I. C. Engine - 3rd Year Engineering Coursre

Internal Combustion Engines
Kerbala University
College of Engineering
Mechanical Engineering Department
Academic Year Class Subject 2012 - 2013 3rd Year Class Internal Combustion Engines
Lecturer
Dr. Raoof M. Radhi
3rd year class Mechanical Engineering
subject
Internal Combustion Engines Ref. book Engineering fundamentals of the I. C. Engine By. Willard W. Pulkrabek
Class time table

Theoretical lecture Tutorial Lab
2 hrs / week 1 hr / week 3 hrs / week
exam
1st semester Mid year exam 2nd semester Final exam
2-3 exams 2-3 exams
Grades /year
15 marks /100 Mid year exam 20 marks /100 2nd semester exams 15 marks /100 Final exam 50 marks /100 ---------------------------------------------------------Total 100 /100
1st semester exams
Grades /semester
Mean exam marks
7.5 Teacher assessment 2.5 Lab work 5.0 ---------------------------------------------------Total 15
Industrial & scientific visits

Musaiyab thermal power plant Musaiyab gas turbine power plant Musaiyab technical institute automobile lab Kerbala cement manufacturing company
Industrial & scientific visits report

Students have to submit TWO technical report for each visit, and this will be considered as lab report, and receives marks accordingly. These report should be as follows: 1. 1st report is descriptive report presenting technical and engineering side of the plant with all the necessary specifications, layouts, and diagrams, discussing clearly thereby his point of view of what he had actually seen, understood, and concluded. 2. 2nd report is analysis report, where the students should collect technical data from the plant facilities (control boards, gauges, log-book, technical documents, and engineering department). These data should be adequate to enable the student to do complete performance analysis and performance assessment (work, power output, efficiency) for the plant actual operation.
basics
Basics of previous subjects
thermodynamics fluid mechanics heat transfer mathematics Units & definitions of power, energy, work
syllabus
1.
2. 3.
4.
Operating characteristics Engine cycles
Introduction
8. 9. 10. 11.
5.
6. 7.
Thermochemistry- Fuels-combustion i thermo-chemistry ii fuel iii combustion iv electrical system Gas exchange systems i induction process & system ii gas motion inside cylinder iii exhaust process & system Emissions & Air Pollution Engine heat transfer
Engine friction & lubrication Engine boosting i supercharging ii turbocharging Testing and measurement Unconventional Engines i heat engine cycles ii Wankle rotary engine iii Stirling engine
Students duties
Students should follow
the lecture through : 1. Lecture data show presentation. 2. Lecture notes 3. Handout & leaflets. 4. Text book 5. Any other class verbal announcement
Students will be asked to
do through the course : 1. Home work 2. Quiz 3. Assay or report on specific topics.
Examination
Normally, exam will be conducted as closed book exam under the responsibility of the subject tutor, and within the official examination rules. However the tutor can allow open book exam, but should brief students of his intention and his goals in such exercise.
Open Book Exam
**
Open book exam will allow: Open books Open notes Open calculators Open computers All provided class materials Worked out home work problems are allowed and encouraged Copies of homework answer sheets are allowed and encouraged
** Students will be asked to show detailed answers
Exam rules Exam is to be an individual effort, students therefore should remember the following rules:
1. No form of direct communication between students. 2. No passing of [papers, pencil, calculators, text book, or any other materials] directly between students. 3. Students may only ask the tutor a limited form of questions that pertain clarity of the exam questions. 4. Students will not be allowed to ask any question that may give hints towards the answer.
Disobedience of any of the above and academic dishonesty of any kind is considered as serious offense, and will not be tolerated and will definitely subject the student:
1. To at least failure of the course, and 2. Up to and possibly including expulsion from the university.
Lab work
REPORT PRESENTATION: Presentation of your report is very important. Title page should include: Lab name. Experiment number and name. Student surname, name. Laboratory group. Experiment date Lab. supervisor name Object of the test should be briefly explained (IN YOUR OWN WORDS) Data, collected during test, should be tabulated. A sample calculation will be performed for a selected load condition All results will be presented in a tabulated form.
Graphs: Selected graphs from the following will be drawn. a) Corrected brake horse power b) Corrected torque c) Brake mean effective pressure d) Brake specific fuel consumption e) Brake thermal efficiency f) Volumetric efficiency g) Actual air-fuel ratio h) Excess air coefficient While plotting above graphs on a millimetric paper you are supposed to draw the trend lines of the above properties versus engine speed. Discussion & Conclusions: (Graphical outputs will be your domain for this section. Graphs and reasons for observed performance characteristics will be explained. Also discuss the possible sources of errors that may be encountered in the experiment.
Tutorial
Tutorial class will be more productive, better objective, wider educative, if it becomes students individual effort with close help of the tutor. Therefore, students will be arbitrary but equally divided into SIX Groups. A tutorial sheet will be circulated in the class for every subject during the year with answers as footnote of each question. Each tutorial sheet contain six questions, one question for each tutorial group to solve during the tutorial class . Each group solve the sheet question number similar to group number. Each group should appoint a coordinator with the other five groups for gathering the solution of the six sheet questions. This will allow the solution of all sheet questions to be spread among all groups tutorial group should experiments the benefits of TEAM WORK during the process of problem solving , this means that every member of the group should participate in the effort of solving the problem.
Students behavior
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
6.
Class attendance must be consistence . Determinant & Active during lecture discussion. Cooperative. Maintain class order. Students are expected to show respect for order, law, personal rights of others, and the education mission of the department. considers academic dishonesty to be a serious offense
Lecturer responsibilities
Lecture materials must be within the subject syllabus. 2. lecture presentation must be simple and informative. 3. Keeping class order. 4. Make himself available in none class time at a preset time-table for students assistance.
1.
Advice to students :
1. ** Student should first-of-all understand the subject. ** Understanding the subject does not mean accepting the information at the instant of time . No ** Understanding the subject means understanding the engineering thoughts in the subject Student should study as much as it is required to understand the engineering thoughts of the subjects. i.e Study
2.
Study
and . Study
3.
The lecturer helps the student to understand . not make him understand
Be careful how you interpret results
Internal Combustion Engine

Subject
Internal combustion Engines
Ref. Book
Engineering Fundamentals of the IC Engines
By Willard W. Pulkrabek
Class weekly hours

Lectures - 2 hrs Tutorials - 1 hr Lab - 3 hrs

1.01 - Introduction
chapter one
Contents
Chapter One -- Introduction 1.1 introduction 1-2 energy conversion 1.3 engine classification 1.4 engine components 1.5 basic engine cycles 1.6 engine emissions & air pollution 1.7 discussions
chapter one
1.1 - Introduction
I Definitions **Internal combustion engine as the name say combustion is a device concerns with combustion process, whereby heat is produced.
chapter one
In general I.C. Engine is a heat engine, and this can be defined as A heat engine is a device which converts the chemical energy of a fuel into thermal energy Such thermal energy is used to produce mechanical energy at the out put shaft.
chapter one
heat engines can be one of the followings : 1- external combustion engine (ECE). 2- internal combustion engine (ICE). It is important to know that the combustion process in a heat engine in both (ECE & ICE) is actually a chemical reaction between air (oxidant) and fuel at a specific temperature and pressure and within a confined volume (combustion chamber) to produce chemical reaction products (combustion products).
chapter one
Comparison
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. ICE High max efficiency Low first cost Absence of large heat exchangers Efficient cooling sys. Effective cycle temperature control Practical in mobile application Exhaust heat energy utilization. ECE Wide variety of fuel used High staring torque Almost free vibration engine. 4. Practical in a very large power unit 5. Practical in stationary application 1. 2. 3.
chapter one
1.2 Energy conversion

The conversion process of the chemical energy in a fuel into mechanical energy at the shaft out put can be explained as follows :
Chemical energy of fuel is converted to thermal energy by oxidation with air (O2) (combustion) in the combustion chamber. Thermal energy raises the temperature and pressure of the gases within the engine cylinder. High pressure gases expands against the resistance of engine mechanism and linkage. The expansion process (power) forces the engine mechanism to reciprocate (piston) and rotate (crank). Piston reciprocates ups and down causes the crankshaft to rotate giving the output shaft a rotational torque.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
chapter one
1.3 Engine Classification

Engines can be classified in many different ways, as they have many attributes, whereby making them capable of meeting a variety of needs and requirements. The followings are the most used methods of engine classification 1. cylinder numbers & arrangement 2. engine cycles 3. type of ignition 4. valve position & location 5. cam shaft properties 6. engine speed 7. method of air & fuel supply 8. fuel used 9. cooling system 10. application
chapter one
There are so many parts that constitute an internal combustion engine, which makes it a very complex system. Whereby, each part must act in a perfect synchronization with the others to make up *a well defined machine, *a well balanced operation, and *a well established timing.
10
chapter one
1.4 Engine Parts & Components
11
chapter one
12
chapter one
13
chapter one
Many of these engine parts and components, the students will become familiar with during the course time and lectures. However, the followings may be considered as most repeatable during the course, and so, it is useful to mention them in brief hereafter
1. Piston cylindrical shaped mass that reciprocates back and forth in the cylinder, transmitting the pressure forces in the combustion chamber to the rotating crankshaft.
15
chapter one
2. Connecting rod it is a rod or linkage that connect the reciprocating piston with the rotating crankshaft.
16
chapter one
3 - Crankshaft (crank) it is a rotating shaft through which engine work output is supplied to external systems. Fixed with the cylinder block, and receives motion forces from the piston.
17
chapter one
4 - Cylinder circular cylinders in the engine block inside which the piston reciprocate, and beneath which crank is fixed, thus confining the motion linkage.
18
chapter one
5 - camshaft rotating shaft used to push open valves at proper time in the engine cycle. The cam profile is made to give such desired movement to the valve.
19
chapter one
1-5 Basic Engine Cycles
21
chapter one
Most IC engines , both SI & CI, operates on either four or two stroke cycle, where: **stroke is piston travel between the two dead centers **cycle is a process to be completed once and continue to repeat itself in a constant duration. Therefore 4-stroke cycle requires 4 piston travels between top & bottom dead centers , while the 2-stroke cycle requires 2 piston travels
The main types of cycles to be considered are as follows : 1. 4-stroke SI engine cycle 2. 4-stroke CI engine cycle 3. 2-stroke SI engine cycle 4. 2-stroke CI engine cycle
22
chapter one
1.5.1 4-stroke SI engine cycle

Comprises of four piston stroke to complete one operational cycle through two revolutions of the crankshaft , i.e : Induction stroke Compression stroke Power stroke Exhaust stroke
Internal Combustion Engines chapter one
1. 2. 3. 4.
23
Intake Stroke
The piston starts at the top of the cylinder and moves downward. The intake valve opens allowing a fresh charge of mixed fuel and air into the cylinder. This is the intake stroke.
25
chapter one
Compression Stroke
Once reaching bottom the piston moves back up. The intake valve closes sealing the mixture inside the cylinder. The mixture compresses making the soon to come explosion more powerful and efficient. This is the compression stroke.
26
chapter one
Power Stroke
When the piston reaches the top of its stroke the fuel mixture is ignited by the spark plug. The gasoline charge in the cylinder explodes with great power. This is the power stroke
27
chapter one
Exhaust Stroke
Once the piston reaches the bottom of its stroke the piston again moves upward. The exhaust valve opens and the burnt gasses are forced out of the cylinder. This is the exhaust stroke and the engine is ready to begin the cycle again.
28
chapter one
Otto Cycle, ideal for spark ignition engines
Ideal cycles are simplified
1-5-2 / 4-stroke CI engine cycle

1. 2. 3. 4.
31
These are similar to 4-stroke SI engine cycle with the following exceptions : Induction - similar to SI except that only air is admitted without fuel. Compression similar to SI except that only air is compressed, and fuel will be added near the end of this stroke. Power after combustion, power stroke is similar to SI Exhaust similar to SI
Internal Combustion Engines chapter one
1.5.3 / 2 stroke SI engine cycle 1 - Power or expansion stroke high cylinder pressure pushed piston from TDC towards BDC with all ports closed. Air in crankcase is compressed by downward motion of piston. 2. Exhaust blowdown when exhaust port opens near end of power stroke
3. Cylinder scavenging when intake port opens and air-fuel is forced into cylinder under pressure. intake mixture pushes some of the remaining exhaust out the open exhaust port. scavenging lasts until piston passes BDC and closes intake and exhaust port
4. Compression stroke piston moves from BDC to TDC with all ports closed. Intake air fills crankcase. Spark ignition occurs near end of compression stroke.
5. Combustion combustion occurs at almost constant volume near TDC.
1.6 engine emissions & air pollution

1. Emissions Four major emissions produced by IC engines : ** unburnt hydrocarbon (HC) due to rich mixture of air/fuel ** carbon monoxides (CO) not enough O2 to form CO2 ** nitrogen oxides (NOx) excess O2 and high combustion temperature ** solid particulates carbon particles as black smoke or soot
35
chapter one
Methods to reduce engine emission

Two methods are generally used to reduce engine emissions and pollution rate : 1. Improve engine and fuel technology to obtain better combustion process. 2. Exhaust after treatment Using thermal and catalytic converters that promote chemical reaction in the exhaust to convert harmful emission to acceptable forms such as ( CO2 , H2O , N2 )
36 Internal Combustion Engines chapter one
1.7 discussions
1. ICE is a heat engine that covert chemical energy in fuel into mechanical work at the output shaft. 2. Most ICE are reciprocating type, whereby piston reciprocate back and forth inside the cylinder. 3. Important technological inventions that influence the development of ICE are: **discovery of crud oil resulted in the development of reliable fuel appropriate for ICE use. **manufacturing pneumatic rubber tire made the automobile more practical, desirable, comfortable, thus generate a large market demand.
37
chapter one
Internal Combustion Engine

Subject
Internal combustion Engines
Ref. Book
Engineering Fundamentals of the IC Engines
By Willard W. Pulkrabek
Class weekly hours

Lectures - 2 hrs Tutorials - 1 hr Lab - 3 hrs
Chapter One - Introduction

1.02 Engine Classifications
Engine parts
Classification methods
Engines can be classified in many different ways, as they have many attributes, whereby making them capable of meeting a variety of needs and requirements. however, engines in general are classified according to the following methods :
I cylinder numbers & arrangement II engine cycles III type of ignition IV valve position & location V cam shaft properties VI engine speed VII method of air supply VIII - method of fuel supply IX- fuel used X cooling system XI - application
I cylinder numbers & arrangement
1. 2. 3. 4.
Number of cylinders Vertical & horizontal Inline & V-type Single & opposed piston
II engine cycles
1. 2. 3. 4.
Two stroke Four stokes Five stroke Six strokes
III type of ignition
1. Spark ignition 2. Compression ignition
IV valve position & location
a- valve in block (L) b- valve in head (I) c- one in head and one in block (F) d- on opposite sides
V cam shaft properties
1 - Location

2 - Numbers 3 - Driver
crank case cylinder head single overhead cam double overhead cam
chain gear tooth belt
4 - Linkage
direct valve-cam contact valve train (push rod + rocker arm)
Crankcase-cylinder head location
Single & double OHC
***
Cam drive linkage
VI engine speed
1. Low speed engine ( 95 250 rpm ) 2. Medium speed engine ( 300 1000 rpm) 3. High speed engine ( over 1000 rpm)
VII method of air supply

1. 2. 3. Air intake Naturally aspiration Supercharging Turbo-charging
4. Crankcase compression
VIII method of fuel supply

Fuel supply 1. Carburetion 2. Multi-port fuel injection 3. Throttle body fuel injection
IX- fuel used

1. 2. 3. 4. Liquid Gas Duel fuel Solid
X cooling system
liquid cooling Air cooling
XI - application
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Automobile Locomotive Stationary Marine Aircraft Small portable
summary
I cylinder numbers & arrangement II engine cycles III type of ignition IV valve position & location V cam shaft properties VI engine speed VII method of air supply VIII - method of fuel supply IX- fuel used X cooling system XI - application
example
Several or all of these classification terms can be used at the same time : ( turbocharged-spark ignition-4 strokeoverhead valve-water cooled-gasolinemultipoint-V8-automobile ) engine
Chapter two Operating characteristics

2.01 - Introduction
Contents
Chapter two operating characteristics 2.1 introduction 2.1.1 introductory remarks 2.1.2 - definitions 2.2 engine geometry
2.1 - introduction
2.1.1. general introductory remarks i -The benefit of running an ICE is to produce useful output that can be utilized to perform some action that human cannot do easily. This means that ICE converts fuel energy into mechanical output
power
ii- indicated ; is what the engine is really producing, that is indicated inside the cylinder in terms of work, power, mep etc. iii- brake ; is what the engine is actually delivering, similarly the work, power, mep measured at the output shaft.
iv- the values of the two parameters is always given as ( indicated > brake ), and the difference is the losses mostly due to mechanical inefficiencies, i.e :
inefficiency
indicated brake = losses
and; (brake / indicated ) = m and this can be in terms of work, power or mep
losses
v - Engine losses can be characterized as follows: 1- friction losses these are mechanical losses due to friction between all sliding surfaces; con rod bearings; crankshaft bearing; camshaft bearings etc 2- parasitic losses these are the losses due to loads required to operate engine auxiliaries such; air conditioner; oil pump; water pump; alternator; supercharger; and all other auxiliaries.
2.1.2 - definitions
Work (W) It is the force exerted over a distance. When there is no movement of an object, there will be no work done regardless of how much force is exerted. 2. Mean effective pressure (mep) this is the average pressure inside the cylinder, or a hypothetical pressure acting on the piston through the power stroke 3. Power ( W). it is the rate at which the engine is doing work. 4. Torque () a force acting at a moment distance, or torque is a force that, when applied , tends to twist an object rather than its physical movement. 1.
2.2 - Engine geometry

B = cylinder bore = piston diameter S = piston stroke = distance between TDC & BDC Piston displacement is the piston swept volume (Vd) Vd = (/4) B . S
Correlations engine parameters

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Bore & stroke Con rod & crank off-set Average piston speed Compression ratio Engine speed
1. Bore (B) & stroke(S) 0.5 cm B 0.5 m 0.8 B/S 1.2 S=4B for very large engines
in general
B=S B<S B>S
square engine under square (large engines) over square
2. Con rod (r) & crank offset(a) R = r/a R 5-10 small engine large engine
3-4
3. Average piston speed 5 Up 15 m/s

Up 15 m/s engine high performance automobile
5 Up m/s large diesel engine 5. Compression ratio Cr Cr = VBDC / VTDC = (Vd + Vc)/Vc 8 SI 11 12 CI 24
4. Engine speed
200-400
rpm,
12000-higher
Up accelerates & decelerates twice in each crank

So N- and hence,
t- for each rpm Up- as N- .
A limit must be set to avoid material strength failure in components like piston and con rod.
Related volumes
1.Clearance volume (Vc) . this is the minimum volume in the combustion chamber with the piston at the TDC
2. Displacement volume (Vd) .
3.Total volume (Vt) Is the sum of Vc & Vd Vt = V c + V d

4. TDC & BDC Vc = VTDC
volume swept by the piston as it travels through one stroke
Vt = VBDC
tutorial
For a given (Vd), variation of (B,S) may be applied in such a way to maintain Vd=constant. In this respect complete the table below by stating ( ) or ( ) for each parameter under each case :
In this respect complete the table below by stating( ) or ( ) for each parameter under each case :
S Surface area Heat loss Thermal efficiency Piston speed friction Power output
Choose the correct answer
continue
Ch.2 operating characteristics

