart agusspioradnndaoini.MharbhanGortaachanrud.(TheyearsoftheFamine,ofthe badtimesandthehungerbrokethespiritandstrengthofthepeople.TheFaminekilled everything.28 ThefolkmemoryofthatawfulperiodlingersoninIreland,northandsouth,andnow findspositiveexpressionthecommitmentoftheIrishstateandIrishpeopletothe eradicationofhungeranddiseaseinthedevelopingworldtoday. Sources: JonathanBardon,AHistoryofUlster(Belfast,1992) JonathanBardon,Belfast,AnIllustratedHistory(Belfast,1982) CKinealyandTParkhill(eds),TheFamineinUlster(Belfast,1997) CDillonandHAJefferies,Tyrone:HistoryandSociety(Dublin,2000)

28

Kinealy,ADeathdealingFamine,pp1545

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LKennedy,PSEll,EMCrawfordandLAClarkson,MappingtheGreatIrishFamine(Four CourtsPress,1999) CKinealyandGMcAtasney,TheHiddenFamine:Hunger,PovertyandSectarianismin Belfast184050 PeadarLivingstone,TheFermanaghStory(ClogherRecord,1975) TheGreatFamine18451852(PublicRecordOfficeofNIreland) *DramonPhoenixisPrincipalLecturerinHistoryatStranmillisUniversityCollege,Queens University,BelfastandamemberoftheNationalFamineCommemorationCommittee.This isbasedonatalkdeliveredatasymposiumonthetheme,FromtheIrishFaminetoPost ModernHungerinthe21stCentury,intheNationalLibraryofIrelandon13October2011.

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