INDEX

01. LNG, NGL, CNG, LPG, Nuclear Energy. 02. 03. 04. 05. 06. 07. 08. 09. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54.

What is LNG?
LNG is liquefied natural gas, a clear, colourless, non-toxic liquid that forms when natural gas is cooled to around -160C (-260F). LNG is natural gas in its liquid form.

LNG Properties
Natural gas is the cleanest burning fossil fuel. LNG is odorless, colorless, non-corrosive and non-toxic. Therefore, LNG will not pollute land or water resources. Liquefied natural gas or LNG is natural gas (predominantly methane, CH4) that has been converted to liquid form for ease of storage or transport. This shrinks the volume of the gas 600 times, making it easier to store and transport to markets around the world. Liquefied natural gas takes up about 1/600th the volume of natural gas in the gaseous state. This volume reduction permits cost-effective transportation of LNG over long distances. Hazards include flammability, freezing and asphyxia.

A typical LNG process:

The gas is first extracted and transported to a processing plant where it is purified by removing any condensates such as water, oil, mud, as well as other gases such as CO2 and H2S. An LNG process train will also typically be designed to remove trace amounts of mercury from the gas stream to prevent mercury amalgamizing with aluminium in the cryogenic heat exchangers. The gas is then cooled down in stages until it is liquefied. LNG is finally stored in storage tanks and can be loaded and shipped. The liquefaction process involves removal of certain components, such as dust, acid gases, helium, water, and heavy hydrocarbons, which could cause difficulty downstream. The natural gas is then condensed into a liquid at close to atmospheric pressure (maximum transport pressure set at around 25 kPa (3.6 psi)) by cooling it to approximately 162 C (260 F). LNG achieves a higher reduction in volume than compressed natural gas (CNG) so that the energy density of LNG is 2.4 times greater than that of CNG or 60% of that of diesel fuel. This makes LNG cost efficient to transport over long distances where pipelines do not exist.

Energy density and other physical properties

The higher heating value of LNG is estimated to be 24 MJ/L. The lower heating value of LNG is 21 MJ/L or 563623 BTU/ft3. For the purpose of comparison of different fuels the heating value is also known as the energy density expressed in MJ/L or the gasoline gallon equivalent expressed in BTU/ft3. The energy density of LNG is 2.4 times greater than that of CNG which makes it economical to transport natural gas by ship in the form of LNG. The energy density of LNG is comparable to propane and ethanol but is only 60% that of diesel and 70% that of gasoline. The density of LNG is roughly 0.41 kg/L to 0.5 kg/L, depending on temperature, pressure, and composition, compared to water at 1.0 kg/L.One million BTU is 32.76 kg.

Storage:
Modern LNG storage tanks are typically full containment type, which has a prestressed concrete outer wall and a high-nickel steel inner tank, with extremely efficient insulation between the walls. Large tanks are low aspect ratio (height to width) and cylindrical in design with a domed steel or concrete roof. Storage pressure in these tanks is very low, less than 10 kPa (1.45 psig). LNG must be kept cold to remain a liquid, independent of pressure. Despite efficient insulation, there will inevitably be some heat leakage into the LNG, resulting in vaporization of the LNG. This boil-off gas acts to keep the LNG cold. The boil-off gas is typically compressed and exported as natural gas, or is reliquefied and returned to storage.

The Advantages of LNG

1. It makes it possible to use natural gas in areas where natural gas is not available via the national delivery network or municipal distribution system. 2. It is a more economic source of energy when compared to black products (fuel oil and diesel) and LPG. 3. It is suitable for consumer purposes such as process, steam recovery, heating and cooking in sectors like tourism, steel, paper and ceramic. 4. Because of it high energy content, the total amount of energy needed is reduced. 5. It expands 600 times to reach its gaseous state (1 unit of LNG = 600 units of natural gas). 6. A large amount of natural gas can be stored and transported at low pressure. 7. It can be used in all burning devices by making minor changes. 8. Because it is a clean fuel, it contributes to improved product quality and reduces maintenance costs.