2.03 - Derivation of slider crank model
notations
b = cylinder bore S = piston stroke a = crank off-set S = 2a l = con rod length = crank angle s = slider = F() TDC=top dead center BDC=bottom dead C
x = piston travel from TDC to position S = 2a crank offset diameter. 1. Swept volume Vd for one cylinder is Vd = (/4) B . S 2. Clearance volume Vc Vc = VTDC 2. Total volume Vt = VBDC = Vd + Vc
Compression ratio (Cr )
From which (Vc) can be expressed as :
General trigonometry
cos + sin = 1 cos = 1 - sin cos 2 = cos - sin sin 2 = 2 sin cos sinA/a=sinB/b=sinC/c
***
1. 2. 3. 4.
fgh hf = a cos hg = a sin ehg eh = r cos hg = r sin From the two triangles : hg = a sin = r sin so sin = (a/r) sin Also ef = hf + eh ef = a cos + r cos
5. Since cos + sin = 1 cos = 1 - sin 6. and since from 3 sin = (a/r) sin 7. Then cos = 1 - sin 8. Sub. Eq.6 in eq.7 cos =1 -(a/r) sin
9. From fig. ef = hf + eh = a cos + r cos and this is equal to the slider distance (s), the s = a cos + r cos From (8) we get
s =a cos +r 1 -(a/r) sin s = a cos + r -a sin
s = slider = F() which determines the piston position at any crank angle Also s = the distance between crank axis and piston wrist pin axis 1. Piston at TDC s=r+a 2. Piston at BDC s=r-a
Piston position is defined by the angle () that the piston center line makes with the crank offset. Such position effects many operating variables, the main of which are the five variables mentioned below. These complicated mathematical correlations helps in understanding the engine performance during actual piston movement inside the cylinder, where () can take any value (4-stroke for example) from ( = 0) at the start till the end of the cycle at ( = 720)
1 - Piston travel x = f () 2 cylinder volume Vcyl = f() 3 - Piston speed Up = f () 4 - Piston acceleration ap = f() 5 - Cylinder wall surface area Acw = f()
Piston travel x = f ( )
10. If the slider reaches a position at ( ) crank angle, then the piston would have travelled a distance (x) from TDC, where x=(r+a)s and
s = a cos +r -a sin Sub value of (s) to find (x)
s = a cos +r -a sin x=(r+a)s There are three specific piston position 1 - at TDC ( = 0) { cos 0 = 1 and sin 0 = 0} so, s = a + r x=(r+a)s then x = 0 2 - at BDC ( = 180) cos 180 = -1 and sin 180 = 0 so, s = - a + r i.e s = r - a and therefore x=(r+a)s x = ( r + a ) (r - a ) x = 2 a = piston stroke
This means that the crank shaft rotates (180 deg) and the piston travels the complete distance of a stroke .
3 at ( ) , then s = a cos +r -a sin x=(r+a)s Whereby, the piston position can be specified by substituting any specific value of ( ), to find the corresponding value of (s), from which (x) can be evaluated.
cylinder
= f()
V = Vc+(/4) B . X V = Vd / (Cr 1 ) + (/4) B . X s = a cos +r -a sin x = ( r + a ) s x = ( r + a ) [a cos +r -a sin ]

x = ( r + a ) [a cos +r -a sin ] V = Vd / (Cr 1 ) + (/4) B . X
Vt = Vd + Vc and Vc = Vd / (Cr 1 ) and Vd = (/4) B . S
V V V V V
Let
= Vd / (Cr 1 ) + (/4) B . {( r + a ) [a cos +r -a sin ]} = Vd /(Cr 1) + (/4) B . a{((r/a) +1) [ cos +(r/ a )-sin ]} R = r/a
= Vd /(Cr 1) + (/4) B . a{((R) +1) [ cos +R - sin ]} And let a = S = Vd /(Cr 1) + (/4) B .S/2 {((R) +1) [ cos +R - sin ]} But (/4) B .S/2 = Vd / 2 = Vd /(Cr 1) + (Vd /2 ) { ((R) +1) [ cos +R - sin ] }
Piston speed Up = f ( )
Since s = a cos +r -a sin The instantaneous piston speed can be found by differentiation of (s) with respect to time : ds / dt = Up ds / dt = (ds/d ) . (d / dt)
ds / dt = - a sin + {1/[2(r -a sin )]} [- 2 a sin cos ]
ds / dt = - a sin + {1/[2(r -a sin)]} [- 2 a sin cos ] The (-ve) sign means direction, and since both terms of this equation are (-ve), it means that movement is in one direction, so if both terms are (-ve) or (+ve) gives similar meaning. Therefore, the instantaneous piston speed is
Up = a sin + {[ a sin cos ] /[r - a sin]} Up = a sin + {[ a sin cos ] /[r - a sin]}
Taking ( . a) as common factor, we get
Up = a {sin + {[ a sin cos ] /[r - a sin]}

let R=r/a
Up = a {sin + {[ a sin cos ] /a[r/ a - sin]} Up = a {sin + {[ sin cos ] /[R - sin]}
Piston acceleration ap = f()

Since the piston velocity is Up = ds / dt Up = (ds/d ) . (d / dt)
Up = a {sin + {[ sin cos ] /[R - sin]} And the piston acceleration at this instant is
ap
a
p
= (dUp/d t) . (d / dt)
= a {cos + (a/r) cos 2 } Acceleration will be max when = 0 ap ]max = a { 1+ (a/r) }
Surface area Ax = f()

Surface area of interest here is that area exposed to heat transfer, or more specifically that area of the surfaces facing the inside of the cylinder and subjected to continuous variations in temperature and pressure during engine operation. As piston changes position, the revealed magnitudes of the surface area varies accordingly However, there are three distinct surface areas under consideration :
i piston top surface area (Ap) ii cylinder head surface area (Ach) iii cylinder wall surface area (Acw)
i piston top surface area (Ap) It is constant and equals to Ap = (/4) B

iicylinder head surface area (Ach) It is also constant and equals to
Ach = (/4) D = (/4) B
iii cylinder wall surface area (Acw)

It is variable and depends on the exposed cylinder wall revealed by the piston travel (x)
Acw = .B.x = .B (r + a s )
Cylinder wall surface area Acw = f()

Acw = .B.x = .B (r + a s ) Acw = .B (r + a (a cos +r -a sin )) Acw = .B.a (r/a + 1 1/a(a cos +r -a sin )) Acw = .B.a (R + 1 (cos +R - sin ))
Since S = 2a a = S/2
Acw
= .B.S/2 (1 + R (cos +R - sin ))

t
Total surface area A A =A +A +A

t p ch cw
= 2 ((/4) B )+ .B.S/2 (1 + R (cos +R - sin ))
Concluding remarks
From above it can be seen clearly that the crank angle can describe the piston status from various aspects, i.e : 1. Piston travel distance x = f() x = ( r + a ) [a cos +r -a sin ] 2. Piston swept volume V = f() V = Vd /(Cr 1) + (Vd /2 ) { ((R) +1) [ cos +R - sin ] } 3. Piston instantaneous speed Up = f() Up = a {sin + {[ sin cos ] /[R - sin]} 4. Piston acceleration ap = f()
ap = a {cos + (a/r) cos 2 }
5. Surface are At = f() At = 2 ((/4) B )+ .B.S/2 (1 + R (cos +R - sin ))
General info
cos + sin = 1 cos = 1 - sin cos 2 = cos - sin sin 2 = 2 sin cos sin(- ) = - sin cos (- ) = cos Sin law sinA/a=sinB/b=sinC/c
Two angles correlation ( & )

The two angles can be correlated to find x X=a(1-cos )r(1-cos ) Using sin law sin /r = sin /a sin = a/r sin But [cos = 1 - sin] cos = 1 - sin = 1 ( a/r sin ) Applying this formula for series and considering only the first term gives cos = 1 ( a/2 r) sin Sub in above to find (x) X =a[(1-cos ){ (a/ r) sin }]
Non dimensional correlations

1. S = 2a a = S/2 2. = 2N N = / 2 3. The average piston speed Up Up = 2SN = (2)(2a)( / 2) = (2/) a . From previous lectures and above correlations, a non-dimensional correlations can be obtained in terms of : I volumes. II- piston speed Non-dimensional correlations are useful to avoid units variation
volumes

Since Vc = Vd / (Cr 1 ) Vd = (/4) B . S V = Vc+(/4) B . X

= Vd /(Cr 1) + (Vd /2 ) { ((R) +1) [ cos +R - sin ] } Then
V/Vc
V / V d
= 1 +(Cr 1) { (1+R ) [ cos +R - sin ] }

= 1 /(Cr 1) + (1 /2 ) { (1+R ) [ cos +R - sin ] }
Piston speed
The instantaneous piston speed ( Up )
Up = a {sin + {[ sin cos ] /[R sin]}

The average piston speed ( Up) Up = (2/) a . Up/ Up = (/2) sin { 1 + [cos /(R sin)]}
summery
1. S = 2a a = S/2 2. Vc = Vd / (Cr 1 ) Vd = (/4) B . S V = Vc+(/4) B . X 3. s = r a s = a cos +r -a sin x=r+as R=r/a 4. A = A + A + A A = 2 ((/4) B )+ .B.S/2 (1 + R (cos +R - sin ))
t p ch cw t
= Vd /(Cr 1) + (Vd /2 ) { (R +1) [ cos +R - sin ] }
***
5. Up =
6
p
a {sin + {[ sin cos ] /[R - sin]}
. a = a {cos + (a/r) cos 2 }
7. V/Vc = 1 +(Cr 1) { (1+R ) [ cos +R - sin ] } V/Vd = 1 /(Cr 1) + (1 /2 ) { (1+R ) [ cos +R - sin ] } Up/ Up = (/2) sin { 1 + [cos /(R - sin)]} 8. = 2N
N = / 2 Up = 2SN = (2/) a .
Ch.2 operating characteristics

2.03 - Engine power
work
Work (W) is always the force (F) exerted over a distance (x).
When there is no movement of an object, there will be no work done, regardless of how much force is exerted.
W=F.X W = work (kJ/kg) F = force x = distance piston moves
But since P = F/A F=P.A A = piston face area P = pressure acting on piston face due to combustion P = Pg Pc Pg = gas pressure inside the cylinder due to combustion process Pc = pressure in crank case
Sub and rearrange W=P.A.X

For small displacement (dx) dW = P . A . dx Where ( A. dx = dV) incremental swept volume So, dW = P. dV Therefore ; W = P.dV
Where ( P.dV ) is the area under the (PV) diagram
When considering unit mass, the expression specific is used, i.e Specific work; is the work done per unit mass of AF mixture : w = W/m And specific volume is v = V/m Therefore , the specific work (w) is w = P. dv
In this equation if (P) is the pressure inside the cylinder, then the work is the indicated work (w)i . however, the actual work delivered by the crank shaft is the brake work (w)b , and (w)i - (w)b = (w)l Where (w)l is the specific work lost (w)l = [ friction + parasitic ] specific work The units representing work is ( kJ/kg)
** The specific work is (+ve) when the gas producing the pressure is expanding ( power or expansion stroke ) ** The specific work is (-ve) when the gas is compressed and the work is done on the gas by the outside source.
Mean effective pressure (mep)

Due to piston motion and stroke, the pressure inside the cylinder is continuously changing during the cycle, and therefore we can define (mep) as the everage pressure acting on the piston through the power stroke So, the work done by (mep) is : W = P.dV
W = mep . Vd
Then mep = w/Vd = w/ v v = v - v

BDC
TDC
Since (mep) is related to (w),
then the type of (w) used in the equation determines the type of (mep).
(w)b bmep (w)i imep (w)pump pmep (w)friction fmep

if gmep is gross mep and nmep is net mep
For typical engines For SI engines

850 kPa bmep 1050 kPa
nmep = gmep + pmep bmep = nmep fmep bmep = imep fmep bmep = . imep
m
for CI engines
kPa700 bmep 900 kPa
Power ()
Calculation of engine power output can be done in several methods, since the definition of power is the rate at which engine is doing work, then power is related to work and speed.
1. Related to work = W . (N/n) W : work (kJ/kg) N : engine speed (rpm x 1/60) rps n = 2 for 4 stroke engine
= 1 for 2 stroke engine
= power output (kW)
2a. Related to (mep) = k[PLAN/n] / C Where : C = conversion factor k = number of cylinders = power output (kW) P = mep (N/m ) L = piston stroke (m) A = piston cross section area (m) N = engine speed (rpm) n = rev/cycle
The conversion factor (C) C = 60 x 1000 for (kW) Where N(rpm /60) = rev/s P(N/m)/1000 = KN/m kW
2b / If P = bar = k[PLAN/n] .C The conversion factor (C) C = 100000/(60 x 1000 ) for (kW) Where P (bar) x 10 = N/m N(rpm /60) = rev/s P(N/m)/1000 = KN/m kW C = 10/6
2c. Related to (mep) = k[PLAN/n] / C Where : C = conversion factor k = number of cylinders = power output (kW, metric hp) P = mep (kgf/cm ) L = piston stroke (m) A = piston cross section area (cm) N = engine speed (rpm) n = rev/cycle
The conversion factor (C) C = 4500 for (metric hp) C = 6120 for (kW)
3. Related to mean Up = [PLAN/n] / C Since L= stroke (S) N= engine speed And Up = 2LN = 2SN Then Up/2 = LN
Sub in equation to get = [P. A.Up] / n C
4. Related to combustion = f . CV . th.i Also since FA = f /a or AF = a /f then , f = FA. a =(FA.a) CV . th.i
a = is the air mass rate a = v . Vd . a . (N/60n) a : air mass rate kg/s

v : volumetric efficiency Vd = /4 B S swept volume (m)
a = Pin/(Rg.Tin)
inlet air density
(N/60n) : rev/s Pin (kPa), Rg = 0.287 kJ/kg.k Tin ( deg. K)
From above equation, we can notice the followings :
If either (mf) or (AF) is given then, the power can be evaluated if engine geometry is known. Considering the term (CV . th.i ) CV - is the fuel calorific value which is the fuel heating value (Q). th.i - is the thermal efficiency of the engine cycle, which means the fraction of heat liberated from fuel (CV . th.i ) that could be converted to mechanical energy.
In general power output = heat energy in fuel x ability of conversion What is the engine ability of conversion In this respect, ability of conversion is best looked at through terms of efficiencies : c - combustion efficiency, which is the ability of how much of the fuel that can really be burned. f - fuel conversion efficiency, which is the ability of how much heat energy can really be converted to power. So [f . CV] determines the total heat that can possibly be produced by combustion process. Using the above efficiencies : Heat input to the engine Qin = f . CV . c Power output from engine = f . CV. f
+++
Heat input to the engine
Qin = f . CV . c = f . CV.
Power output from engine
th = / Qin th = . CV. / . CV . th = f / c
f
efficiency of the engine cycle, which means the fraction of heat input from fuel (CV . th.i ) that can be used as power output.
th.
- is the thermal
summary
From all of the previous equations, power correlation can be summarized as follows : = W . (N/n) = [PLAN/n] / C = [P. A.Up] / n C = f . CV . th. = 2N
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Engine Torque
Torque is a force acting at a distance, measured in (N.m). Or more specifically
torque is a force that, when applied, results in twisting an object rather than its physical movement. Analytically, torque is
2 = W/n = bmep.Vd/n = bmep.Vd/ 2 n
Since = W . (N/n) And 2 = W/n
Using the common factor (W) to obtain torque-power correlation
= 2N
Specific fuel consumption

sfc = fuel mass rate / engine power sfc = f / The indicated or brake (sfc) in this correlation depends on the power used, i.e
isfc = f / i bsfc = f / b
units (gm/kW.hr)
The (sfc) is usually measured in the
Specific performance parameters

These parameters are useful to evaluate engine performance and compare it with other engines of different size, weight, and output.
1. Specific volume (SV) SV= swept volume/brake power SV = Vd / b 2. Specific weight (SW) SW = engine weight / brake power SW = engine Wt/ b
3. Specific power (SP) SP = brake power/piston face area SP = b / Ap 4. power density (PD) PD = brake power / engine size PD = b / Vd-engine 5. Specific emissions (SE) SE ]x = x /
X an exhaust gas constituent (HC,C,NOx)
6. emission index (EI) EI = x / f
Air / fuel mixture

Oxygen, from ambient air, is needed in the engine cylinder to chemically react with fuel HC constituents. In order to control such chemical reaction (combustion), there must be a limit set upon both reactants to keep the reaction (combustion) safe and economical. Therefore air and fuel mass rates are set in such a values that satisfy such requirements The ratios of both mass rates are more commonly used, i.e Air/fuel ratio = air/fuel = AF
AF = a / f AF = ma / mf
FA = mf / ma
( mass rates kg/s)
( mass kg)
Fuel/air ratio = fuel/air = FA FA = f / a ( mass rates kg/s)

( mass kg)
It is useful to acknowledge that
AF = 1/FA and FA = 1/AF
Ideal & Actual combustion

In ideal combustion process, there will be just enough oxygen in the air supplied to the engine to completely react and convert the fuel mass entering the engine cylinder into (CO2 & H2O). This condition is called stoichiometric (AF)st or (FA)st . (AF) limits in SI engines very rich[61519]very lean (AF)limits in CI engines
18
70
In actual combustion process (AF)a differ from (AF)st due to many causes (to be discussed later). So new expression appears called the equivalence ratio = (AF)st / (AF)a = (FA)a / (FA)st = 1 stoichiometric < 1 lean (O2 in exh.) > 1 rich (CO,HC in exh)
Engine efficiencies
Many types of efficiencies are encountered when dealing with the theory, design, and operation of IC Engines. In general, efficiency is an expression describing how well the engine performing its task and how close such performance to the ideal value. The common types of engine efficiencies are :
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.
Air standard eff. Ideal eff. Indicated, brake eff. Mechanical eff. Relative eff. Diagram eff. Combustion eff. Charge eff. Volumetric eff. Scavenge eff. Trapping eff.
1. Air standard eff. (as).
this is also know as thermodynamic eff. Which is theoretical for engine cycle using air as working fluid, and it is a function of the compression ratio and method of combustion. Otto for example is :
(otto)as = 1 [ 1 /(Cr) ] Where ( n = - 1 )
2. Ideal efficiency (id).
This is the efficiency of an ideal engine using working fluid similar to actual engine, but at the same time its cycle works without heat losses. Variable specific heat (Cp), (which is a function of temperature), are taken into consideration in evaluating (id ).
Indicated performance parameters such as (W, mep, ) are evaluated inside the cylinder. Brake power at the output shaft will be less than indicated due to various mechanical losses. Hence,
in general = / f .CV and specifically i = i / f .CV b = b / f .CV
4. Mechanical eff. (m ) m = b / i = bmep / imep = bsfc / isfc = b / i
Useful correlation : b = m . i
5. Relative eff (r)

This is the ratio of indicated eff. to ideal eff.
r = i / id
And it shows how close the actual engine comes to the theoretically possible performance, where theoretically air or excess air raises it up to (0.95), while insufficient air reduces it down to (0.77)
6. Combustion eff. (c) c = Qin / f .CV Which is the rate of heat generated to fuel heating value, as heat generated is less then fuel heating value due to I - incomplete combustion
II insufficient air. III chemical dissociation
7. Fuel conversion eff. (f) It shows how much of heat energy is really converted to power f = / f .CV
8. Charge eff. (ch)
It shows how well the piston displacement is being utilized, and so it is commonly related to the process of induction air into the cylinder
This is the ratio of the (area under the actual indicator diagram) to the (area under the ideal PV diagram), where the ideal PV diagram shows the sharp corners at instance of changing from stroke to the next or from event to the next, which means zero time factor.
valves, * accelerationdeceleration of piston, * other delay factors, makes sharp corners more rounded, and thus reducing its area by an amount depending on many operating factors.
In actual cycle, *opening and closing
9. Volumetric eff (v)

Getting more air into engine cylinder means more fuel can be burned, and thus more power produced. Therefore it is important to maximize as much as possible the amount of air induced. v = a / [ a . Vd . (N/n)] 0.75 v 0.9
10. Scavenge eff. (sc)

It is related to 2-stroke engines, and it is the ratio of the amount of air or air/gas mixture which remains in the cylinder at the actual beginning of compression to the amount of air that can theoretically fill the cylinder. In other words, it indicates to what extent the residual gases being replaced by fresh air
11. Trapping eff. (trap)

It is related to 2- stroke engines, and it is the ratio of the amount of fresh charge retained (trapped) in the cylinder to the total amount of fresh charge delivered to the engine. It indicates the fraction of fresh air retained in the cylinder.
Performance of an Automobile
2.05 - Fundamentals
Tractive effort : is the torque available at the contact between driving the wheel and the road
e engine torque (N.m) N engine speed (rpm) b engine brake power (kW) w - torque at driving wheel G gear box ratio t - overall transmission eff. F tractive effort (N) Rw radius of driving wheel (m)
Finally, it can be concluded
Chapter Three Engine Cycles

3.1 Air Standard Cycles
Introduction
The actual thermodynamics and chemical processes in ICE are too complicated for a complete theoretical analysis representation. As the working fluid inside the cylinder undergoes a complex process in terms of : 1. Duration 2. Magnitude between extreme levels of for example heating-cooling; acceleration-deceleration; pressurizing-depressurizing during the course of one cycle and through continuous operation.
Therefore the accuracy of such analysis is a very difficult task, for more specific reasons of : 1. The complex chemical reaction that takes place when the fuel burns. 2. The friction effects between rotating parts. 3. The heat transfer between the gases and various contact surfaces. Two commonly employed approximations to simplify and improve actual engine cycle accuracy are :
a / ideal air standard cycle. b / fuel-air cycle.
simplification
simplification of such complexities, at least for preliminary design and testing aspects, it is usual as a first step to consider the AIR STANDARD CYCLE rather then (AIR-FUEL CYCLE) , thus making use of such established theory for the analysis and calculation of the working properties (P, T, )at any state point.
considerations
In selecting an idealized process, one always will be faced with the conflicting facts that:
i- it is easier to analyze. ii- but the results are farther away from reality. However, the air standard cycle approach have been widely used in ICE for the following advantages : i- based on few simple assumptions ii- lending itself to rapid and easy mathematical handling.
Assumptions
1. The working medium is a perfect gas with constant (CpM.Wt) corresponding to values at room temperature, and follows the gas law: PV = mRT (m=constant) No chemical reactions occur during the cycle. The heat addition and heat rejection processes are merely heat transfer processes. The processes are isentropic, i.e reversible and adiabatic. working fluid KE & PE are neglected Engine operation is frictionless. 6. Losses by heat transfer from the apparatus to the atmosphere are assumed to be zero in this analysis. The working medium at the end of the process (cycle) is unchanged and is at the same condition as at the beginning of the process (cycle). State (1) on the PV diagram represent ambient operating conditions. Physical constants are for air, such as (MWt, Cp, Cv, )
2.
7.
3. 4. 5.
8.
9.
PV diagram
Such cycle is best be represented by the PV diagram, from which it can be seen that at each state point, the working fluid is defined by (3) parameters (P,V,T). These parameters changes from one state to another according to the process conducted on the working fluid.
Cycle Selection
Many working cycles have been proposed for Internal combustion Engine analysis, and many have been tried and tested, but, Three have proved to be practical and representative : 1. Otto cycle (constant volume) 2. Diesel cycle (constant pressure) 3. Dual cycle (mixed or combination)
Otto cycle
The Otto cycle, is also called a constant volume or explosion cycle. This is the equivalent air cycle for reciprocating piston engines using spark ignition. 1-2 : isentropic compression 2-3 : constant volume heat addition. 3-4 : isentropic expansion 4-1 : constant volume heat rejection
Diesel cycle
This cycle, proposed by a German engineer, Dr. Rudolph Diesel , is also called the constant pressure cycle. it is equivalent to air cycle for the reciprocating slow speed compression ignition engine. it has processes similar to that of the Otto cycle except that the heat is added at constant pressure. 1-2 : isentropic compression. 2-3 : constant pressure heat addition. 3-4 : isentropic expansion. 4-1 : constant volume heat rejection.
Dual cycle
It is also called limited pressure cycle better represent most high speed engines. In this cycle part of the combustion accruing at constant volume, and the rest at constant pressure.

1-2 : isentropic compression 2-3 : constant (V) heat added 3-4 : constant (P) heat added 4-5 : constant (V) heat rejected
Actual cycle Using the air standard cycle to represent a given real cycle is called the equivalent cycle having the following characteristics in common with the real cycle.
1. 2. 3. 4. Similar sequence of process Same (Vmax/Vmin) ratio. Same (P&T) at chosen ref. point. App. Value of heat added per unit mass
air cycle
corrected for the characteristics of fuel & air medium
becomes
fuel / air cycle
modified to account for combustion , losses, time losses, direct heat losses, leakages .. Etc.
actual cycle
becomes
Theory versus practice

1. Compression and expansion in actual engine are not adiabatic processes, as considerable amount of heat is transferred from the hot working gas and the cooling system through cylinder walls. Hence, (n specific index) is used instead of (). 3. The assumption of process location of state points on PV-diagram also deviate from actual system , where I valves opening & closing are time dependent. ii- combustion process is not constant (V & P) occurrence. 4. State point (1) in the ideal cycle represent the start of compression and end of expansion at the same time, while such points are markedly different ( why ?)
2.
Where, (n < ). The assumption of perfect gas working fluid and thus (Cv,Cp) values are constant deviate from actual working conditions as (nc,ne) are both temperature dependent.
***
5. Due to friction between moving parts; heat lost to coolant; and the pumping action at inlet..the actual engine is subjected to various power losses, whereby reducing the useful power at the engine output shaft.
6. From all of the above the PV-diagram for both the actual and the ideal cycles looks as shown here.

3.2 Cycle thermodynamics
introduction
Looking at the diagram , five specific state points can be distinguished. To generalize this diagram, denotation of state points shall be as follows : 1. (1-2-3-4-5) represent dual cycle. 2. (1-2-3-5) represent otto cycle where (3&4) represent same point. 3. (1-3-4-5) represent diesel cycle where (2&3) represent same point.
Cycle process
1 - start of the cycle 1-2 compression stroke. 2-3 heat added at constant (V) 3-4 heat added at constant (P) 4-5 expansion stroke 5-1 heat rejected at constant (V) 1 - end of cycle and start of next
constants
For air and during induction and compression strokes. For exhaust gas and during power and exhaust strokes.
1. Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg.k 2. Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg.k 3. R = 0.287 kJ/kg.k = Cp - Cv 4. = 1.4 = Cp / Cv
1. Cp = 1.108 kJ/kg.k 2. Cv = 0.821 kJ/kg.k 3. R = 0.287 kJ/kg.k = Cp - Cv 1. k = 1.35 = Cp / Cv
Useful correlations
Compression ratio (Cr) (Cr) =V1/V2 Pressure ratio () = P 3 / P2 Cut-off ratio () = V4 / V 3 Expansion ratio () = V5 / V4 Max. pressure (Pmax) Pmax = P3
Cp Cv R correlation
R = universal gas constant Cp = specific heat at constant pressure Cv = specific heat at constant volume = specific heat ratio R = Cp Cv Cv = R / ( - 1) Cp = R /( - 1) = C p / Cv
P-T-V correlation
Since, adiabatic process means no heat is transferred to or from the working fluid during the process, then
Q = U + W = 0 Incrementally du + dw = 0 For unit mass [PV = RT] [P = RT/V]
dw = pdV = RT. dV/V And [ du = Cv.dT] So from [du + dw = 0] Cv.dT + RT dV/V = 0 Divid by (T) to get Cv.dT/T + R.dV/V = 0
from which, the followings are derived :
Cycle temperature = f(T1)

Since state point (1) represent ambient operating conditions, Then T1 can easily be defined by the room temperature
Also recalling : Compression ratio (Cr) Cr = V1/V2 Pressure ratio () = P3 / P2 Cut-off ratio () = V4 / V3 Expansion ratio () = V5 / V4 Max. pressure (Pmax) Pmax = P3 Then each state point can be expressed in terms of (T1), i.e Tx = f(T1) Where (Tx) could be any one of cycle state points (2 , 3, 4 , and 5) Using the shown correlations with the general thermodynamic knowledge, we get :
Mean temperature for compression & expansion 1 - Mean temperature for compression (Tmc)
2 - Mean temperature for expansion (Tme)
Since the actual indices for compression and expansion (nc & ne) are a function of temperature, then the above correlation under actual operating conditions are iterative process.
Cycle thermal efficiency

Thermal eff. = useful work / heat added th =Wuseful /Qin = (Qin Qout) / Qin= 1 (Qout) / Qin)
From PV-diagram, heat added at constant volume and constant pressure for unit mass is :
Qin = Cv (T3 T2) + Cp (T4 T3) Qout = Cv (T5 T1)

Sub in above and rearranging to obtain the final expression for thermal efficiency :
The peak cylinder pressure

Maximum cylinder pressure (Pmax) can be derived from the area under the PV-diagram, where : Work output = area under diagram Total area under the diagram of a dual cycle is the net area under each process line, whereby encapsulating a limited area that corresponds to the useful work obtained from such cycle under specific operating conditions.
***
An = a34 + a a12
45
Where
a34 = P3(V4-V3)
P3 = Pmax V4/V3 = V3 = V2 = V1/Cr Sub and rearrange to get
a34 =Pmax[(V1/Cr)-(-1)]
***
Similarly for And for
a45 = PdV
Integrating from (V4) to (V5)
a12 = PdV
Integrating from (V1) to (V2)
otto-diesel-dual cycles
From all of the previous analysis, dual cycle is considered. However, to convert to otto and diesel is a very simple task, which will be done as follows: 1. Otto cycle let [ = 1] and continue the same analysis to obtain all of the required results. 2. Diesel cycle let [ = 1] to obtain the required results
Tutorial
1. Derive the following correlations : R = Cp Cv Cv = R / ( - 1)
Cp = R /( - 1) = C p / Cv
2. Derive the following correlations : P(V)** = C T(V)**(-1) = C T/{P**(-1)/ } + C
Tutorial
3. Derive the cycle state point in terms of (T1) to obtain the following expressions : 1. T2 = Cr **( - 1 ) T1 2. T3 = . Cr **( - 1 ) T1 3. T4 = . . Cr **( - 1 ) T1 4. T5 = **(). .T1
Tutorial
4. show that the following correlations are true. i - Tmc = T1 . [{Cr**(nc-1) + 1}/2] ii - Tme = {T1.P3[1 + (1/Cr**(ne-1))]}/2P1.Cr 5. Derive the following expression for the cycle thermal efficiency: = 1 {(1/ (Cr **( - 1 )) {[( (** )) 1] / [(-1) + (. ( 1))]

3 5 Mean effective pressure
Mean effective pressure (mep) Due to piston motion and stroke, the pressure inside the cylinder is continuously changing during the cycle, and therefore the average pressure acting on the piston through the power stroke is a valuable measure of an engine's capacity to do work that is independent of engine displacement. This gives a simple but clear definition of what we shall call MEP , i.e , the average (mean) pressure which, if imposed on the pistons uniformly from the top to the bottom of each power stroke, would produce the measured (brake) power output. However, it is important to remember that mean effective pressure does not reflect the actual pressures inside an individual combustion chamberalthough the two are certainly relatedand serves only as a convenient measure of performance. The (mep) can be related to several engine performance parameters, such as : W = work per cycle in joule P = power output in watt pmep = mean effective pressure in pascal Vd = displacement volume in cubic metre Nc = number of revolutions per cycle (for a 4-stroke engine nc = 2 ) N = number of revolutions per second T = torque in newton-metre
1.
In terms of work and power output
The power produced by the engine is equal to the work done per operating cycle times the number of operating cycles per second. If N is the number of revolutions per second, and nc is the number of revolutions per cycle, the number of cycles per second is just their ratio. We can write
By definition:
W = pmepVd pmep = W / Vd
so that
W = work per cycle in joule P = power output in watt pmep = mean effective pressure in pascal Vd = displacement volume in cubic metre nc = number of revolutions per cycle (for a 4-stroke engine nc = 2 ) N = number of revolutions per second also note that the work output is W = Qsup - Qrej
Another common equation for engine power output calculation is = [PLAN/n] / C Where it can be rewritten as below to maintain previous nomenclature i in terms of engine speed P = [PmepLAN/n] / C ii in terms of piston speed P = [Pmep. A.Up/n] / C
2 in term of engine torque Since the torque T is related to the angular speed (which is just N 2 ) and power produced by
P = TN2
Then the equation for mep in terms of torque becomes,
Notice that speed has dropped out of the equation and the only variables are the torque and displacement volume Since the range of maximum brake mean effective pressures for good engine designs is well established, we now have an engine displacement independent measure of the torque producing capacity of an engine design. This is useful for comparing engines of different displacements. Mean effective pressure is also useful for initial design calculations; that is, given a torque (T) , we can use standard (mep ) values to estimate the required engine displacement (Vd).
3. In terms of air standard cycle. For the three main air standard cycles, Otto, Diesel, and dual cycles, the mean effective pressure can be expressed in terms of : Compression ratio Pressure ratio Cut off ratio Specific heat ratio i Otto cycle (Cr = Vt / Vc) ( = P3 / P2 ) ( = V4 / V3 for dual or V3/V2 for diesel) ( = Cp / Cv)
ii Diesel cycle
iii Dual cycle
Mean effective pressure (MEP) is defined by the location measurement and method of calculation, some commonly used MEPs are given here. Brake mean effective pressure (BMEP) - Mean effective pressure calculated from brake power Indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP) - Mean effective pressure calculated from in cylinder pressure, average in cylinder pressure over engine cycle, 720. Friction mean effective pressure (FMEP) - Theoretical mean effective pressure required to over come engine friction, can be thought of as mean effective pressure lost due to friction. BMEP = IMEP FMEP
Types of mean effective pressures
Also when (mep) related to (w), then the type of (w) used in the
equation determines the type of (mep).
MEP for typical engines SI engines

850 kPa bmep 1050 kPa
CI engines
kPa700 bmep 900 kPa
Chapter Three engine cycles

3.5 cycles comparison
Air standard cycles have significant parameters in cycle analysis, such as 1. Compression ratio 2. Peak pressure 3. Peak temperature 4. Heat addition 5. Heat rejection 6. Net work These parameters are useful for comparing Otto, Diesel, and dual cycle performance. However in such comparison some of these parameters are kept fixed while other are used.
1 same compression ratio and heat addition As stated, the compression ratio and heat input are kept the same for the three cycles. Where Cr = V1 / V2 Qin = 23 = 23 = 223 But heat rejected differ , i.e Otto Qro = 14 Diesel Qrs = 14 Dual Qrd = 14 From which And since
Then
2 same compression ratio and heat rejection the compression ratio and heat rejected are kept the same for the three cycles. Where Cr = V1 / V2 Qr = process (14) But heat supplied differ , i.e Otto Qin = 23 Diesel Qin = 23 Dual Qin = 223 From which
And since
Then, again
3 same peak pressure, peak temperature and heat rejection The three cycles have the same max pressure and max temperature, also the same heat rejected, but different compression ratio, where
Since heat rejected is the same, then
4 same peak pressure and heat input
The three cycles have the same max pressure , also the same heat input, but different compression ratio, where
CHAPTER FOUR Thermo-chemistry

4.1 .1- introduction
4.1 - Introduction
Thermo-chemistry is a branch of thermodynamics where concern is focused on relations between heat and energy, thus studying the behavior of gases when heated, cooled, expanded, compressed , i.e , P, v , T and q are involved . Also , it is important to know that the heat ( q ) is either liberated or absorbed . When chemical reaction takes place, energy is always liberated or absorbed, part of which is in the form of heat. In such chemical change, this heat is called heat of reaction . However, it is useful to know and define all types of heat associated with chemical reaction .
4.2 Types of heat energy

4-2-1 heat of reaction
Is the quantity of heat ( in calorie ) liberated or absorbed when gm-mole of reagents indicated by the chemical equation have being chemically reacted . Such heat is denoted by ( H ) + H absorbed by the system. - H liberated from the system. Such representation is shown in the following example: C + O2 = CO2 ; H = - 94052 cal this means that under condition of constant (P), 12 gm of (C) combined with 32 gm of O2 to yield 44 gm of CO2 liberating 94052 cal.
***
4-2-2 heat of combustion Is the quantity of heat ( only liberated in this respect ) when 1 gm-mole of substance is completely oxidized , i.e i- complete combustion : C2H2 + 2.5 O2 = 2CO2 + H2O ; H= - 310615 cal ii incomplete combustion : ; H= - 175343 cal C2H2 + 1.5 O2 = 2CO both (i & ii) are equations of heat of reaction, but only (i) represent heat of combustion where C2H2 is completely oxidized
***
4-2-3 heat of formation Is quantity of heat ( + & - ) when 1 gm-mole of compound is formed from its elements. Two types of such energy is defined :
i- exothermic compound with ( -H )
4-2-4 heat of solution Is the quantity of heat ( + & - ) when 1 gm-mole of substance dissolved in a large volume of water (completely dissolved) . 4-2-5 heat of neutralization The heat of neutralization of an acid by a base is the quantity of heat (+ & -) when 1 gm-mole of the acid in diluted aqueous solution is neutralized by a diluted solution of the base .
C + O2 = CO2 ; H = - 94052 cal heat of formation of CO2

ii- endothermic compound with ( +H )
2C + H2 = C2H2 ; H = + 54194 cal heat of formation of C2H2
4-3- Elementary thermo-chemistry

Before discussing thermo-chemistry in details, there are few terms and element directly related to this subject, and therefore must be understood .
4.3.2- HC fuels.

4-3-1-Combustion reaction
Most HC fuels consist mainly of (H2) and (C) , with may be some minor amount of other Element such as ( N2 , O2 , S .etc) . Therefore the chemical formula for HC fuel may be Generally presented as
In I.C .Engine, energy is provided by the combustion of the HC fuels in air, which convert Chemical energy to other useful form of energy , for example mechanical. Theoretically, Chemical energy of fuel is converted to internal energy of gases. Therefore, combustion Process is all about the elements behavior of fuel and air .
Cn Hm Xy
Where N : molecules of C M ; molecules of H (m/2 for H2) Y ; molecules of X element that may be present in a particular fuel
4.3.3- Composition of air

constituent oxygen nitrogen argon Carbon dioxide other air symbol O2 N2 A CO2 --MW 32 28 40 44 -(MW X %vol)
constituent
% by volume 20.99 78.03 0.94 0.03 0.01 100 % 28.97
% by weight 23.2 76.8

Included with N2 Included with N2 Included with N2 100 %
***
From above, it can be seen that two main elements are noticeably present in air, i.e ( O2 & N2). Also , it is important to note that (1 mole of air) = : 1. [20.99% O2 + 79.01% N2] by volume. 2. [23.2% O2 + 76.8% N2] by weight
i by volume analysis
1 mole air = 0.2099 mole O2 + 0.7901 mole N2
0.7901/02099 = 3.764 mole N2 for every mole O2 3.764 mole N2 + 1 mole O2 = 4.764 mole air Since (O2) is only considered in combustion reaction, then it can be stated that if one mole of O2 required for complete reaction, then (4.764)moles of air must be supplied.
ii- by weight analysis

1 mole air = 0.232 mole O2 + 0.768 mole N2
0.768/0.232 = 3.310 mole N2 for every mole O2 Similarly 3.31 mole N2 + 1 mole O2 = 4.31 mole air Therefore for one mole of O2 required, 4.31 mole of air must be supplied.
4.3.4 - Stoichiometry
Maximum energy is produced when all of the fuel element is converted by the chemical reaction with stoichiometric amount of O2 Example C + O2 = CO2 2H2 + O2 = 2H2O Where none of the reactants appear in the reaction products. So stoichiometric O2 means just enough O2 present to convert (C) or (H2) to (CO2) & (H2O) respectively
Stoichiomertry ; theoretical; ideal; chemically corrected represent similar meaning of just enough O2 to achieve complete chemical conversion. Therefore, stoichiometry is a description of the proper quantities of the fuel and O2 involved in a particular chemical reaction.
***
Also, the ratio of fuel to air (or air to fuel) gives another description of quantities of fuel and air (O2) involved in the process of combustion, which is actually a chemical reaction, where : 1. (air/fuel) ratio AF = ma / mf 2. (fuel/air) ratio FA = mf / ma
From above, and since stoichiometry and AF are both describes a particular amount of fuel and air under a particular chemical reaction. So it can be assumed that (AF or FA) can also be denoted as stoichiometric, where and air that forms this ratio is in a proportion that satisfy stoichiometry conditions. Ranges of AF for SI & CI engines are: SIE (6 15 19) CIE (18 70)
(AF)st : means the amount of fuel
= a / f
= f / a
3. FA = 1 / AF
***
stoichiometric (AF)st or (FA)st .
(AF) limits in SI engines too rich 61519 too lean

too richrichStlean too lean no combustion
Combustion possible no combustion
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(AF) limits in CI engines 18 70

This forms non-homogeneous mixture, where combustion occur in region where combustible mixture exists, although other regions sustain combustion due to too rich or too lean mixture.
4.3.5- moles & MWt

1. 2. (gm MWt) - is the MWt of a substance expressed in (gm) {similarly in kg} (mole) in a balanced chemical reaction equation, each one unit of reactants or products is called mole. (mole & MWt) - one mole of a substance equals the substance (MWt) expressed in (gm or kg). Whether (mole or k.mole) and consequently (gm MWt or kg MWt), gives the same results, since a factor of (1000) in used for both values. 5. (N-m-MWt) correlation where : N = number of moles m = mass of the substance ( gm, kg) MWt = substance molecular weight.
3. 4.
N]x = m]x / MWt]x

Or
m]x = N]x . MWt]x
***
4.4- types of fuel

Liquid fuels are normally used in IC Engines, however, some engines may be designed to accept gaseous fuels. Also in electricity generation plant, solid fuel (coal) is used in the boiler furnace. In general, combustion is actually a chemical reaction process under certain conditions, where the fuel element reacts with oxygen present in air to forms oxides of these elements In doing so, heat of reaction is liberated. The utilization of such heat energy and converting it into other forms of energy (mechanical in this respect) is the whole idea behind the theory of internal combustion engines. In order to avoid loose boundaries of this subject, it is useful to limit our considerations within the hydro-carbon types of fuel
Hydro-carbon fuel (HC)