The disadvantages of LNG

1. LNG operations are capital intensive. Upfront costs are large for construction of liquefaction facilities, purchasing specially designed LNG ships, and building re-gasification facilities. 2. Methane, a primary component of LNG, is considered a greenhouse gas because it increases carbon levels in the atmosphere when released.

What is the composition of LNG?

Natural gas is composed primarily of methane (typically, at least 90 percent), but may also contain ethane, propane and heavier hydrocarbons and small quantities of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, sulphur compounds, and water. The liquefaction process that produces LNG removes any oxygen, carbon dioxide, sulphur compounds, and water.

Is LNG environmentally friendly?

When LNG is vaporized and used as fuel, it reduces particle emissions to near zero and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions by 70 percent in comparison with heavier hydrocarbon fuels. When burned for power generation, the results are even more dramatic. Sulphur dioxide (SO2) emissions are virtually eliminated and CO2 emissions are reduced significantly. If spilled on water or land, LNG will not mix with the water or soil, but evaporates and dissipates into the air leaving no residue. It is not considered an emission source. Additionally there are significant benefits when natural gas is used as fuel over other fossil fuels. However, methane, a primary component of LNG, is considered to be a greenhouse gas and may add to the global climate change problem if released into the atmosphere.

Definition of 'Natural Gas Liquids - NGL'

Components of natural gas that are separated from the gas state in the form of liquids. This separation occurs in a field facility or in a gas processing plant through absorption, condensation, adsorption or other method. Natural gas liquids as classified based on their vapor pressure: Low = condensate. Intermediate = natural gas. High = liquefied petroleum gas. NGL are naturally occurring elements found in natural gas, and include propane, butane and ethane, among others. NGL are valuable as separate products and it is therefore profitable to remove them from the natural gas. The liquids are first extracted from the natural gas and later separated into different components.

What is CNG?
Compressed natural gas, or CNG, is natural gas under pressure which remains clear, odorless, and non-corrosive. Although vehicles can use natural gas as either a liquid or a gas, most vehicles use the gaseous form compressed to pressures above 3,100 pounds per square inch. Compressed natural gas (CNG) is a fossil fuel substitute for gasoline (petrol), Diesel fuel, or propane/LPG. Although its combustion does produce greenhouse gases, it is a more environmentally clean alternative to those fuels, and it is much safer than other fuels in the event of a spill (natural gas is lighter than air, and disperses quickly when released). CNG may also be mixed with biogas, produced from landfills or wastewater, which doesn't increase the concentration of carbon in the atmosphere. CNG is made by compressing natural gas (which is mainly composed of methane, CH4), to less than 1% of the volume it occupies at standard atmospheric pressure. It is stored and distributed in hard containers at a pressure of 200248 bar (2,9003,600 psi), usually in cylindrical or spherical shapes. CNG is used in traditional gasoline internal combustion engine cars that have been converted into bi-fuel vehicles (gasoline/CNG). CNG's volumetric energy density is estimated to be 42% that of liquefied natural gas (because it is not liquefied), and 25% that of Diesel fuel.

Advantages:
1. Due to the absence of any lead or benzene content in CNG, the lead fouling of spark plugs is eliminated. 2. CNG-powered vehicles have lower maintenance costs when compared with other hydrocarbon fuel-powered vehicles. 3. CNG fuel systems are sealed, which prevents any spill or evaporation losses. 4. Increased life of lubricating oils, as CNG does not contaminate and dilute the crankcase oil. 5. Being a gaseous fuel, CNG mixes easily and evenly in air. 6. CNG is less likely to ignite on hot surfaces, since it has a high auto-ignition temperature (540 C) and a narrow range (515%) of flammability. 7. Less pollution and more efficiency: CNG emits significantly less pollutants such as carbon dioxide (CO2), unburned hydrocarbons (UHC), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides (SOx) and particulate matter (PM), compared to petrol. CNG is essentially methane, i.e., CH4 with a calorific value of 900 kJ/mol. This burns with oxygen to produce 1 mole of CO2 and 2 moles of H2O. By comparison, petrol can be regarded as essentially benzene or similar, C6H6 with a calorific value of about 3,300 kJ/mol and this burns to produce 6 moles of CO2 and 3 moles of H2O. From this it can be seen that per mole of CO2 produced, CNG releases over 1.6 times as much energy as that released from petrol (or for the same amount of energy, CNG produces nearly 40% less CO2). The corresponding figures are 78 and 25.8 grams respectively, for nitrogen oxides. Carbon monoxide emissions are reduced even further. Due to lower carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxides emissions, switching to CNG can help mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. The ability of CNG to reduce greenhouse gas emissions over the entire fuel lifecycle will depend on the source of the natural gas and the fuel it is replacing. CNG produced from landfill biogas was found by CARB to have the lowest greenhouse gas emissions of any fuel analyzed, with a value of 11.26 gCO2e/MJ (over 88% lower than conventional gasoline).