In general, most HCs consist mainly of C and (H2), with some types may includes minor amount of (N2, O2, S, etc), so 1. Liquid fuel: with chemical formula CnHm. 2. Gaseous fuel: with c.f CnHmOr 3. Solid fuel : with c.f CnHmSz
4.4.1 liquid HC fuel

The general reaction equation of liquid HC fuel with air under stoichiometric conditions is :
Where (n, m) as described previously n - molecules of C in fuel m/2 - molecules of H2 in fuel 3.76 - moles of N2 for every mole of O2 (n + m/4)O2 + 3.76(n + m/4)N2 = 4.76 (n + m/4) mole of air required to provide (n + m/4)O2 necessary to maintain stoichiometry
4.4.2- gaseous HC fuel

Similarly, the general chemical reaction of gaseous fuel with air under stoichiometric conditions is :
n - molecules of C in fuel m/2 - molecules H2 in fuel r/2 - molecules of O2 in fuel 3.76 - moles of N2 for every mole of O2 (n + m/4 r/2)O2 + 3.76(n + m/4 r/2)N2 = 4.76 (n + m/4 r/2) mole of air required to provide (n + m/4 r/2)O2 necessary to satisfy stoichiometry
4.4.3- solid HC fuel

Briefly
n molecules of C in fuel m/2 - molecules H2 in fuel z - molecules of S in fuel 3.76 - moles of N2 for every mole of O2 This type of reaction is actually associated with ECE rather than ICE, and it is mentioned here to complete an overall picture of the chemical reaction of the three types of fuels.
Rich & lean combustion mixture

1. Lean mixture means that there is more air present than stoichiometry requires, and thus excess air is said to exist. Rich mixture means that there is less air present than stoichiometry requires, and thus air deficiency is said to exist.
4.4.4- Equivalence ratio

it is a measure of the actual FA mixture relative to stoichiometric FA = AFst / AFa = FAa / FAst
Where
1.
(air/fuel) ratio AF = ma / mf = a / f 2. (fuel/air) ratio FA = mf / ma = f / a
3. FA = 1 / AF
= 1 stoichiometric (max energy released)

< 1 lean ( O2 appear in exhaust) > 1 rich (CO & HC appear in exhaust)
In SI engines
1.2 > > 0.9
For unit mass of fuel {[nf.MWf ] act} = {[nf.MWf ] st} Then If unit mass of fuel is supplied, and since
Therefore
4.4.5- air coefficient

Gact - is the actual value given from actual conditions Gtheo - this must be calculated, and it is done as follows :
= air coefficient G = is the mass of air required for

the chemical reaction with 1 kg of fuel
Gact
= actual amount (mass) of air used to burn1kg fuel (kg air / kg fuel)
of air required for complete combustion of 1 kg fuel (kg air/kg fuel)
= theoretical amount (mass)
Gtheo
Since the general chemical reaction for liquid fuel is And since [ N = ms/MWt] Then [ ms = N. MWt]
CnHm + (n + m/4)O2 + 3.76(n + m/4)N2 = n CO2 + m/2 H2O + 3.76 (n +m/4)N2
this amount of O2 requires (x) amount of air. But for 1kg of air there 0.23kg of O2 X = 1/0.23 [ 32(n+m/4)] X = 4.31 [32(n+m/4)] kg air/kg O2
i- for fuel
N=1 MWt = 12n + m Therefore ms = (1) (12n + m)
Since G is kg air/kg fuel Gtheo = X / 12n +m Gtheo = {4.31 [32(n+m/4)]}/(12n +m)

kg fuel
Finally
ms = 12n +m
ii for air
mass of oxygen ms = N. MWt N = n +m/4 from eq. MWt = 32
ms = 32(n +m/4)
the general chemical reaction equation for both liquid and gaseous HC fuels.
can also be included in
= 1 stoichiometric > 1 lean < 1 rich
CnHm + (n + m/4)O2 + 3.76 (n + m/4)N2 = n CO2 + m/2 H2O + [( 1)(n + m/4)]O2 + 3.76 (n +m/4)N2 CnHmOr + (n + m/4 - r/2)O2 + 3.76 (n + m/4 - r/2)N2 = n CO2 + m/2 H2O + ( -1)(n + m/4 - r/2)O2 + 3.76 (n + m/4 - r/2 )N2
Remarks with ( )
1. Amount of air supplied to ICE for combustion of fuel varies with :
i- mixture formation (adding & mixing) ii- engine load iii- ignition conditions (timing & duration) iv- other operating conditions. 2. accordingly, the air supply may be : i- higher than that ii- equal theoretically iii- smaller required 3. Therefore the air may be supplied : i- actual as it is ii- stoichiometric
4. In order to account for all of the above, ( ), must be selected to satisfy the design criteria. i.e
and its value inserted into the chemical reaction equation of any HC fuels,
= Gact / Gtheo
[ (n + m/4)O2 ] which means

that number of moles of (O2) is corrected by () for all of the above considerations.
fraction of ( C ) burns to (CO)

From all of the above, the air coefficient ( ) is specifically important under rich mixture, as lean and stoichiometric mixture keeps combustion process clean and maintain economic fuel consumption. Where as rich mixture means less O2 is available for the combustion process to reach completion. Lack of O2 therefore results in that not all of the ( C ) in the fuel is converted to (CO2) , and consequently (CO) may also appear in the products,
Let
Then, for liquid HC fuel
fraction of ( C ) burns to (CO)
CnHm + (n + m/4)O2 + 3.76 (n + m/4)N2 = (1- ) n CO2 + n CO + n/2 H2 + (m/2 - n/2) H2O + 3.76
(n +m/4)N2
(n + m/4) = (1- ) n + n/2 + (m/4 n/4) (n + m/4) = n - n + m/4 n
an expression for () can be found by doing O2 balance before and after combustion.
= (1 ) (n + m/4) =(4/3n) (1 ) (n + m/4)
AF &
1 Since 3. From which the followings can be expressed
2. Since
then
AF = Gact = . Gtheo
FA & N
From above
Sub in this equation
Finally, the ratio of number of moles of O2 and fuel can be expressed as follows :
summery
Air/fuel ratio (AF)
tutorial
1. For the balanced chemical reaction CH4 + 2O2 = CO2 + 2H2O find the mass of each constituents 2. For the reaction in (1) above, check what happens if (20 gm) of (CH4) is used. 3. Write the chemical reaction equations of methane (CH4) burns with i- (150 %) stoichiometric air ii- (80 %) stoichiometric air

4.1.2 combustion Kinetics
introduction
Any chemical reaction can be represented by the equation A+B=C+D But actually this reaction is better represented by A+BC+D Ex. CO + O2 = CO2
This is a stoichiometric equation where the element coefficients are [1 , , 1] and these are called stoichiometric coefficients (). co = 1 o2 = co2 = 1
dissociation
Stoichiometric reaction is ideal, but in practice and under particular conditions, some of the products are dissociated back to the original reactants, so In the previous ex. Where the forward reaction is At the same time certain amount of CO2 may dissociate back to [CO+O2] by an amount of say () CO2 CO + O2 So the final constituents produced from this reaction are
(1-) CO2 + CO + O2 And therefore the reaction can be represented by the chemical equation CO + O2 (1-) CO2 + CO + O2
A+BC+D
CO + O2 CO2 CO + O2 CO2
Equilibrium & Dissociation

Both equilibrium and dissociation are related to the state of the reformation of the reactants from the products under given conditions as shown in the above chemical equation, hence 1. If () exist, it implies that dissociation is taking place. 2. But only if ( = constant) equilibrium is established. This means
rate of reaction = rate of dissociation
From the above, it can be said that :
1. If there is dissociation , there may not be equilibrium. 2. But certainly, when there is equilibrium there must be a certain degree of dissociation.
Rate of chemical reaction (Rr)

Reaction rate is defined as the rate of disappearance of component (A) of a given reacting mixture. a A + b B = c C + d D The reaction rate (Rr) is
Where Rr = reaction rate (gm.mole/lit.sec)

CA, CB = concentration of A & B (gm mole/lit) K = reaction rate constant (lit/gm.mole.sec)
Concentrations are usually expressed as follows : CA CB CC CD [A] [B] [C] [D]
Equilibrium
Most chemical reactions are reversible, that is they can and do run in both directions. The forward and reverse reactions are competing with each other and differ in reaction rates. These rates depend on the concentration and therefore change with time of the reaction: the reverse rate gradually increases and becomes equal to the rate of the forward reaction, establishing the so-called chemical equilibrium. The time to reach equilibrium depends on such parameters as temperature, pressure and the materials involved. equilibrium constants for solutions are usually determined in terms of constituents concentrations ( Kc ). Likewise( Kp )for gases depends on partial pressure.
Therefore there are two distinct equilibrium coefficients : 1. Kp = f() for gases 2. Kc = f[c] for liquids
Equilibrium coefficient (Kp)

As stated earlier, the rates of reaction and dissociation must be equal to establish equilibrium.
Ex. [wA + xB yC + zD]

From which ,the equilibrium coefficient (Kp) can be
expressed in terms of constituents partial pressure
Where w, x, y, z number of partial pressure
moles of each constituents involved.
Ex.2 CO2 + H2 H2O + CO
Ex.1 2 CO + O2 2CO2
Equilibrium coefficient (Kc)

Using the reaction rate approach to consider the reaction dissociation, i.e forward and backward reaction. a A+b B c C+d D 1-The forward reaction rate Rf Equilibrium is established when [Rf = Rb], Then
Kf forward reaction rate constant 2 - The backward reaction rate Rb
Kb backward reaction rate constant.
(Kc) is the equilibrium coefficient.
Kp - Kc
Kp equilibrium coefficient. in terms of partial pressure Kc equilibrium coefficient. in terms of concentrations The two equilibrium coefficients are related in the following formula :
Rm universal gas constant
Derivation of this correlation will be presented in a tutorial class.
Tutorial
Derive the following expression for [Kc=f(Kp)] Kc = Kp { (Rm . T)**[(a +b ) - (c +d )] }
------------------------------------For perfect gas Pi .V = ni . R.T ni /V = Pi/R.T But ni/V = [V]i [V]i**x =( i ** x) 1/(RT)**x {[c ]** c} {[D ]**d } Kp = --------------------------{[A ]** a} {[B ]**b] }
and partial pressure ( i ) ( i ) = (ni/n) p ni number of moles of (i) n - No. of moles of mixture ( i ) partial pres. of (i) p total pressure Sub in (Kp) eq.
{[nc ]** c} {[nD ]**d } Kp = ----------------------------- (p/n)** {[nA ]** a} {[nB ]**b] }
Also
= c + d
- a - b
***
Since
[C]** c . [D]**d Kc = -----------------------[A]** a . [B]**b]
[(c ** c) 1/(RT)**c][(d ** d) 1/(RT)**d ] Kc = ------------------------------------------------------[(a ** a) 1/(RT)**a][( b ** b) 1/(RT)**b ] (c ** c)(d ** d) [1/(RT)**c][1/(RT)**d ] Kc = ----------------------- ------------------------(a ** a)(b ** b) [1/(RT)**a][1/(RT)**b ]
From the eq.

[V]i**x =(
We get
i ** x) 1/(RT)**x
Kc = Kp .(RT)**[( a
+ b)
- (c - d )]
[C]** c =( c ** c) 1/(RT)**c [D]**d =( d ** d) 1/(RT)**d [A]** a =( a ** a) 1/(RT)**a [B]**b] =( b ** b) 1/(RT)**b Therefore

4.1.3 Fuel heating value
Fuel heating value

constant pressure or at constant volume, released from the complete combustion of a unit mass of fuel, expressed in (kJ/kg). It is useful to repeat here that the complete combustion means that all ( C ) is converted to (CO2), and all (H2) to (H2O). As most fuels contain (H2) which forms water when burned. The heating value of a fuel will be different, depending on whether the water in combustion products is in the liquid or vapour form.
The heating value (HV) or calorific value (CV) of a fuel can be defined as the magnitude of the heat of reaction, at
Therefore, depending on whether the water in combustion products is in the form of liquid or vapor , the heating value may be classified as: 1. Lower heating value (LHV) when the water produced from the combustion process remains as vapor, and leaves in such form with the other combustion products. 2. Higher heating value (HHV) when water in the combustion products is completely condensed, whereby the heat of vaporization is recovered. It is useful to note that the difference between the two values at room temperature is :
HHV LHV=mass of water x latent heat of vaporization of water
Ex. For gasoline fuel, from tables , values of LHV and HHV are: LHV = 44000 kJ/kg HHV = 47300 kJ/kg Latent heat of water vaporization = 47300 44000 = 3300 kJ/kg water LHV is usually used in I.C engine analysis, as energy released and / or exchanged in the combustion chamber occurs at high temperature, whereby, water in the exhaust mixture almost always remains in the vapor form.
Estimation of HHV

When chemical composition of a fuel is not known, a reasonable estimate of its (HHV) may be obtained from its specific gravity : HHV = 2.326 [ 17450 + 170 ( API) ] kJ/kg
where
API = American Petroleum Institute Standard = (141.5/sp.G at 15C) 131.5 Sp. G = specific gravity (gravity = density) = gravity of oil / gravity of water
This measuring standard is usually used in connection with diesel fuel, where a good diesel fuel have ( API = 70 F )

4.1.5 Hydrocarbons Families
introduction
Hydrocarbons are one of the Earth's most important energy resources. The predominant use of hydrocarbons is as a combustible fuel source. Hydrocarbons are economically important because major fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural gas, and its derivatives such as plastics, paraffin, waxes, solvents and oils are hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons can be gases ( methane and propane), liquids ( hexane and benzene), waxes or low melting solids ( paraffin wax and naphthalene) or polymers (polyethylene, polypropylene and polystyrene).
Oil refinery
An oil refinery or petroleum refinery is an industrial process plant where crude oil is processed and refined into more useful petroleum products, such as gasoline, diesel fuel, asphalt base, heating oil, kerosene, and liquefied petroleum gas.[1][2] Oil refineries are typically large sprawling industrial complexes with extensive piping running throughout, carrying streams of fluids between large chemical processing units. In many ways, oil refineries use much of the technology of, and can be thought of as types of chemical plants. The crude oil feedstock has typically been processed by an oil production plant. There is usually an oil depot (tank farm) at or near an oil refinery for storage of bulk liquid products.
operation
Crude oil is separated into fractions by fractional distillation. The fractions at the top of the fractionating column have lower boiling points than the fractions at the bottom. The heavy bottom fractions are often cracked into lighter, more useful products. All of the fractions are processed further in other refining units. However, two specific operation are used to separates crude oil components : 1. Cracking : is the process in breaking large molecular components into more useful smaller molecular weight components. Distillation : is the process used to 2. separate the mixture into single or smaller rangers of components.
Notes on crude oil

Crude oil varies greatly in appearance depending on its composition. It is usually black or dark brown (although it may be yellowish, reddish, or even greenish). Crude oil is made up almost entirely of carbon and hydrogen. C & H can combine in so many ways , and tests shows that 25,000 different kind of HCs can really be obtained. Such combination may include very a large molecular to very light molecular components. Large MWt components have high boiling temperature. small MWt components have low boiling point. High boiling point components, such as tar and asphalt can be returned back to the refinery for cracking into smaller MWt . Low boiling point components are a very desirable products, such as solvent and fuels like gasoline
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Crude oil Gasoline Kerosene Diesel oil Sulfur Asphalt Motor oil LPG
Major products
Oil can be used in a variety of ways because it contains hydrocarbons of varying molecular masses, forms and lengths such as paraffins, aromatics, naphthenes (or cycloalkanes), alkenes, dienes, and alkynes. While the molecules in crude oil include different atoms such as sulfur and nitrogen, the hydrocarbons are the most common form of molecules, which are molecules of varying lengths and complexity made of hydrogen and carbon atoms, and a small number of oxygen atoms. The differences in the structure of these molecules account for their varying physical and chemical properties, and it is this variety that makes crude oil useful in a broad range of applications
Petroleum products are usually grouped into three categories: light distillates (LPG, gasoline, naphtha), middle distillates (kerosene, diesel), heavy distillates and residuum (heavy fuel oil, lubricating oils, wax, asphalt). This classification is based on the way crude oil is distilled and separated into fractions (called distillates and residuum) as in the above drawing. Liquified petroleum gas (LPG) Gasoline (also known as petrol) Naphtha Kerosene and related jet aircraft fuels Diesel fuel Fuel oils Lubricating oils Paraffin wax Asphalt and tar
applications
Hydrocarbons proved to be an essential discovery for mankind, as the variety of its useful application, made life progress at a much greater rate, without which so many mankind activities may prove to be very difficult if not impossible. Therefore the products from refined crude oil can be used for many applications such as for example :
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.
Automobile gasoline. Diesel fuel Jet fuel Home heating fuel Industrial fuel Natural gas (cooking). Lubricants Asphalt Rubber manufacturing Paint manufacturing Plastic manufacturing Explosion production Alcohols. wax
Refinery flow diagram
Hydrocarbons families
Since crude oil comes out from the ground in various parts of the world, it has been agreed to standardize the products of HCs by means of number of different families such as : 1. Paraffins 2. Olefins 3. Diolfins 4. Acetylenes 5. Cyclo-parafins 6. Aromatics 7. Alcoholes All of which may be considered as saturated & unsaturated
Types of hydrocarbons
1. Saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes or paraffins) are the simplest of the hydrocarbon species and are composed entirely of single bonds and are saturated with hydrogen or another carbon atom. The general formula for saturated hydrocarbons is CnH2n+2 (assuming noncyclic structures). Saturated hydrocarbons are the basis of petroleum fuels and are either found as linear or branched species.
***
linear chain
Propane C3H8
branch chain Isobutane C4H10
***
2. Unsaturated Hydrocarbon have one or more double or triple bonds between carbon atoms. *Those with double bond are called alkenes. i- one double bond have the formula CnH2n
(olefins) (diolefins)
ii- two double bond with formulaCnH2n-2
*Those containing triple bonds are called alkynes, with general formula CnH2n-2
(acetylene)
alkenes
olfines diolfines
alkynes
***
3. Cyclo-alkanes (cyclo-paraffins) are hydrocarbons containing one or more carbon rings to which hydrogen atoms are attached. The general formula for a saturated hydrocarbon containing one ring is CnH2n.
cyclo
***
4. Aromatic Hydrocarbon, also known as arenes, are hydrocarbons that have at least one aromatic ring. general formula is CnH2n-6 5. Alcohols these are paraffins with (OH) replaces one (H) examples methanol CH3OH ethanol C2H5OH
***

4.1.6 - Gasoline
introduction
Gasoline or petrol, is a toxic translucent, yellow-tinted liquid mixture of many hydrocarbons, derived from petroleum, which is primarily used as a fuel in internal combustion engines. It consists mostly of aliphatic hydrocarbons obtained by the fractional distillation of petroleum, enhanced with isooctane or the aromatic hydrocarbons toluene and benzene to increase its octane rating. Small quantities of various additives are common, for the purposes of tuning engine performance or reducing harmful exhaust emissions. Some mixtures also contain significant quantities of ethanol as a partial alternative fuel. Under normal ambient conditions it's material state is liquid and not a true gas as opposed to liquefied petroleum gas or "natural gas".
refinery
Gasoline is produced in oil refineries. Material that is separated from crude oil via distillation, called straight-run gasoline, does not meet the required specifications for modern engines (in particular octane rating; see below), but will form part of the blend. The bulk of a typical gasoline consists of hydrocarbons with between four and 12 carbon atoms per molecule.
***
Overall, a typical gasoline is predominantly a mixture of paraffins (alkanes), naphthenes (cycloalkanes), and olefins (alkenes). The actual ratio depends on: 1. the oil refinery that makes the gasoline, as not all refineries have the same set of processing units; 2. crude oil feed used by the refinery; 3. the grade of gasoline, in particular, the octane rating.
Gasoline properties
1. Density The specific gravity (or relative density) of gasoline ranges from 0.710.77 ( 719.7 kg/m3), Gasoline floats on water; water cannot generally be used to extinguish a gasoline fire, unless used in a fine mist. 2. Volatility is the tendency of a substance to vaporize. Volatility is directly related to a substance's vapor pressure. At a given temperature, a substance with higher vapor pressure vaporizes more readily than a substance with a lower vapor pressure. 3. self-ignition temperature SIT if the temperature of AF mixture is raised high enough, the mixture will ignite itself without the need of a spark or external igniter. the temperature above which this occurs is called the self ignition temperature and will be denoted by SIT .
Notes on volatility
As mentioned previously, low boiling point HC components is : 1. Is very useful products 2. its low boiling temperature means it has high volatility. 3. High volatility components can vaporize at low temperature, which is useful for cold starting of an engine, as fuel must vaporize before it can be burned. 4. however, too high volatility is undesirable, because : i- reduces volumetric efficiency, as fuel vapor replaces air during induction stroke. ii- it can cause vapor lock which prevent fuel flow through carburetor lines.
Notes on SIT
SIT is usually obtained when having high Cr. In CI engines, Cr is usually high and SIT is obtained, this what really makes the principles of ignition in CI engines. In SI engines SIT may be referred to as auto-ignition, or pre-ignition. And this is not desirable at all in SI engine operation. As ignition start by the spark of a spark plug at pre-set time of the cycle, this is why low Cr is imposed on the design of SI engines. If SIT is reached in SI engines, then pressure pulses are generated, often in audible frequency, which may cause serious damage to the engine. This phenomena is called knocking or pinging or detonation.
Specified gasoline
Gasoline for reasonable approximation can be considered as single component hydro-carbon fuel, such as :
1. Gasoline chemical formula C8H15 MWt = 111 2. Iso-octane chemical formula C8H18 MWt = 114
Octane number
Octane number is a fuel properties that describes how well the fuel will or will not self ignite . Or Octane number is a measure of the fuel resistance to spontaneous (self) ignition during compression stroke prior to the desired position of the piston in the cylinder set by valve and ignition timing. The higher the ON the higher its resistance to self ignition. Therefore, high ON improves engine performance and prevents knocking , and therefore, prevent possible engine damage, thus improving engine service life.
Octane rating
Internal combustion engines are designed to burn gasoline in a controlled process called deflagration. But in some cases, gasoline can also combust abnormally by detonation, which wastes energy and can damage the engine. One way to reduce detonation is to increase the gasoline's resistance to auto-ignition, which is expressed by its octane rating
propagates through thermal conductivity (hot burning material heats the next layer of cold material and ignites it)
Deflagration is a technical term describing subsonic combustion that usually
Detonation ( knock, spark knock, pinging or pinking) in SI engines occurs when combustion of the air/fuel mixture in the cylinder starts off correctly in response to ignition by the spark plug, but one or more pockets of air/fuel mixture explode outside the envelope of the normal combustion front. Auto-ignition The autoignition temperature of a substance is the lowest temperature at which it will spontaneously ignite in a normal atmosphere without an external source of ignition, such as a flame or spark
Tutorial
What do understand by the terms below as related to SI engine : 1. Pre-ignition 2. Self-ignition 3. Auto-ignition 4. detonation
1.
2.
3.
4.
Pre-ignition: the increase in the rate of heat transfer to the cylinder walls may cause local hot spots, i.e overheating projected parts such as spark plug electrodes; exhaust valve head; metal corners in the combustion chamber; carbon deposits etc, which may reach a temperature high enough to ignite the charge before the occurrence of the actual timed spark. Such local pre-ignition spots may occur in the spark plug, overheated exhaust valves, or may be on a glowing carbon deposits in the combustion chamber. Self-ignition: if the temperature of AF mixture is raised high enough, the mixture will ignite itself without the need of a spark or external igniter. the temperature above which this occurs is called the self ignition temperature and will be denoted by SIT . Auto-ignition: is the initiation of combustion without the necessity of a flame, and therefore it is one the causes that leads to the occurrence of engine knock. In this case the flame speed is assumed normal before the onset of auto-ignition, whereby gas vibration created by number of end gas elements auto-ignites almost instantaneously. Therefore, auto-ignition does not occur immediately as the self-ignition temperature is reached, where some ignition delay period is required before the mixture becomes explosive. Detonation: this is a very sudden rise of pressure during combustion accompanied by metallic hammer like sound that take place in the farthest away from spark plug zone. Wherein a true pressure wave formed by pre-flame reaction ( delay period) travel at about twice sonic speed, is the mechanism of such phenomena.
Octane rating
Octane rating is measured relative to a mixture of 2,2,4-trimethylpentane and n-heptane. There are different conventions for expressing octane ratings, so a fuel may have several different octane ratings based on the measure used. The octane rating became important as the military sought higher output for aircraft engines in the late 1930s and the 1940s. A higher octane rating simulates a higher compression ratio, and thus higher temperatures and pressures, which translate to higher power output.
Measuring ON
Two kind of fuels are used as standard or primary reference fuels (PRF) : 1. Iso-octane (2,2,4 tri-methylpentane) having low boiling point and has very slight tendency to knock, and therefore its ON = 100 2. n-heptane, which is characterized by high tendency to detonate, therefore its ON = 0 To find the (ON) of a fuel , the following test is carried using special test engine : 1. The fuel (x) is used, Cr is adjusted at specified operating conditions until a standard level of knock is experienced. 2. Fuel (x) is replaced by mixture of the (PRF) through special designed intake system to have any blend of mixture, until same level of knock is obtained. 3. At that instant, the (%) of iso-octane in the mixture represent the (ON) of fuel(x).
***
For example, petrol with the same knocking characteristics as a mixture of 90% iso-octane and 10% heptane would have an octane rating of 90. This does not mean that the petrol contains just isooctane and heptane in these proportions, but that it has the same detonation resistance properties. Because some fuels are more knock-resistant than iso-octane, the definition has been extended to allow for octane numbers higher than 100.
The most common type of octane rating worldwide is the (RON). determined by running the fuel in a test engine with a variable compression ratio under controlled conditions, and comparing the results with those for mixtures of iso-octane and n-heptane. 2 - Motoring method MON [Motor Octane Number ] (MON), is a better measure of how the fuel behaves when under load, as it is determined at 900 rpm engine speed, instead of the 600 rpm for RON. MON testing uses a similar test engine to that used in RON testing, but with a preheated fuel mixture, higher engine speed, and variable ignition timing to further stress the fuel's knock resistance. 3 - Aviation method AON "octane booster" gasoline additives was commonly used for ON improvement , but since the 1970s, its use in most of the industrialized world has been restricted, and its use is currently limited mostly to aviation gasoline.
Measuring methods 1 - Research method RON [Research Octane Number ]
Road Octane Number (RdON)
The final type of octane rating, called Observed Road Octane Number (RdON), is derived from testing gasoline in real world multi-cylinder engines, normally at wide open throttle. The actual testing was done in cars on the road but as technology developed the testing was moved to chassis dynamometers with environmental controls to improve consistency.
(ON) characteristics
1. Anti-knock index AKI
3. Performance number PN
AKI = (MON + RON) 2. Fuel sensitivity FS

it shows how sensitive a fuel knock characteristics to engine geometry. FS = RON MON 0 FS 10 better poorer performance performance 4. Fuel mixture ON
ON]mix = [(mass % i ) ( ON)i ]
ON extended scale As stated earlier that some fuels are more knock-resistant than iso-octane, and so this may lead to an extended ON rating for a value higher than 100. In this case, how can such fuels be compared when they are better than iso-octane in antiknock characteristics. The answer to this problem is through the Wiese method of extended ON scale by relating [ON to PN ] as follows :
Where
another method of extended ON rating is by relating ON to anti-knock agent called tetraethyl lead (TEL) as follows :
Variables effecting ON
1. Combustion chamber geometry. 2. Gas turbulence 3. Induction swirl 4. Temperature 5. Inert gas addition 6. Flame speed
Improving (ON) An antiknock agent is a gasoline additive used to reduce engine knocking and increase the fuel's octane rating. The fuel mixture (gasoline) , when used in high compression internal combustion engines, has a tendency to ignite early (pre-ignition or detonation) causing a damaging "engine knocking" (also called "pinging" or "pinking") noise.
The typical octane booster or antiknock agents in use are: * TEL - Tetra-ethyl lead (phased out) * MMT - Methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl * MTBE Methyl-tert-butyl ether * ETBE ethyl-tert-butyl ether *Ferrocene *Iron pentacarbonyl *Toluene *Isooctane
Tetraethyllead (TEL) its chemical formula is [Pb(C2H5)4] It is knock inhibitor which increases the gasoline fuel knock resistance when small quantity is added to the fuel [(0.5-1.5 ml) per liter gasoline] It raises the ON > 100
Engine knock
engine knock, is a sound that is made when the fuel ignites too early in the compression stroke. Severe knock causes severe engine damage, such as 1. broken connecting rods, 2. melted pistons, 3. melted or broken valves and other components. The Octane rating is a measure of how likely a gasoline or liquid petroleum fuel is to self ignite. The higher the ON, the less likely an engine is to preignite and suffer damage.
How knock occurs

Refer to your text book P 140-141 Figs. 4.3 4.4 a,b,c, 4.5
***
Figure 4-3 Self-ignition characteristics of fuels. If the temperature of a fuel is raised above the selfignition temperature (SIT), the fuel will spontaneously ignite after a short ignition delay (ID) time. The higher above SIT which the fuel is heated, the shorter will be ID. Ignition delay is generally on the order of thousandths of a second.
***
Fig.4-4 Cylinder pressure as a function of time in a typical SI engine combustion chamber showing : a- normal combustion b- combustion with high knock c- combustion with heavy knock
***
Figure 4-5 SI engine combustion chamber schematically visualized as long hollow cylinder with the spark plug located at left end. (a) Mass of air-fuel is equally distributed as spark plug is fired to start combustion. (b) As flame front moves across chamber, unburned mixture in front of flame is compressed into smaller volume. (c) Flame front continues to compress unburned mixture into smaller volume, which increases its temperature and pressure. If compression raises temperature of end gas above SIT, self-ignition and knock can occur.
How knock occurs In SIE, during normal combustion a flame front is produced by the spark, spreading uniformly across the combustion chamber with a smooth pressure rise. The heat released due to combustion increases temperature and pressure of the burned gases. The burned gases expand compressing the unburned gases, thereby increasing their (T&P), and thus the flame front proceeds throughout the combustion chamber. If the temperature of unburned mixture exceeds SIT of the fuel, then spontaneous ignition or uncontrolled auto-ignition occurs at various location in the combustion chamber. This phenomenon is called knock or detonation in SI engines.
4.1.7 Diesel fuel
introduction
Diesel fuel is also known
as diesel oil or fuel oil. It is petroleum fraction that lies between kerosene and lubricating oil.
Two types usually used
in IC engines : 1. Light diesel fuel C12H22 of MWt=170 less viscous, easy to pump, and cost more. 2. Heavy diesel fuel C14H24 of MWt=200
properties
In order to burn well, diesel fuel should :
Atomize properly 2. Ignite quickly 3. Burns completely

1.
Ignition quality
determines the ignition quality are : 1. Specific gravity this is related to the energy content of the fuel and greatly affects the (specific & volumetric) fuel consumption of a diesel engine.
Diesel fuel properties that
2. volatility It is the tendency to evaporate under given set of conditions. Evaporation and mixing with air is essential for good ignition quality and complete combustion, as this will effects the exhaust contents (HCs, NOx, smoke density, odour). It is measured by distillation temp. vs % evaporated according to ASTM distillation curve
***
3. Ignition quality i- smooth spontaneous ignition at low temperature is essential for good quality of ignition. ii- ignition delay (ID)which is the time period between start of injection and start of combustion.
Notes on (ID) Influence the quality of fuel
optimization. Too long (ID) causes rapid rate of pressure rise at start of ignition which causes diesel knock. Too short provides insufficient time for good mixing which causes smoking. Effected by design parameters such as Cr, injection rate & timing, inlet air temperature..
***
4. Cetane number (CN)
It is a measure of the fuel
ability to auto-ignite quickly when injected into the hot compressed air. It is also a numerical measure of the influence the diesel fuel has in determining the (ID)
CN diesel knock exh. emission noise delay period CN pre-ignition occurs
Measuring CN
A special test engine is used for the
The test procedure :
purpose of measuring (CN) of fuel (x).
Ref. fuel mixture variation
i- fuel injection begins at (13 bTDC) ii- (Cr) to be adjusted for ignition to start at TDC Reference fuel 1- n-cetane [C16H34] CN = 100 2- heptomethylnonane HMN [C12H34] CN = 15
Accordingly , the mixture blend
according to test procedure until ignition start at TDC
is used to calculate (CN) of fuel (x) as : CN]x = % n-cetane + (0.15) %HMN
Methods of diesel fuel rating

Cetane index (CI) CI = - 420.34 + 0.016G + 0.192G(log Tmp ) + 65.01(log Tmp ) - 0.0001809 Tmp where G API gravity (American Petroleum Institute) {APIg} G = (141.5/sp.grv) 131.5 sp.grv specific gravity sp.grv = [gravity of fuel/gravity of water] at 15 C
1.
Tmp - mid point boiling temperature in ( F) , which is
the temperature at which (50%)of mixture will be evaporated.
***
2. Diesel index (DI) DI = 0.01 [ aniline point (F) x APIg at 60F]
aniline point is the lowest temperature at which the oil is completely miscible with an equal volume of aniline. [good quality diesel oil APIg = 70 F]
ON & CN
1. 2. 3.
For gasoline , (ON) is a measure of the resistance to spontaneous ignition For diesel fuel, (CN) is a measure of the ease of spontaneous ignition . (ON & CN) are therefore the inverse measurement of the same property (spontaneous ignition)
4.
5. 6.
Approximate simple relationship between ON & CN : CN = (104 ON)/2.75 ON = 104 2.75 CN This means that a good diesel engine fuel is bad gasoline engine fuel Increasing (ON) is not harmful but a cost waste. increasing (CN) is harmful as it might produce preignition.

4.1.8 Alternative fuels
Frequently asked questions

Why alternative fuels needed i- crude oil is vanishing sources. ii-emission problems from HCs iii-increasing crude oil transport cost 2. Why alternative fuels still out of use i-engine modification ii-high cost iii- service stations construction
1.
Types of alternative fuels

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Alcohol Methanol ( CH3OH ) Ethanol ( C2H5OH ) Hydrogen Natural gas methane Propane Reformulated gasoline Coal water slurry other
Refer to your text book for
more details. Definitions and advantagesdisadvantages are required to be read.
Methanol CH3OH
Methanol is a good alternate fuel for internal combustion
and other engines, either in combination with gasoline or directly (pure"). Mixture of methanol and gasoline is usually designated by (MX) , for example M15 15% methanol + 85% gasoline M100 pure methanol M0 pure gasoline
Ethanol C2H5OH
It is also as methanol a good alternative fuel for automobiles. Made much of it from corn and sugar, although the
manufacturing processes are costly. Most common mixture used are 1. M85 2. M10
Tutorial
See examples : 4.6 / p.154 4.7 / p.156
Chapter four combustion

4.2.1 - Introduction
Introduction
Combustion process may be defined as a relatively rapid chemical reaction between C & H in fuel and oxygen in the air, resulting in liberation of energy in the form of heat
Combustion requirements 1. Presence of combustible mixture (fuel + air) 2. Means of combustion initiation (spark) or self ignition 3. Stabilization and propagation of flame in the combustion chamber
SIE combustion stages : 1. Ignition and flame development 2. Flame propagation 3. Flame termination. Types of combustion 1. Controlled combustion which is initiated by a spark . 2. Uncontrolled combustion which is initiated by hot spot. 3. Abnormal combustion which is known as auto-ignition and this will cause engine knock.
Remarks on ignition
Near end of compression stroke the cylinder contains a homogeneous FA mixture. Spark is fired and ignites the FA mixture in the vicinity forming a thin thread of flame. Combustion spread to the envelope of the mixture containing the thread. Rate of flame propagation depends on T & P of flame
front and surrounding envelope.
Combustion in CI Engine In a CI engine the fuel is sprayed directly into the cylinder and the fuel-air mixture ignites spontaneously.
These photos are taken in a RCM under CI engine conditions with swirl air flow.
Diesel Combustion Process

spontaneous combustion (auto ignition) due to temperature increase of reactants. ignition triggered by compression heating of fuel-air mixture. Ignition initiated at random point in combustion chamber Fast combustion process Less complete combustion process
Chapter four Combustion

4.2.2 Indicator diagram
Indicator diagrams are indicative of the power generated within engines and are a useful tool for engineers to know how well their engines are performing. The term indicated power refers to the theoretical power that develops inside the cylinder of an engine though in actual practice the power available at the outside (brake power) is lesser but for the time being we will not consider the latter but only talk about indicated power. The best way to find out the indicated power is from calculating the area under indicator diagram. Actually you will notice that it is the same P-V diagram which we studied previously . We know that a P-V diagram contains a plot of the pressure and volume variations for an engine. The significance of this chart lies in the fact that the work done during the cycle can be gauged from the area enclosed within the loop of the graph.
The direction of the arrows shows the path to follow. The (+ve A1 , -ve A2) loops are measured by planimeter. If the length and height of the indicator diagram are (L & h) respectively, then : L.h = A1 A2 Where A1 - +ve work (power) and A2 -ve work (losses) L.h = useful work output the indicated power cannot be measured directly, so it is evaluated indirectly by measuring the brake power and engine losses. However If indicator diagram is available, the indicated power can be computed by measuring the area of the diagram with a planimeter or other such means, so (imep) can be evaluate as :
Where imep bar --Net diagram area mm --Length of diagram mm --and Spring constant - bar/mm
A planimeter is a measuring instrument used to determine the area of an arbitrary twodimensional shape. The linkage of polar arm is fixed at the pole, the tracer moves around the boundary of the shape. Tracing around the perimeter of a surface induces a movement in a measuring wheel that rolls along the drawing as the operator traces the contour. When the planimeter's measuring wheel moves, this movement is recorded. The area of the shape is proportional to the number of turns through which the measuring wheel rotates when the planimeter is traced along the complete perimeter of the shape. The electronic type planimeter gives a direct reading of the measured area.
definition
The device which measures the variation of the pressure in the cylinder over a part or full cycle in called indicator. The plot of such output is called indicator diagram
description
1. The indicator diagram is the only intermediate record available in the account of total liberated energy before it is measured at the output shaft. It gives a very good indication of the process of converting heat into mechanical work. It gives a great insight into combustion phenomenon and the associated factors such: i- rate of pressure rise. ii- ignition lag or delay period. 4. Provides the required information for the study of the losses occurring in the induction and exhaust strokes. 5. It is used for the study of engine combustion, detonation, tuning of inlet and exhaust manifold. 6. Indicator diagrams are basically of two types: i- pressure-volume (PV) plot. ii- pressure-crank angle (P) plot.
2.
3.
Engine indicating system

Engine indicating device consist of : 1. Pressure sensing unit. 2. Piston displacement or piston angular position sensor. 3. Display device which can show both pressure and piston signals on one set of paper or screen. The main type of engine indicators are : 1. Piston indicator 2. Balanced diaphragm 3. Electronic indicator The first two types are mechanical, now considered out of date and unsuitable equipment.
Electronic indicators
The electronic indicator system generally of the following main units : 1. Pressure pick-up 2. Pre-amplifying device 3. Time-base recording device. 4. Display circuit.
Pressure pick-up
This is a pressure transducer that generates electrical signal proportional to the pressure to which it is subjected, also Pressure transducer is a heat resistance piezoelectric quartz crystal that produce a charge signal proportional to the cylinder pressure. The signal produced is usually very small or too small to be displayed.
Pre-amplifying device
This device is used to enlarge the small signal received from the pressure transducer so that it can be displayed on a display unit such as oscilloscope or may be recorded into a special recorder.
Time-base recording device.