Drawbacks:
Compressed natural gas vehicles require a greater amount of space for fuel storage than conventional gasoline powered vehicles. Since it is a compressed gas, rather than a liquid like gasoline, CNG takes up more space for each gasoline gallon equivalent (GGE). Therefore, the tanks used to store the CNG usually take up additional space in the trunk of a car or bed of a pickup truck which runs on CNG.CNG-powered vehicles are considered to be safer than gasoline-powered vehicles.

Comparison with other natural gas fuels:

Compressed Natural Gas is often confused with liquefied natural gas (LNG). While both are stored forms of natural gas, the key difference

is that CNG is gas that is stored (as a gas) at high pressure, while LNG is stored at very low temperature, becoming liquid in the process. CNG has a lower cost of production and storage compared to LNG as it does not require an expensive cooling process and cryogenic tanks. CNG requires a much larger volume to store the same mass of gasoline or petrol and the use of very high pressures (3000 to 4000 psi, or 205 to 275 bar). As a consequence of this, LNG is often used for transporting natural gas over large distances, and the gas is then converted into CNG before distribution to the end user. CNG can also be confused with LPG, which is liquefied propane. Unlike natural gas (mostly methane), propane can be compressed to a liquid without continual refrigeration. CNG can be stored at lower pressure in a form known as an ANG (Adsorbed Natural Gas) tank, at 35 bar (500 psi, the pressure of gas in natural gas pipelines) in various sponge like materials, such as activated carbon and metal-organic frameworks (MOFs).The fuel is stored at similar or greater energy density than CNG. This means that vehicles can be refuelled from the natural gas network without extra gas compression; the fuel tanks can be slimmed down and made of lighter, weaker materials. Compressed natural gas is sometimes mixed with hydrogen (HCNG) which increases the H/C ratio of the fuel and gives it a flame speed about eight times higher than CNG.

Petrol cars vs. CNG cars:

CNG cars have advantages and disadvantages. CNG cars are cleaner emissions, gas is cheaper than gasoline and most of the CNG produced comes from the USA, helping home economy. Besides, the costs of natural gas is significantly less compared with a gallon of gasoline, saving between 30 and 40 percent per gallon. On the other hand, CNG distributors sometimes are hard to find, been not available in some areas. Although sometimes the costs of a conversion to CNG is expensive, its worthy because at the end of the year th e amount of money saved its always high. Natural gas is a very important source of energy because of reducing pollution and maintaining air clean. The emission of monoxide to the atmosphere is about a 90 percent less than gasoline, according to the Environmental Protection Agency, helping to reduce the greenhouse effect. The combustion of CNG causes a less production of gasses than gasoline, helping to reduce this effect and maintaining air clean. By making a conversion in cars engine from petrol to CNG in our car, we can help the environment. To reduce the emission of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide to the atmosphere we are helping our planet to breathe.

CNG- Advantages and Disadvantages:

Advantages: 1. Due to the absence of any lead or benzene content in CNG, the lead fouling of spark plugs is eliminated. 2. CNG-powered vehicles have lower maintenance costs when compared with other fossil fuel-powered vehicles. 3. CNG fuel systems are sealed, which prevents any spill or evaporation losses. 4. Increased life of lubricating oils, as CNG does not contaminate and dilute the crankcase oil. 5. CNG mixes easily and evenly in air being a gaseous fuel. 6. CNG is less likely to auto-ignite on hot surfaces, since it has a high auto-ignition temperature (540 C) and a narrow range (5%-15%) of flammability. 7. Less pollution and more efficiency: CNG emits significantly less pollutants such as carbon dioxide (CO2), unburned hydrocarbons (UHC), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides (SOx) and particulate matter (PM), compared to petrol.