There are many types of complicated devices used, but the simplest is a light sensor aimed onto a white spot painted on the flywheel ring, where each time the white spot passes the light sensor a signal is sent to the display unit. The white spot must be located at a specific position (TDC or BDC). The cycle pressure is then related accordingly.
Display circuit.
It can be a cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) on which the pressure signal is applied to the vertical plate, and the time or position signal to the horizontal plate, thereby resulting a (PV, P-t, P-) diagrams
Integrated unit

4.2.3 combustion fundamentals
General remarks
Combustion process takes place at a certain timing, where piston and spark are related by time and position. Combustion period is therefore related to such parameters (t & ) as mentioned before, and expressed as: ID = dr/(360N/60) or simply t = / 6N So if either combustion time or combustion angle is given for a specific engine speed , then the other variable is very simple to evaluate.
example
If engine speed (2400) rpm, and combustion span for (25) degrees, then combustion time will be t = 25/6x2400 If combustion time is (3 ms) for the same engine speed, then combustion angle is =6tN = 6 (3/1000) (2400)
Burn angle
Combustion period in degrees is better known as burn angle, which can be defined as : burn angle is the angle through which the crank shaft turns during combustion process or is the number of crank shaft degrees combustion process occupies
If time factor is used, then this will be called burn time In most engine, typical value of burn angle is about 25 degrees Accordingly, if combustion is to be completed at (15 aTDC) then ignition should occurs at about (10 bTDC), and this would give a total of (25) from start of ignition to end of combustion
Start of ignition
1. too early pressure increases rapidly to reach undesirable level before TDC, and this means that work will be wasted in compression stroke. then max pressure will not occur early enough, then work will be lost at start of power stroke.
2. too late
3. Norma time
from above, ideal time of ignition is in the range of (1030) degrees bTDC
Best performance will be achieved when the greatest portion of the combustion takes place near top dead center. ** If the spark is not advanced enough, the piston will already be moving down when much of the combustion takes place. In this case, we lose the ability to expand this portion of the gas through the full range, decreasing performance. ** If ignition is too advanced, too much of the gas will burn while the piston is still rising. As a result, the work that must be done to compress this gas will decrease the net work produced. These competing effects cause a maximum in the power as a function of spark advance.
1) If ignition timing does not become advance enough, most of the combustion occurs when the piston is moving down and, in this case, the power and the thermal efficiency decrease. 2) If ignition timing gets too advance, most of the air-fuel mixture burns before the piston rises. Additionally, the period of the time of heat loss becomes larger, then the net work and the thermal efficiency decrease. 3) By raising ignition advance, however, an increase in temperature and pressure in cylinder happens but the power and the thermal efficiency decrease due to higher friction loss and other losses in the engine. 4) The performance of an SI engine highly depends on ignition timing, and its optimum value should be determined for each SI engine. For this engine, the
maximum thermal efficiency and net work are obtained at 31CA BTDC.
Combustion &Engine speed

Actual spark timing is typically anywhere from (10 to 30) bTDC, but to specify exact position depends on : 1. Type of fuel 2. Engine geometry 3. Engine speed (N) Considering engine speed factor, it can be said that
1. Combustion occurs faster at higher (N) due to better mixing and various mixture motion inside the cylinder Real time for combustion process decreases as RPM increases due to good mixing caused by turbulence flow effects. Real time for engine cycle also decreases as RPM increases From (1 &2) above means that burn angle remains almost the same, as time factor equalizes both factors.
2.
3. 4.
examples
If () is to remain constant , while varying engine speed = 25 N = 2000 and 3600 rpm t = / 6N t2000 = 2.08 ms t3600 = 1.15 ms Real combustion time decreases as engine speed increases
If (t) is to remain constant in the previous examples t = / 6N = constant t1 = t2 1 / 6N1 = 2 / 6N2 2 = 1 (N2/ N1) = 25 (3600/2000) = 40 deg. So in order to keep (t) constant when engine speed changes from (2000) to (3600) rpm, the burn angle have to be increased from (25) to (40) deg. This means that spark must occur at (30) bTDC to complete combustion at (15) aTDC
1. Ideally Combustion in every cylinder of an engine would be exactly the same, and no cycle-to-cycle variation in one cylinder, i.e In all cylinders no cylinder to cylinder variation In one cylinder -- no cycle to cycle variation 2. but, actually This does not happen, where actual conditions differ from ideal conditions, and this causes variation to take place in all cylinders, and cycle to cycle in each cylinder. 3. Why ? The reasons behind such variation in combustion that actually occurs are : I - variation in intake system II - variation within the cylinder III - turbulence within the cylinder causes statistical variation during combustion
Variation in combustion
Cycle-to-cycle variation
Causes of variation in combustion process

In actual engine operation, the assumptions made to theoretically evaluate engine combustion process can not hold due to many reasons and uncontrolled effects that causes variation in combustion between the cylinders and also within each cylinder, such causes can be enumerated as follows:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Intake system Evaporative cooling Fuel properties EGR Throttling Fuel injection Indicator diagram Spark discharge Burn time
Home work
Refer to your text book and other references of your choice, write short assay on the causes of combustion variation, taking the factors mentioned above into consideration plus any other reasons you think that should be included.
================================================== Engine operating conditions have substantial effects on combustion process, as conditions for max power requirements differ from that when economy is the target, or during cruising for a long journey. so, studying the most common operating conditions that an engine may subjected to will give better understanding of combustion process.
Engine operating characteristics & combustion process
1 power operation
maximum power will be required at WOT for Fast start up accelerating up a hill Airplane take-off to get such power level for above requirement, then I rich AF must be supplied to the engine by adjusting fuel injectors or carburetors. II ignition timing must be retard (spark later in the cycle) This will develop max power at the sacrifice of fuel economy and rough operation, as a results of this modifications : a rich AF burns faster and pressure peak near TDC b high engine speed ** reduces heat transfer time ** exhaust gases and valves will be hotter c to maximize flame speed further ** no EGR is recycled ** NOx higher formation level
2 - Cruising operation
Cruising operation means ** steady free-way driving ** long distance journey Under such condition ** less power is needed ** bsfc is important Therefore, such operating conditions requires : 1 lean AF mixture must be used 2 high EGR should be supplied 3 ignition timing should be advanced. These requirements will results in : a slow flame speed b high millage (km/lit) c low thermal efficiency
3 idle & low engine speed

these operating conditions are characterized by : I throttle is almost closed II- high vacuum in the intake manifold Due to the high vacuum and low engine speed, the following drawbacks will results : 1 high residual gases during overlap period 2 poor combustion 3 high exhaust emission (HC & CO) due to rich AF and poor combustion. 4 misfire and partial combustion in some cylinders Although effective drawbacks will results in such operating condition, nevertheless, rich mixture must be supplied to compensate for poor combustion
4 closing throttle at high engine speed

Drivers are sometimes faced with road conditions that requires quick deceleration such as sudden braking action. Under such condition the engine RPM is high and the throttle is almost closed, which are conflicting situation as : ** high RPM requires high air flow ** closed throttle requires low air flow these conditions are forced conditions, resulting in: 1 high intake vacuum 2 high exhaust residual 3 rich mixture 4 poor combustion 5 mis-fire 6 high exhaust emission These results are most noticeable in carburetor engine, however, fuel injector have better response which can be controlled by shutting-down the fuel flow under such conditions.
To start a cold engine, over rich mixture must be supplied (closing the choke) to ensure that enough fuel vapor will be present to make the least combustible mixture. Cold engine reduces the percentage of fuel evaporation as compared to normal conditions due to: 1 cold walls of intake system & of cylinders 2 cold fuel 3 cold lubricating oil Cold engine at instance of starting is characterized by a due to no-combustion situation, the engine is driven by the starter motor at a very low rpm b compressive heating is lost to cold walls and not to gas mixture c cold viscous lub oil resist motion Therefore to overcome all of these , the need is essential for over-rich mixture, may be as much as (1:1), so small percentage of fuel will be vaporized, resulting in : i- combustible mixture is obtained ii ignition start iii- after few cycles, engine begins to warm up, so in few minutes normal operation will be reached.
5 starting cold engine

4.2.4 combustion in SI engines
fundamentals
As stated earlier, combustion process is divided into three broad regions : 1. Ignition and flame development. 2. Flame propagation. 3. Flame termination Ideally combustion consist of sub-sonic flame progressing through premixed-homogeneous air/fuel mixture
The spread of the flame front is influenced by (increased by) induced turbulence-swirl-squish mixture motion within the cylinder. The right combination of fuel and operating conditions must be established such that knock is to be avoided.
The air and fuel are homogeneously mixed together in the carburetor. This mixture enters engine cylinder through intake manifold. Mixes with residual gas and compressed. Combustion is initiated by a spark at the end of compression stroke. As the piston reaches TDC the fuel is ignited by the spark at the spark plug and the burning process of the mixture begins. As the gases rapidly expand the piston is forced down the cylinder on the power stroke. A turbulent flame develops following ignition, propagating through AF mixture. The flame front spreads with a certain speed known as flame velocity. The speed of the flame front must not exceed the speed of the power stoke. indicator diagram is useful in predicting : i- rate of pressure rise. ii- ignition lag or delay period. iii- losses occurring in the induction and exhaust strokes. iv- study of engine combustion, detonation, tuning of inlet and exhaust manifold. Therefore it can be concluded that understanding indicator diagram is essential to understand combustion process. Generally, such diagram can be presented either as: i- PV diagram ii- P diagram in both theoretical or actual form. :
PV diagram
theoretical actual
P - diagram
theoretical actual
Combustion stages
1. First stage is ignition and flame development, or sometimes called ignition lag. (AB) 2. Second stage is flame propagation (BC) 3. Third stage is flame termination and sometime it may be called after burn (CD)
r revolution
1st stage ignition lag

Ignition lag or ignition delay can be defined as
it is the time interval between ignition initiation and the actual start of combustion. It is a very small fraction of a second during which FA mixture is chemically prepared for reaction
Ignition delay period (ID) can be calculated as follows :
ID ignition delay (sec) dr degree of engine rotation N - engine speed (rpm) 360 crank shaft degrees per revolution
During this 1st stage, generally about (5% - 10%) of the FA mixture is consumed under normal operating conditions of a SI engines. Events taken place during this period are: *ignition occurs and initiated by spark from the spark plug. *combustion process start as AF mixture is ignited in the immediate vicinity of the spark (close surroundings), forming a small hallow nucleus of flame like a form of soap bubble sphere. *combustion reaction starts to spread outwards away from the spark plug and into the remaining volume of the cylinder. at this stage, the rate of combustion is slow which results in: 1- low rate of pressure rise ( about 1% of that in the 2nd stage). 2- low production of useful work. the reasons behind such slow progress in combustion process is due to low turbulence motion in this zone, as well as high heat losses to : 1- relatively cold spark plug material. 2- gas mixture.
Flame is generally detected at about (6) degrees of crank rotation after spark plug firing. This means that there is a time interval where combustion start after ignition occurs, where we called this as delay period. by the time (5-10 %) of AF mass has been burned, which is the duration of this 1st stage, the combustion process is then well established, and the flame front starts to move faster. This indicates the start of the 2nd stage. but where the 1st stage ends and where the 2nd stage start is very difficult to specify due to so many variables involved, and therefore this can be specified for a particular engine from indicator diagram study of this particular engine. The first two stages of combustion are not entirely distinct, since the nature and velocity of combustion changes gradually. However, we can assume that the end point of the first stage is itself the start point of the 2nd stage. this point can be specified when a first measurable rise of pressure is seen on the indicator diagram, i.e, the point where the line of combustion depart from the line of compression, as shown in the following diagram
A point of spark B point of measurable pressure rise. C point of max pressure. And therefore : AB represent 1st stage BC represent 2nd stage CD represent 3rd stage
2nd stage flame propagation

As the 1st stage ends the combustion of the mixture inside the cylinder becomes more established, where the rate of pressure rise becomes faster and therefore provides higher force to produce work in the expansion stroke. Most of the FA mixture is burned in this stage, about (80-90%) of the total FA mass rate. Most of the useful work is produced in this stage. During this stage the gas mixture undergoes motion of turbulence-swirl-squish resulting in a high flame front speed. The flame front expands spherically from the spark plug and spread through the combustion chamber due to those above motion
***
As combustion proceeds, the gas mixture pressure rises to high values, however, the temperature of the burned gases behind the flame front is higher then that before flame front, and therefore density of burned gases decreases and thus expands to occupy a greater volume.
gases, and therefore , the unburned gases will be subjected to compressive heating. in addition to that, and due to heat transfer (radiation, conduction, convection) will further increase the unburned gases temperature as well as its pressure. from these conditions of operation, the flame moves through the combustion chamber and travels through a progressively increasing temperature and pressure environment, thus improving combustion by : 1- reducing chemical reaction time 2- increasing flame front speed when the piston reaches TDC : 1- of AF mixture is completely burned. 2- gases (T & P) reaches max values just after TDC (5-10) aTDC 3- all FA mixture is completely burned at about (15) aTDC
This volume increase of the burned gases compresses the unburned
3rd stage flame termination

In this stage (5-10)% of AF mixture is burned which makes it the final mass of fuel to be consumed, and a little additional work is delivered. This means that (90-95)% of FA mass rate is already being burned, and therefore the rate of pressure rise quickly decreases, thence combustion ends at about (15-20) degrees aTDC
Returning to fig. shown : *the last (5-10)% mass of AF is compressed into few percent (about 2%) of combustion chamber volume. *this volume is at the extreme corner of combustion chamber. *the piston start to move away from TDC, the volume increased by about (10-20)% of clearance volume(Vc), resulting that AF react in a very small volume, and therefore reaction takes place at a very low rate
Near the wall, the mixture motion is damped out, and the combustion chamber walls acts as heat sink, which causes : 1. Rate of reaction is further reduced. 2. Flame speed is also reduced. 3. Thus combustion ends by slowly dying away.

4.2.5 combustion in CI engines
General remarks **in SI engines combustion, flame front moves through a homogeneous mixture, while in CI engines unsteady process occurring simultaneously at many spots in a very non-homogeneous mixture at a rate controlled by fuel injection. **Air intake is un-throttled in CIE giving almost atmospheric intake pressure, and thus reduces pumping losses and improving thermal efficiency **Air only to be compressed during most of the compression stroke while fuel is injected into the cylinder at the end of this stroke Injection span for about (20) starting (15) bTDC and lasting up to (5) aTDC **Delay period is almost constant in real time, so at higher RPM fuel injection must start earlier in the cycle. Air movement (turbulence + swirl) and high injection velocity is needed spread the fuel droplets through out the cylinder and forces it to mix with air **after the engine is provided with fuel air mixture, the combustion process is set to be started
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Air only is admitted into the engine cylinder during the intake stroke, then compressed during most of the compression stroke near the end of which fuel injection will start. Due to high Cr the FA mixture temperature start to rise , reaching a level high enough to make FA self ignited This temperature is called self ignition temperature SIT So the principles of ignition in CIE is that FA mixture is so compressed to raise its temperature up to SIT
Combustion process
After injection, fuel must undergo series of events to ensure proper combustion, i.e : 1. Atomization 2. Vaporization 3. Mixing 4. Self ignition 5. Combustion
Refer to your text book for definition of each of these events.
Fuel jet
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This figure shows air/fuel vapor zone, where the liquid core is surrounded by vapor zones denoted by : A too rich to burn B rich combustible C stoichiometric D lean combustible E too lean to burn
Fuel injection
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A start of fuel injection AB delay period C end of fuel injection AC total injection span B combustion start at a spot or spots where SIT is reached
The combustion process proceeds by the following stages:
Ignition delay (ab)-fuel is injected directly into the cylinder towards the end of
the compression stroke. The liquid fuel atomizes into small drops and penetrates into the combustion chamber. The fuel vaporizes and mixes with the high-temperature high-pressure air.
Premixed uncontrolled combustion phase (bc)combustion of the fuel which

has mixed with the air to within the flammability limits (air at hightemperature and high-pressure) during the ignition delay period occurs rapidly in a few crank angles.
Mixing controlled combustion phase (cd)after premixed gas consumed, the

burning rate is controlled by the rate at which mixture becomes available for burning. The rate of burning is controlled in this phase primarily by the fuelair mixing process.
Late combustion phase {after burn} (de)heat release may proceed at a

lower rate well into the expansion stroke (no additional fuel injected during this phase). Combustion of any unburned liquid fuel and soot is responsible for this.
Combustion stages
Combustion process in CI engines can also be divided into stages : 1. AB ignition delay stage 2. BC uncontrolled combustion stage. 3. CD controlled combustion stage 4. After burn stage
a - 0.4 ms after ignition . c - 3.2 ms after ignition (magnified)
b - 3.2 ms after ignition d - Late in combustion process
Ignition delay
ignition delay period of about (0.43.0 ms) will be considered normal when: * AF mixture in the combustible ratio * temperature of the mixture in the SIT range. Ignition delay decreases when any of the following parameters increases: (temperature pressure engine speed compression ratio high RPM) Injection rate has no real effect on ignition delay, but ignition timing has a marked effect, as when injection starts: 1. 2. Too early ignition delay time increases due to low (T&P) Too late also ignition delay time increases, and piston moves well past TDC during the uncontrolled combustion stage Due to many reasons, ignition delay period may be Long ID Short ID Normal ID
1. 2. 3.
CN & ID
1. Low CN causes ID to be too long, as more fuel will be injected before combustion, and so when combusted results in: I high initial pressure rise II- large initial force on piston III- rough engine operation. 2. High CN - ID will be shorter, causing : I- combustion start too early before TDC II- resulting in power loss. 3. Normal CN (40 60)
Chapter four Combustion

4.2.6 Control & Sensors
Control & sensors

The control system uses sensors located at various engine locations with programmed electronic controllers and monitors. It is used to adjust combustion for i- optimum power output ii- fuel economy iii-emission control Input information from sensors located in appropriate engine, intake, and exhaust locations.
These sensors measures 1. throttle position 2. Throttle rate of change 3. Intake manifold pressure 4. Atmospheric pressure 5. Coolant temperature 6. Intake temperature 7. EGR valve position 8. Crank angle 9. O2 & CO in exhaust 10. Knock detection 11. others
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Sensors methods of measurement are 1. Mechanical 2. Thermal 3. Electronic 4. Optical 5. Chemical 6. Combinations of above. The controlled variables are 1. Ignition timing 2. Valve timing 3. Fuel injection duration 4. Exhaust air pump 5. Air/fuel 6. Transmission shifting 7. Warning light operation 8. Repair diagnostic recording 9. Computer programming 10. Etc.
Chapter four Ignition

4.3.1 - Ignition system
Fundamentals
Introduction Ignition is a process of combustion initiation, and must add necessary energy for the starting and sustained burning of the fuel -till combustion takes place.Ignition system It provides the necessary and timely energy from external source (spark) to the fuel charge at the end of compression stroke. The high temperature zone created by the spark propagate through the charge as flame front. the combustion process releases chemical energy according to fuel calorific value.
Basics The ignition system of an internal-combustion engine is an important part of the overall engine system. It provides for the timely burning of the fuel mixture within the engine. Not all engine types need an ignition system - for example, a diesel engine relies on compression-ignition, that is, the rise in temperature that accompanies the rise in pressure within the cylinder is sufficient to ignite the fuel spontaneously. All conventional petrol (gasoline) engines, by contrast, require an ignition system. The ignition system is usually switched on/off through a lock switch, operated with a key or code patch.
Engine starting system Prior to ignition, the engine must be rotated in order to start cranking, which is an essential activity for the IC engine operation, whereby several methods to do so are available: 1. Hand cranking. 2. Electric starter motor. 3. Auxiliary gasoline engine 4. Compressed air. 5. Explosive cartridge. 6. Inertia starter. Electric starter motor is most preferred methods, whilst hand cranking is still common for small engine as in small home generator.
1 - Hand cranking although this method were used for old engines, it is however still in use for small engines usually a single cylinder type of bore less than ( 5 inches). The engine is provided with i - a crank which is manually rotated at high speed to start the engine. ii a rope winded around crankshaft pulley, by which fast pulling the rope to start the engine. 2. Electric starter motor is Mostly preferred method, where the motor is connected to the engine by means of spur gears, these gears coupled to the motor by flexible coupling. When the starter switch is turned, it closes a circuit between the battery and the motor, whose armature begins to spin. The spur gears are in a pinion form meshes with the flywheel. After the flywheel turns, the engine start to fire. Then the flywheel is disengaged from the pinion and the starter motor. The current required (500A) to start the motor is supplied by a 12V-battery.
Ignition system components The components of the ignition system consist of: Battery Ignition coil Spark plugs Distributor Advance mechanism The ignition system ignites the air/fuel mixture inside the cylinders, or combustion chambers. All internal combustion engines require an ignition system to work. The entire system consists of two electrical systems. One is a low voltage circuit induced by the voltage supplied by the BATTERY. The other electrical system is the high voltage circuit. This circuit provides the necessary voltage to create a spark at the SPARK PLUG.
Battery
Ignition Coil
Spark plug
Ignition Wires
Distributor cup
Battery
Spark plug
A spark plug is an electrical device that fits into the cylinder head of I.C Engines and ignites compressed aerosol gasoline by means of an electric spark. Spark plugs have an insulated center electrode which is connected by a heavily insulated wire to an induction coil circuit on the outside, forming, with a grounded terminal on the base of the plug, a spark gap inside the cylinder. A spark plug is composed of a shell, insulator and the conductor. It pierces the wall of the combustion chamber and therefore must also seal the combustion chamber against high pressures and temperatures, without deteriorating over long periods of time and extended use.
Spark plug gap
Spark plugs are typically designed to have a spark gap which can be adjusted by bending the ground electrode slightly to bring it closer to or further from the central electrode. Spark plugs in automobiles generally have a gap between (0.91.8 mm). But it can depend on the engine. The gap adjustment can be fairly critical, and if it is maladjusted the engine may run badly, or not at all. A narrow gap may give too small and weak a spark to effectively ignite the fuelair mixture, while a gap that is too wide might prevent a spark from firing at all. Either way, a spark which only intermittently fails to ignite the fuel-air mixture may not be noticeable directly, but will show up as a reduction in the engine's power and fuel efficiency
The main issues with spark plug gaps are: narrow-gap risk: spark might be too weak/small to ignite fuel; narrow-gap benefit: plug always fires on each cycle; wide-gap risk: plug might not fire, or miss at high speeds; wide-gap benefit: spark is strong for a clean burn.
Types of ignition systems

Four types of systems have been used in modern times:
The Breaker Point System The Electronic System The Computerized System The Distributorless System The way they create the high voltage spark is the same in all types of systems, the only thing that differs is the way they are controlled.
All ignition systems have two circuits :
The Primary Circuit
The primary circuit is the low voltage circuit that controls the ignition system.
The secondary circuit is the circuit which converts magnetic induction into high voltage electricity to jump across the spark plug gap, firing the mixture at the right time.
The Secondary Circuit
The Primary Circuit
The primary circuit consists of:
The Secondary Circuit
The Secondary Circuit consists of:

Secondary Coil - the part of the coil that creates the high voltage electricity. Coil Wire - a highly insulated wire, that takes the high voltage from the coil, to the distributor cap. Distributor Cap - a plastic cap which goes on top of the distributor, to hold the high tension wires in the right order. Rotor - spins around on the top of the distributor shaft, and distributes the spark to the right spark plug. Spark Plug Wires - another highly insulated wire that takes the high voltage from the cap to the plugs. Spark Plugs - take the electricity from the wires, and give it an air gap in the combustion chamber to jump across, to light the mixture.
Battery - provides the power to run the system. Ignition Switch - allows the driver to turn the system on and off. Ballast Resistor - reduces battery voltage from 12 volts to 9 volts. Points - a mechanical switch that acts as the triggering mechanism. Condenser - protects the points from burning out. Primary Coil - produces the magnetic field which creates the high voltage in the secondary coil. Wires - join all the components together.
How Does The Ignition System Work. Electrons, supplied by the battery when the engine is starting, or by the alternator when the engine is running, are supplied to the primary circuit at about 12 volts electrical pressure. When the circuit is completed by turning on the ignition switch, and the breaker points are closed, those electrons flow through the primary coil, across the points to ground, and back to the battery again. When electrons flow through a wire, a magnetic field is built up around the wire. Make the wire into a coil, and the magnetic field increases by the number of loops in the coil. This magnetic field takes a relatively long period of time to build up. It isn't instantaneous. The time the coil is charging up is called coil saturation, and is controlled by the amount of time the breaker points are closed, or "dwell". the longer the points are closed for, the longer the dwell, and the stronger the magnetic field becomes.
Mechanical ignition Most four-stroke engines have used a mechanical ignition system. Here, the power source is a lead-acid battery, kept charged by the car's electrical system, which generates electricity using a dynamo or alternator. The engine operates contact breaker points, which interrupt the current flow to an induction coil (known as the ignition coil) - a type of autotransformer. This steps-up the voltage, which is fed via a rotating switch called a distributor to the spark plugs. This system is not greatly different from a magneto system, except that more separate elements are involved. There are also advantages to this arrangement, for example, the position of the contact breaker points relative to the engine angle can be changed a small amount dynamically, allowing the ignition timing to be automatically advanced with increasing revolutions per minute (RPM), giving better efficiency. This system was used almost universally until the late 1970s, when electronic ignition systems started to appear.
Electronic ignition The disadvantage of the mechanical system is that it requires regular adjustment to compensate for wear, and the opening of the contact breakers, which is responsible for spark timing, is subject to mechanical variations. In addition, the spark voltage is also dependent on contact effectiveness, and poor sparking can lead to lower engine efficiency. Electronic ignition (EI) solves these problems. In an EI system, the contact breaker points are replaced by an angular sensor of some kind either optical, where a vaned rotor breaks a light beam, or more commonly using a Hall effect sensor, which responds to a rotating magnet mounted on a suitable shaft. The sensor output is shaped and processed by suitable circuitry, then used to trigger a switching device such as a thyristor, which switches a large flow of current through the coil. The rest of the system (distributor and spark plugs) remains as for the mechanical system. The lack of moving parts compared with the mechanical system leads to greater reliability and longer service intervals. For older cars, it is usually possible to retrofit an EI system in place of the mechanical one. During the 1980s, EI systems were developed alongside other improvements such as fuel injection systems. After a while it became logical to combine the functions of fuel control and ignition into one electronic system known as an engine management system.
Newer automobiles have evolved from a mechanical system (distributor) to a completely solid state electronic system with no moving parts. These systems are completely controlled by the on-board computer. In place of the distributor, there are multiple coils that each serve one or two spark plugs. A typical 6 cylinder engine has 3 coils that are mounted together in a coil "pack". A spark plug wire comes out of each side of the individual coil and goes to the appropriate spark plug. The coil fires both spark plugs at the same time. One spark plug fires on the compression stroke igniting the fuel-air mixture to produce power, while the other spark plug fires on the exhaust stroke and does nothing. On some vehicles, there is an individual coil for each cylinder mounted directly on top of the spark plug. This design completely eliminates the high tension spark plug wires for even better reliability. Most of these systems use spark plugs that are designed to last over 100,000 miles, which cuts down on maintenance costs.
The Distributorless Ignition system
Ignition timing In each cylinder a spark should occur at a definite time for best results. By timing the ignition, the burning of the mixture is allowed to take place at the correct moment. Also, ignition timing is the method to ensure that firing takes place exactly at the desired moment. For complete combustion and for max power developed, ignition should occur before the piston reaches TDC at the end of compression stroke. Therefore, spark should take place at sufficient time before TDC
Firing order This is the sequence in which the power impulse occurs in an engine, and therefore, the order of delivering power strokes, and thus to give a well distributed pattern along the crankshaft is called firing order. General firing order examples are : 4 cylinder 1-3-4-2 6 cylinder 1-5-3-6-2-4 or 1-4-2-6-3-5 8 cylinder 1-6-2-5-8-3-7-4 or 1-8-2-6-4-5-3-7
Chapter five induction & exhaust systems

5.1.1 - Introduction
Introduction
Air and fuel are delivered into engine cylinder by the engine induction system, which is also known as intake system . The object of the intake system is to : 1. Deliver the proper amount of air + fuel accurately. 2. Deliver AF equally to all cylinders. 3. Deliver AF at the proper time of the cycle.
Intake system
To conduct the above requirement in a fair precision, a well designed induction system must employed. In general, intake systems consists of : 1. Intake manifold 2. Throttle. 3. Intake valves. 4. Carburetor or fuel injector .
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Fuel delivery
looking into the details of intake system parts, requires studying the fuel delivery process to understand the function of each intake system part. Therefore, the two subjects must be presented in parallel to make one clear picture of how fluid flows through a specific part and how this part functions accordingly. This may seems to be technically difficult, so two separate slides may offer a reasonable choice for the student.
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carburetion
In SI engines, the air/fuel mixture is prepared outside the engine cylinder. The formation of a homogeneous mixture of fuel and air is critical to ensure complete combustion of fuel. The purpose of the carburetion process is to provide a combustible air/fuel mixture in desired quantity and quality for smooth engine operation at all loads and speed. Therefore, carburetion can be defined as the process of formation of combustible air/fuel mixture, by mixing correct amount of fuel and air outside the engine cylinder in a device called carburetor, after which this mixture enters the engine cylinder during the induction stroke.
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Fuel injector
The fuel injection system controls the air/fuel ratio around the stoichiometry under any driving conditions by injecting a specific amount of fuel at appropriate timing, based on signals from the engine ECU. The engine ECU determines the amount of fuel injection based on the amount of air detected by the air system and driving conditions.

5.1.2 fuel delivery
Mixture requirements
The air/fuel mixture can be defined in three forms : 1. Stoichiometric mixture, which is supplied to completely burns the fuel. excess air factor = 1 2. Rich mixture, where the fuel is in excess of what is required to burn the fuel completely. excess air factor < 1 3. Lean mixture, here air is in excess of what is required to completely burn the fuel. excess air factor > 1
Mixture & engine conditions

1. The mixture for max power is called best power AF mixture which is richer than stoichiometric value. 2. The mixture for min (bsfc) is called best economy AF mixture which leaner than stoichiometric value. Automotive application the actual AF values falls in three range: 1. Idling (rich), no load and closed throttle operation. 2. Cruising (lean), steady long term operation. 3. High power (rich), desired when high power demanded from engine.
General remarks
In SI engine air flow rate through the intake manifold is controlled by the location of the fuel addition into the system Fuel addition may take place : 1. Before manifold ( up stream ) 2. In the manifold 3. Directly into the engine cylinder.
Early fuel addition

Early fuel addition (upstream) may in a way be advantageous but it may also have some drawbacks, therefore :
2. Disadvantages:
*reduces the volumetric eff. as fuel replaces air and occupies fraction of swept volume . *it causes bad cylinder to-cylinder air/fuel consistency. *it causes fuel to flow through the manifold in various pattern that may makes proper AF mixture delivery fairly difficult.
1. Advantages :
*provides longer evaporation time.
*gives more time for proper mixing with air This will improve the quality of the fuel/air mixture for better and efficient combustion.
Early fuel addition flow pattern

Fuel flow pattern occurs in three ways : it 1. Fuel vapor 2. Fuel droplets
mixes with air and flow with it as a perfect fuel air mixture. ii-when droplets differ in size, then droplets mass also differ. iii-due to mass inertia, liquid droplets (particles) flow at different velocity that air, such deviation increases as droplets size increases. thin fuel liquid film flow along the manifold wall, which is generated by : i-gravity force separates some droplets from flow. ii-droplets strikes manifold walls at corners.
very small liquid fuel droplets will be carried by air flow, where these droplets may differ in size as : i- smaller droplets size flows better than larger ones.
3. liquid film
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actually disadvantageous to engine final performance as it effects proper AF mixture delivery, where : 1. Difficult to deliver same AF ratio. 2. Liquid film makes it difficult to have precise throttle control.
Flow pattern of fuel droplets and film (2 & 3) is
Also in connection to flow pattern (1), gasoline components evaporates at *different temperatures *different rates This will make vapor composition in AF differ from that of liquid fuel droplets or liquid fuel film.
Volumetric efficiency
Volumetric eff. varies with engine speed, and there will be a certain engine speed at which max volumetric eff. is obtained, decreasing at both higher and lower speeds.
Operating variables effecting volumetric eff.

Operating variables that has effects on the value of volumetric eff. are: 1. Type of fuel 2. System heat transfer 3. Valve overlap 4. Fluid friction losses 5. Choked flow 6. Closing intake valve 7. Intake tuning 8. Exhaust residuals 9. EGR 10. Crankcase vent For details of this section, refer to your text book.
Home work
Study the operating variables effecting volumetric eff., with the reference of your text book.

5.1.3 - Induction system
Induction system parts

Induction of air/fuel into the engine requires a very complex system to accomplish the precision required in terms of quantity, quality , and timing for the supply of the fuel air mixture. Such complexity depends on the requirements set for every specific design . However, in general, the major parts that must be included in any induction system can enumerated as :
1. 2. 3. 4.
Intake manifold Throttle. Intake valves. Carburetor or fuel injector .
Intake manifold
intake manifold or inlet manifold is the part of an engine that supplies the fuel/air mixture to the cylinders, and therefore it needs to be designed for the delivery of air/fuel to the engine through pipes to each cylinder. The delivery pipes are called runners .
Manifold runners
Runners, are individual tubes extending to each intake port on the cylinder head which emanate from a central volume beneath the carburetor. Runners size (diameter & length) is an important operating and design parameter for improved flow process : Runner diameter must be balanced for better results, as it must be :
1. large enough to prevent : *high resistance to flow. *reduction of v 2. small enough to assure : *high air velocity *high air turbulence *enhance carrying capability of fuel droplets & increase evaporation and mixing of air and fuel 3. length & diameter should balanced in size design to ensure as much as possible equal amount of air and fuel delivered to each separate cylinder
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The primary function of the intake manifold is to evenly distribute the air to each intake port in the cylinder head(s). Even distribution is important to optimize the efficiency and performance of the engine. It may also serve as a mount for the carburetor, throttle body, fuel injectors and other components of the engine. Improving delivery capabilities of the intake system is by : 1. Avoiding sharp bends and smoothen interior wall surface to minimize flow resistance. 2. Manifold heating to accelerate fuel droplets evaporation in AF mixture.
throttle
A throttle is the mechanism by which the flow of a fluid is managed by constriction or obstruction. An engine's power can be increased or decreased by the restriction of inlet air by the use of a throttle.
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In a SI engine, the throttle is a valve that *directly regulates the amount of air entering the engine, *indirectly controlling the charge (fuel + air) burned on each cycle due to carburetor maintaining a relatively constant fuel/air ratio. In a motor vehicle the control used by the driver to regulate power is sometimes called the throttle pedal or accelerator. When throttle is wide open, the intake manifold is at ambient pressure. When the throttle is partially closed, a manifold vacuum develops as the intake drops below ambient pressure.
choke
When the engine is cold, fuel vaporizes less readily and tends to condense on the walls of the intake manifold, starving the cylinders of fuel and making the engine difficult to start; thus, a richer mixture is required to start the engine. To provide the extra fuel, a choke is typically used; this is a device that restricts the flow of air at the entrance to the carburetor, before the venturi. With this restriction in place, extra vacuum is developed in the carburetor barrel, which pulls extra fuel through the main metering system to supplement the fuel being pulled from the idle and off-idle circuits. This provides the rich mixture required to sustain operation at low engine temperatures. In many carbureted cars, the choke is controlled by a cable connected to a pull-knob on the dashboard operated by the driver. In some carbureted cars it is automatically controlled by a thermostat employing a bimetallic spring, which is exposed to engine heat, or to an electric heating element.
Throttle & Choke

throttle Butterfly valve Downstream position Control air flow rate, and thus engine speed. Manual or automatic opening. choke Butterfly valve Upstream position Needed to start cold engine. Manual or automatic closure. Restricts air flow, so provides rich mixture.
Butterfly valve
Intake valve
Intake valves are usually of poppet type as shown in this image, where it is spring loaded. closing-opening by the engine camshaft at the proper time of the cycle.
Valve seat
The valve seat in an ICE is the surface against which an intake or an exhaust valve rests during the portion of the engine operating cycle when that valve is closed. The valve seat is a critical component of an engine in that if it is improperly positioned, oriented, or formed during manufacture, valve leakage will occur which will adversely affect the engine compression ratio and therefore the engine efficiency, performance (horsepower), exhaust emissions, and engine life.
Intake valve flow area

- valve lift dv valve diameter As general estimation, valve lift and valve diameter are related by : max = dv / 4 Where (max ) is the valve max lift when it is fully open
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Angle of valve surface at interface with the valve seat () is generally a design parameter, to give minimum flow restriction. Valve discharge coefficient (CDv) CDv = Aact / Apass where as shown in fig. Aact < Apass
Valve & passage area Flow passage area
Minimum valve intake area Ai - is the total inlet valve area for one cylinder, whether the cylinder has (1,2,3) intake valves.
Up.max - average piston speed at max engine speed
Where C empirical value = 1.3 B cylinder bore
Ci speed of sound at inlet cond.
Fig. 5-3 Number of valves per cylinder can be of different arrangement ( refer to fig.5.3 p.175 of your text book ).

5.1.4 - Carburetion
carburetor
description
A carburetor is a device that blends air and fuel for an IC engine. The carburetor works on Bernoulli's principle: the faster air moves, the lower its static pressure. The throttle (accelerator) linkage does not directly control the flow of liquid fuel. Instead, it actuates carburetor mechanisms which meter the flow of air being pulled into the engine. The speed of this flow, and therefore its pressure, determines the amount of fuel drawn into the airstream. Most carbureted engines have a single carburetor and a matching intake manifold that divides and transports the air fuel mixture to the intake valves. Under all engine operating conditions, the carburetor must: 1. Measure the airflow of the engine 2. Deliver the correct amount of fuel to keep the fuel/air mixture in the proper range . 3. Mix the two finely and evenly.
Features of a good carburetor Carburetor is a mixing device to supply the engine with air/fuel mixture. It atomizes the fuel and mixes it with air in varying proportions to meet the changing operating conditions. It is required to provide the following essential features: 1. To meter and supply the proper quantity and proportion of air and fuel at correct strength under all conditions of load and speed of the engine: i-starting easily from cold ii-provides rich mixture for: ** slow idling ** acceleration ** high speed ** moving up-hill 2. To operate satisfactorily when cold and when hot 3. To operate satisfactorily both on sea-level and up-hills
Operation principles
A carburetor basically consists of an open pipe through which the air passes into the inlet manifold of the engine. The pipe is in the form of a venturi: it narrows in section and then widens again, causing the airflow to increase in speed in the narrowest part. Below the venturi is a butterfly valve called the throttle valve a rotating disc that can be turned end-on to the airflow, so as to hardly restrict the flow at all, or can be rotated so that it (almost) completely blocks the flow of air. This valve controls the flow of air through the carburetor throat and thus the quantity of air/fuel mixture the system will deliver, thereby regulating engine power and speed. The throttle is connected, usually through a cable or a mechanical linkage of rods and joints , to the accelerator pedal on a car or the equivalent control on other vehicles or equipment.
Carburetor components
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Air cleaner Choke valve Venturi Float valve Float arm Float Float chamber Jet Throttle valve
1. Air cleaner (filter) is very important to prevent mainly solid objects from entering the cylinder. 2. Choke valve, is a device that restrict the flow of air at the entrance to the carburetor before the venturi section, thus creating extra vacuum downstream, and so extra amount of fuel is forced in, which is necessary for cold strating. 3. Venturi tube, is a decreasing cross section with min area at the throat, thus accelerating flow causing a pressure drop, so allowing flow rate control according to Bernoulli theory. 4. Float system, is a mechanism for maintaining adequate amount of fuel available all the time . 5. This is a type of nozzle for allowing fuel to be sprayed into the air stream to improve evaporation and mixing. 6. Throttle valve is butterfly valve positioned after venturi section and governing AF charged into the cylinder
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examples
Carburetor Operating principles

A venturi tube B throttle at (P2) C fuel input capillary tube D fuel reservior at (P3)
E fuel metering valve G idle valve H - choke
Operating principles
During intake stroke, a partial vacuum is generated inside the cylinder. Pressure differential therefore between atmospheric air and cylinder will allow : 1. Air to enter from surrounding into the cylinder. 2. This air accelerate through venturi throat at high velocity. 3. By Bernoullis principles, throat pressure(P2) is reduced below atmospheric pressure (P1). 4.
5. 6. The pressure difference (P3-P2) causes fuel to flow from reservoir to venturi throat. As engine speed increases, pressure differential also increases in above spot, thus increasing air and fuel flow to the designed (AF-N) correlation.
Since reservoir is vented, then P3 = P 1 > P 2
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Idle speed 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Idle speed adjustment (throttle stop F) prevent (100%) closure of throttle to allow low idling speed. Idle valve (G) gives better fuel control at idling speed , where : 1. When throttle closed, it causes large pressure difference across throttle plate and pressure downstream of throttle (B) 2. P across idle valve (G) causes fuel to flow from (G) downstream (B) Choke (H) Positioned upstream of venturi throat. It is needed to start cold engine. When closed : Restricts air flow Create vacuum in entire system downstream of choke. This creates large (P) across both fuel tube (C ) and idle valve (G). This, causes large fuel flow rate and very rich AF up to (1:1) Thus ignition takes place and combustion starts.
Carburetor icing
Icing usually occurs on the throttle plate. Water vapor in the incoming air will freeze due to air being cooled to low temperature. 2 reasons behind such cooling : 1. Expansion cooling due to pressure drop through carburetor. 2. Evaporation cooling due to just added fuel droplets evaporated at the throat.
Flow direction
*downdraft vertical venturi tube with air flowing from top to bottom (gravity assistance) *sidedraft air flowing horizontally, this is required when there is engine compartment height limitation. *updraft needs fairly high flow velocity to carry fuel droplets in suspension against gravity.
Sizing venturi throat

When air flows through the venturi throat, the pressure drops as air accelerat through the throat, and then the pressure rise again as air decelerate after the throat. Therefore, there is always a net pressure loss through a venturi, as downstream pressure never equals upstream pressure. Flow rate & throat diameter (Dt) correlation for a given flow rate : 1. The smaller (Dt), the greater net pressure drop, and so results in a reduced (v). 2. This would suggest larger (Dt). 3. A larger (Dt) means low air velocity and thus small pressure drop across the fuel capillary tube. This causes :
*poorer AF control. *large fuel droplets *poorer AF mixing.
1. 2. 1. 2.
From this it can be concluded that ideally it is desirable : To have larger (Dt) on high performance engine which usually operates on high speed engine. To have smaller (Dt) for lower engine speed engines. To avoid such (Dt) compromize, the followings can be used : Two barrel carburetor Secondary venturi
Secondary venturi
Throat of a carburetor with secondary venturi : 1. The smaller secondary venturi gives a large pressure drop and good fuel flow control. 2. The larger primary throat offers less resistance to the main air flow.
Air & Fuel flow in carburetors

From known ambient conditions & carburetor specifications, the flow rates of air and fuel can be calculated, and therefore air/fuel ratio can be predicted.
Air flow through venturi throat

Due to the variation of pressure and velocity of the air entering the carburetor throat, an account of compressibility may be necessary when exact and accrete analysis is required, which is a rather complicated task. However, it is really useful to consider the air flow through the venturi under both compressibility and incompressibility states.
Case I incompressible air flow

Neglecting the compressibility of air for approximate analysis, by applying Bernoullis equation at inlet and throat section of the carburettor, the air mass rate can be expressed as follows :
Case II Compressible air flow Taking into consideration the compressibility of air into account for exact analysis
Fuel flow through capillary tube
From which fuel rate can be evaluated

*
Where Cdc : discharged coefficient of capillary tube Ac : cross section area of capillary tube. It is important to note the similarity of this expression with that of incompressible air flow, as the air where assumed incompressible while the fuel is liquid and it is normal to consider it as incompressible.
***
Also, note that f . g . h : is known as hydraulic head between fuel
reservoir and venturi throat. And it is important to know that (h) is always necessary to avoid fuel leaking (spilling) when engine is not operating. Normal values of (h) are between (1 2) cm
Air/Fuel ratio
The AF supplied by the carburetor is :
Maximum air flow rate

If engine speed increases, air flow through carburetor also increases. Max flow rate will be reached when sonic velocity occurs and this will happen when:
***
If k = 1.4 Pt = 0.5283 Po = 53.4 kPa at standard conditions
Rearranging and sub. in ( a ) to get :
***
Where Co = k.R.To o = 1.181 kg/m air density at standard cond. a.max = 236.5 CDt . At
k = 1.4 Then, max air flow rate is
Idling system
Idling AFi
AFi = a / fi fi - remains constant under idling operation where the a
-
throttle is partially closed thus reducing air mass rate (a)
will be reduced due to low engine speed and partial closure of throttle plate. Therefore, since fuel rate remains constant and air rate is reduced, then
AFi
will be reduced accordingly.
Finally it can be concluded that under idling operation, the air/fuel mixture is richer.