Disadvantages of CNG:
1. CNG vehicles have a shorter traveling distance as compared to traditional fuels. 2. The main problem is the lower number of fuel stations in the case of CNG. 3. Since the natural gas tanks are larger than those in a regular car, much of the trunk size is sacrificed and sometimes part of the passenger area too. 4. Another disadvantage of CNG is that the fuelling process is very slow. 5. Low Low-end Torque. 6. Engine's life span got shortened. 7. Starting problem in cold weather. 8. Installation cost is quite high. 9. Its better to drive a vehicle on petrol as compared to CNG coz the engine was not designed for CNG.

Difference Between CNG, LNG, NGL, LPG:

CNG--Compressed natural gas, is gas used for motor fuel compressed to a high pressure (usually around 3,000 psig) and is primarily methane (C1, but can have some C2). LNG--Liquefied natural gas, is gas that has been compressed at very low temperatures and is transported as a liquid. Primarily methane. LPG--Liquefied Petroleum Gas, gas that is liquid near room temperature and atmospheric pressure. This product has very little methane and butane and is primarily propane (C3). NGL--Natural Gas Liquids, heavier hydrocarbons that have been extracted from field gas for use as a feedstock in chemical plants. Depending on prices for Propane and Ethane, NGL may or may not contain these products (as propane and ethane prices fluctuate the plants bypass, partially bypass, or use the de-propanizer and de-ethanizer vessels). The combined mix of stuff is a liquid at ambient temperature and moderate pressure.

What is the meaning of LNG and NGL, and their differences?

LNG stands for Liquefied Natural Gas. It generally is 95% - 99+% methane. It is produced at a temp of about -258 deg F and stored in insulated tanks. It is very clean burning and as such is becoming desirable as a fuel for vehicles (usually fleet vehicles such as buses) as well as the traditional use of gas to homes. NGL stands for Natural Gas Liquids. This means basically any hydrocarbon heavier than methane. The tank trucks that haul propane are classed NGL trailers. This includes propane and butane. Most NGL liquids are produced and stored at ambient temperatures under pressure. Propane tank pressure is typically less than 208 psig at 100 deg F and butane is 70 psig at 100 deg F.

Whats the difference between CNG, LNG, LPG and Hydrogen?

Compressed Natural Gas or CNG is stored on the vehicle in high-pressure tanks - 20 to 25 MPa (200 to 250 bars, or 3,000 to 3,600 psi). Natural gas consists mostly of methane and is drawn from gas wells or in conjunction with crude oil production. As delivered through

the pipeline system, it also contains hydrocarbons such as ethane and propane as well as other gases such as nitrogen, helium, carbon dioxide, sulphur compounds, and water vapour. A sulphur-based odourant is normally added to CNG to facilitate leak detection. Natural gas is lighter than air and thus will normally dissipate in the case of a leak, giving it a significant safety advantage over gasoline or LPG. Liquefied Natural Gas or LNG is natural gas stored as a super-cooled (cryogenic) liquid. The temperature required to condense natural gas depends on its precise composition, but it is typically between -120 and -170C (-184 and 274F). The advantage of LNG is that it offers an energy density comparable to petrol and diesel fuels, extending range and reducing refueling frequency. Liquefied Petroleum Gas or LPG (also called Autogas) consists mainly of propane, propylene, butane, and butylene in various mixtures. It is produced as a by-product of natural gas processing and petroleum refining. The components of LPG are gases at normal temperatures and pressures. One challenge with LPG is that it can vary widely in composition, leading to variable engine performance and cold starting performance. At normal temperatures and pressures, LPG will evaporate. Because of this, LPG is stored in pressurised steel bottles. Unlike natural gas, LPG is heavier than air, and thus will flow along floors and tend to settle in low spots, such as basements. Such accumulations can cause explosion hazards, and are the reasons that LPG fuelled vehicles are prohibited from indoor parkades in many jurisdictions. What is nuclear energy? Nuclear energy is energy in the nucleus (core) of an atom. Atoms are tiny particles that make up every object in the universe. There is enormous energy in the bonds that hold atoms together. Nuclear energy can be used to make electricity. But first the energy must be released. It can be released from atoms in two ways: nuclear fusion and nuclear fission. In nuclear fusion, energy is released when atoms are combined or fused together to form a larger atom. This is how the sun produces energy. In nuclear fission, atoms are split apart to form smaller atoms, releasing energy. Nuclear power plants use nuclear fission to produce electricity. Fission and Fusion Fission is the splitting of a large atom such as Uranium or Plutonium into two smaller atoms, called fission products. Also released during such a fission are several neutrons (that enable a chain reaction) and substantial energy. This nuclear reaction was the first to be discovered. All commercial nuclear power plants use this reaction to generate electricity. Fusion is the combining of two small atoms such as Hydrogen or Helium to produce heavier atoms and energy. These reactions can release more energy than fission without producing radioactive byproducts. Fusion reactions occur in the sun, using Hydrogen as fuel and producing Helium as waste. This reaction has not been commercially developed and is a serious research interest worldwide, due to its promise of limitless, pollution-free, and non-proliferation features. Nuclear reactions and radiation

Nuclear reactions involve changes in an atoms nucleus and thus cause a change in the atom itself. Unlike normal chemical reactions that form molecules, nuclear reactions result in the transmutation of one element into a different isotope or a different element altogether. There are two types of nuclear reactions. The first is the radioactive decay of bonds within the nucleus that emit radiation as it decays or transforms to a more stable state. The second is the billiard ball type of reactions, where the nucleus or a nuclear particle (like a proton) is slamm ed into by another nucleus or nuclear particle. What is nuclear damage? Nuclear damage is explained as any injury to or the death, sickness or disease of a person; or damage to the environment including loss of property which arises from ionizing radiation associated with a nuclear installation, nuclear vessel or handling of radioactive materials. What is nuclear safety? Nuclear safety means the achievement of safe operating conditions, prevention of nuclear accidents or mitigation of nuclear accident consequences, resulting in the protection of workers, the public and the environment against the potential harmful effects of ionizing radiation or radioactive material. What is a nuclear authorization and who needs one? In order to site, construct, operate and decommission a nuclear power station or (to handle or use certain types of radioactive materials) in South Africa, a nuclear authorization must be granted by the National Nuclear Regulator (NNR). The NNR issues nuclear authorizations in the following categories; Nuclear Installations, Nuclear Vessels, Certificate of Registration, Certificate of Exemption. What are advantages and disadvantages of nuclear power? ADVANTAGES: 1. Nuclear power plants don't require a lot of space - they have to be built on the coast, but do not need a large plot like a wind farm. 2. It doesn't contribute to carbon emissions - no CO2 is given out - it therefore does not cause global warming. 3. It does not produce smoke particles to pollute the atmosphere. 4. Nuclear energy is by far the most concentrated form of energy - a lot of energy is produced from a small mass of fuel. This reduces transport costs - (although the fuel is radioactive and therefore each transport that does occur is expensive because of security implications).

5. It is reliable. It does not depend on the weather. We can control the output it is relatively easy to control the output - although the time factor for altering power output is not as small as for fossil fuel stations. 6. It produces a small volume of waste (although that waste is radioactive). DISADVANTAGES: 1. Disposal of nuclear waste is very expensive. As it is radioactijive it has to be disposed of in such a way as it will not pollute the environment. 2. Decommissioning of nuclear power stations is expensive and takes a long time. (In fact we have not ever decommissioned one!) 3. Nuclear accidents can spread radiation producing particles over a wide area, This radiation harms the cells of the body which can make humans sick or even cause death. Illness can appear or strike people years after they were exposed to nuclear radiation and genetic problems can occur too. A possible type of reactor disaster is known as a meltdown. In a meltdown, the fission reaction of an atom goes out of control, which leads to a nuclear explosion releasing great amounts of radioactive particles into the environment.