5.1.5 fuel injection
Introduction
Carburetors were the predominant method used to meter fuel on gasoline engines before the widespread use of fuel injection. Fuel injection is a system for mixing fuel with air in an IC engine. It has become the primary fuel delivery system used in automotive petrol engines, having almost completely replaced carburetors in the late 1980s. The fuel injector is only a nozzle and a valve: the power to inject the fuel comes from a pump or a pressure container farther back in the fuel supply
Carburetor fuel injector

The primary difference between carburetors and fuel injection is that 1. fuel injection atomizes the fuel by forcibly pumping it through a small nozzle under high pressure, 2. while a carburetor relies on low pressure created by intake air rushing through it to add the fuel to the airstream. 3. FI gives better starting and better engine response. Its benefit is that it gives the engine just the right amount of fuel regardless of changes in air temperature 4. it is possible to control the amount and timing of the injection to increase combustion efficiency for better power development, better fuel economy plus cleaner exhaust emissions.
fuel injection system
Advantages of fuel injection system

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Operational benefits to the driver of a fuel-injected car include : smoother and more dependable engine response during quick throttle transitions, easier and more dependable engine starting, better operation at extremely high or low ambient temperatures, increased maintenance intervals, and increased fuel efficiency. On a more basic level, fuel injection does away with the choke which on carburetor-equipped vehicles must be operated when starting the engine from cold and then adjusted as the engine warms up.
Types of sensors
In order to provide the correct amount of fuel for every operating condition, the engine control unit (ECU) has to monitor a huge number of input sensors: Mass air flow sensor Oxygen sensor Throttle position sensor Coolant temperature sensor Voltage sensor Manifold pressure sensor Engine speed sensor
Mass airflow sensor - Tells the ECU the mass of air entering the engine Oxygen sensor(s) - Monitors the amount of oxygen in the exhaust so the ECU can determine how rich or lean the fuel mixture is and make adjustments accordingly Throttle position sensor - Monitors the throttle valve position (which determines how much air goes into the engine) so the ECU can respond quickly to changes, increasing or decreasing the fuel rate as necessary Coolant temperature sensor - Allows the ECU to determine when the engine has reached its proper operating temperature Voltage sensor - Monitors the system voltage in the car so the ECU can raise the idle speed if voltage is dropping (which would indicate a high electrical load) Manifold absolute pressure sensor - Monitors the pressure of the air in the intake manifold Engine speed sensor - Monitors engine speed, which is one of the factors used to calculate the pulse width
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Sensors locations
1. Battery 2. Relay set - Operates electronic control unit 3 and motor driven fuel pump 17. 3. Electronic control unit - Receives information about oil quantity, coolant temperature and temperature of cylinder head, position of throttle valve, starting phase as well as engine rpm and injection point. It processes this information and transmits electric pulses to the solenoid injector. It is connected with the individual components by means of a multiple connecting plug and associated connecting cables. 4. Coil - In addition to its normal function, it transmits the number of engine rpm or the injection point to the control unit. 5. Air measuring instrument - This supplies information to electronic control unit of quantity of air drawn and activates fuel supply pump. 6. Supplementary air valve - Supplies extra air during engine heating stage, depending on temperature level. 7. Throttle switch - Signals idle and full load to electronic control unit. 8. Temperature sensor - Signals coolant temperature at the cylinder head outlet. 9. Cold starting solenoid injector - During starting in low temperatures, injects extra fuel into intake line. 10. Solenoid injectors - Inject fuel in intake port of cylinders.
11. Delay thermal switch - This automatically controls injection of cold starting solenoid injector. 12. Fuel pressure regulator - Keeps fuel pressure constant in fuel lines. 13. Fuel delivery line 14. Excess fuel exhaust line 15. Ignition switch 16. Fuel filter - Is fitted on fuel supply line for fuel filtering. 17. Motor driven fuel supply pump - Delivers a constant supply of fuel to solenoid injector. 18. Fuel tank 19. Oxygen sensor (Lambda probe) - Measures the oxygen content of exhaust gases and transmits any adjustment of air-fuel mixture to control unit. 20. Catalytic converter - Reduces harmful residues contained in exhaust gases to a minimum.
Fuel injector classification

A fuel injector therefore is nothing but a mechanically -electronically controlled valve. It is supplied with pressurized fuel by the fuel pump , and it is capable of opening and closing many times per second. Injectors are normally controlled either : Electronically Mechanically Also, injectors are either: Throttle body injection Port injection
1. 2. 1. 2.
Electronic injector When the injector is energized, an electromagnet moves a plunger that opens the valve, allowing the pressurized fuel to squirt out through a tiny nozzle. The nozzle is designed to atomize the fuel -- to make as fine a mist as possible so that it can burn easily.
Mechanical injector it is a cam actuated system. this diagram shows that the system comprises of mainly a fuel filter, injection pump and injector. There is not one electronic component in this fuel injection system. The fuel comes from fuel tank, through the low pressure mechanical feed pump on the side and then through a fuel filter. From there, the fuel travels into the injector pump and high pressure is created by means of a camshaft, tappet assembly plunger and barrel. The normal pressure used in this system is between 100-300 bar (1,450 - 4,300psi)
Throttle body & Port injection

Throttle body injection Throttle Body systems usually have two injectors mounted in an aluminum housing, which is then mounted to the intake manifold. Often Throttle body systems have nearly all the required sensors located in the same aluminum housing as the injectors. Port injection Port Injection systems send fuel directly to the individual cylinders. Often these systems have various sensors located throughout the engine compartment to detect airflow, vacuum, temperature and exhaust.
Throttle body injection Throttle Body systems usually have two injectors mounted in an aluminum housing, which is then mounted to the intake manifold. Often Throttle body systems have nearly all the required sensors located in the same aluminum housing as the injectors.
Port injection Port Injection systems send fuel directly to the individual cylinders. Often these systems have various sensors located throughout the engine compartment to detect airflow, vacuum, temperature and exhaust.
Injection process
The injectors are mounted in the intake manifold so that they spray fuel directly at the intake valves. A pipe called the fuel rail supplies pressurized fuel to all of the injectors.
***
A metered amount of fuel is trapped in the nozzle end of the injector. High pressure is applied by mechanical compression process related to the injector design.. at a proper time the nozzle is opened and fuel is sprayed into the surrounding air
examples
Injectors & fuel rail on the left
Injectors & fuel rail on the bottom
FI system
The components of the fuel injection system consist of: Numerous sensors Injectors ECU (electronic control unit) Engine check light Fuel
examples Fuel injection system diagram
Automobile system
Intake system for CI Engines

CI engines operate unthrottled (no carburetor), where speed and power are controlled by fuel injection rate. Improve thermal eff., where no restriction to flow as fuel added late in the compression stroke, so air enters alone into the induction system. Fuel normally added at *start 20 bTDC *ends 5 aTDC Fuel injected directly into combustion chamber, where SIT is reached at this time due to high compression, and therefore combustion start before TDC. Fuel injection continue and combustion proceeds well into power stroke. Injection pressure must be high enough to admit fuel against the high pressure of the compression stroke (2002000) atms.
f injected into one cylinder during one cycle

f - fuel mass rate CD - injector discharge coeff. An - nozzle flow area f - fuel density P - pres. dif. Across injector - crank angle injection duration N - engine speed
***
Pressure differential is almost equal to injector pressure , where P Pinj also to keep constant Normally injection of fuel
starts @ 20 bTDC and ends @5 aTDC giving : = 25 of crank rotation
Pinj N

5.2.1 - FUNDAMENTALS fluid motion within combustion chamber
introduction
The subject title is
fluid motion combustion chamber
Fluids concerned are : * air * fuel * exhaust gases Motion of the fluids during : *compression stroke *combustion process *power stroke
These motions are important for *speed up fuel evaporation *enhance air-fuel mixing *increase combustion rate *increase combustion eff. Type of motions *turbulence *swirl (rotational) *radial
Combustion chamber and air movement

Combustion chamber is a definite closed space formed by three separate engine parts: *cylinder head *cylinder wall *piston top face Such closed space when subjected to pressure rise and change in volume, forces the gases within it to move in various kind of motions, such as mentioned above.
Types of motions
Efficient operation of an engine depends on the level of mixing process between air and fuel , and so to have a good combustible air/fuel mixture ready to ignite at the proper timing. Such mixing process is enhanced by various motions of both fluids during intake and compression strokes, and so enhance proper operation of the engine. These motions can be summarized as follows :
1 - Turbulence motion
This type of motion is created by piston action, specifically during compression stroke. However, due to high velocities involved, all flows into, out of, and within engine cylinders are turbulence flow. During turbulence flow, all flowing particles experience random motion fluctuation in all direction .
The advantages of turbulence motion : 1. Distribute fuel 2. Mix fuel with air 3. Assist combustion 4. Reduce after burn.
2 - Swirl motion
It is a rotational (circular) motion of gases imparted during suction stroke. * * * * it can be generated by designing intake system components to allow tangential entry of gases. The advantages of swirl motion may be summarized as : 1. Enhance mixing of air and fuel . 2. Giving homogeneous mixture . 3. Speed up the spreading of flame front.
Examples of swirl motion

Air entering engine cylinder from tangential direction
Air contoured intake runner
***
Air contoured intake valve Eccentric induction process
Swirl ratio
Swirl ratio can be defined as : it is a dimensionless parameter relating angular gas motion with engine reciprocating motion. Mathematically expressed in two different expressions : 1. Angular gas velocity to engine speed ratio : SR1 = / N where SR1 swirl ratio - gas angular velocity (res/s). N - engine rotation speed (res/s)
***
2. Tangential gas speed to engine piston speed. SR2 = Ut / Up where
SR2 swirl ratio Ut - gas tangential speed Up - average piston speed
Ut = 2 r 2 rad/rev -angular velocity rev/s r - cylinder radius = B/2 Up = 2SN S piston stroke N engine speed
3 - Radial motion
Radial motions are of three types : * squish *tumble *crevice 1. Squish is a radial motion towards the center of the cylinder 2. Tumble is rotational motion around a circumferential axis. 3. Crevice motion is a flow into the very small crevices of the combustion chamber. *** **
3.1 - Squish motion

Squish and reverse squish is a radial motion towards the center line of the cylinder generated by a recess located in either the piston or the cylinder head. Squish motion occurs during compression stroke. Reverse squish motion occurs during expansion stroke.
***
Due to very small clearance volume, when the piston approaches TDC, radial flow of air from the periphery to the recess is produced, this is squish. During expansion, volume increases, and the burning gases are forced outward , this is reverse squish.
3.2 - Tumble motion

It is actually a rotational motion, but it is in fact generated by squish motion around circumferential axis. So, it is classified as radial rather then rotational motion Therefore, tumble (caused by squish as piston approaches TDC), is a motion about a circumferential axis near the edge of the clearance volume in the piston bowl or the cylinder head.
3.3 -Crevice motion

Crevices are very small volumes such as : * clearance between piston and cylinder wall. * gaps in the gaskets between head and block. * unrounded corners and edges.
Chapter Eight Exhaust Flow

5.3.1 - introduction
purpose
Exhaust System Basics
An exhaust system is a complex assembly, which has a number of functions to perform. The system must:
Carry engine exhaust gases safely to the rear of the vehicle
Reduce the engine sound level
Maintain engine performance
Reduce or eliminate certain engine emissions
An incorrectly designed exhaust system could restrict the flow of gases and, if the restriction is excessive, can:
cut horsepower reduce gas mileage reduce performance and potentially damage the engine.
This restriction is one of the dangers faced when components used are not part of an exhaust system specifically designed and engineered for a particular application.
1 carrying exhaust gases

After combustion and power stroke, the combustion products (exhaust gases) have to be expelled to allow fresh charge induction for the next cycle Expelling exhaust gases is known as the exhaust process Exhaust process occurs in two steps : 1. Exhaust blow-down 2. Exhaust stroke
Exhaust blowdown-stroke
Exhaust blow down occurs due to (P) between engine cylinder and exhaust system when the exhaust valve opens. Exhaust stroke occurs mainly due to piston movement from BDC to TDC, pushing thereby the exhaust gases out of the cylinder
Exhaust blow-down
It occurs when exhaust valve start to open towards the end of the power stroke at about (60-40) bBDC. At this instance : Pbd = 4-5 atmos T = 1000 But Pexh = about 1 atmo Therefore pressure differential of : P = Pbd Pexh
Will be high enough to cause rapid flow of exhaust gases out of the cylinder.
Max flow
Due to high velocity, sonic flow will occur resulting in a max flow rate. This means that sonic flow occurs when the following correlation is true :
Where P1 upstream P2 down stream k - specific heat ratio P1/P2 = 2 for most gases So if k=1.35 and P1/P2 = 1.86 Then sonic flow will be R gas constant T gas temperature
Ci = kRT
Blowdown expansion
During exhaust blowdown (41), the gases have fairly high velocity due to the high (P) across the open exhaust valve. Blowdown continue until the pressure differential across the exhaust valve is finally equalized (P = 0), and therefore at this point blowdown ends. When exhaust blowdown ends, exhaust stroke starts, whereby, expelling of exhaust gases out of the cylinder will be done by piston movement from BDC to TDC (piston pushing)
During blowdown, a sudden and high pressure reduction, forces the gases to flow out through exhaust valve, and this can be considered as :
hypothetically similar to expansion process

as both blowdown and expansion causes pressure reduction Therefore, from (4) the blowdown (41) can be simulated as expansion (47)
Exhaust temperature
Although blowdown-expansion is not reversible, however, assuming ideal gas isentropic relationship between pressure and temperature will provides a good approximation for theoretical exhaust temperature prediction. Consider the isentropic expansion line (34-7)
Residual gas fraction

Let : r = mass of residual gas a = mass of air charge f = mass of fuel delivered Xr = fraction of residual gas T7 = as shown in previous fig T4 = temp @ end of power stroke Texh = exh temp Tm = mixture tem @ start of compr Cr = compression ratio Pa , Ta = ambient conditions Tex = T7 Pex = P7 = Pa
1.
Residual gas fraction
2.
Mixture temp at start of compression
P&T@ exhaust valve open

When exhaust valve opens, then pressure and temperature at this instance as denoted by :
PEVO & TEVO

And the exhaust system pressure and temperature
Pex & Tex

Pressure drop from cylinder to exhaust and temperature drop due to expansion cooling can be correlated according to ideal cycle :
Although 1. exhaust gases are not idea gas 2. Blowdown process is not isentropic However the above equation gives a fair good approximation of gas temperature entering exhaust system
Losses & timing

** Ideally exhaust valve opens at BDC and blowdown occurs instantaneously at constant volume. **In real engine = blowdown does not occur instantaneously but takes finite time. = pressure in cylinder is reduced at BDC when exhaust stroke starts. = exhaust valve start to open (60-40) bBDC, quickly reducing pressure. This pressure if remains can do additional useful work, so this work is lost. ** timing of valve opening = if open too early more work is lost = if open late high pressure resists piston motion at start of exhaust stroke, and increases (-ve) work ** size of exhaust valve large valve is desirable, or multi-valves : = increase flow area = reduces blowdown time = allow late valve opening = longer expansion stroke = less lost work
Exhaust stroke
After blow-down, piston moves from BDC to TDC with exhaust valve open where pressure drop across exhaust valve is due to valve restriction to flow. Ideal timing is that at TDC : * end of exhaust process * all gases removed * exhaust valve closed
Real timing and due to cam lobe: * longer time to close valve * if valve start to close @20 bTDC then total closure at TDC * this is unacceptable * better, valve start to close near TDC, such that it complete closure in the range (8-50) aTDC
Valve over-lap
1 - The time from start closing till complete closure of exhaust valve is finite period, and it is a design criteria to ensure best exhaust gas expelling out of the cylinder. 2 however, induction stroke immediately flow exhaust stroke. 3 - then remark (1) stands for both exhaust and intake valves, i.e * exhaust valve closes at end of exhaust stroke. * intake valve opens at start of induction stroke. 4 - accordingly : * exhaust valve closing span at or near TDC to (8-50) aTDC * intake valve opening span (10-25) bTDC to BDC 5 - from which there will be a period of about (15-50) degrees of engine rotation, where both valves are open. 6 - this period is called valve overlap 7 - during valve overlap period : i exhaust gases passes into intake system (due to P) ii thereafter, this amount will be induced back again to the cylinder with the fresh charge. iii - this will increase the actual mass content of exhaust residual within the fresh charge. iv - also in addition to that, there is the possibility of fresh charge being lost with exhaust gases
Exhaust valve
Aex - is the total inlet valve area for one cylinder, whether the cylinder has (1,2,3) intake valves. Number of valves per cylinder can be of different arrangement ( refer to fig.5.3 p.175 of your text book ).
Valve & passage area

Similar to intake valve area , the equation to size exhaust valve: 1 - exhaust valve area 2 - intake valve area
Where C empirical value = 1.3 B cylinder bore Up.max - average piston speed at max engine speed Cex speed of sound at inlet cond.
Dividing eq.2 by eq.1 to get :
A = Ai dv = dvi A = Aex dv = dvex
Also to find valve diameter : A/x = /4.dv x = number of valve (intake or exhaust)
Where varies between (0.8 0.9)
Automobile Exhausting path
Components of exhaust system

These diagrams show major components of an exhaust system in a car. Exhaust system components are designed for a specific engine. The pipe diameter, component length, catalytic converter size, muffler size, and exhaust manifold design are engineered to provide proper exhaust flow, silencing, and emission levels on a particular engine.
The Exhaust Manifold

The Exhaust Manifold
The exhaust manifold (header) is a pipe that conducts the exhaust gases from the combustion chambers to the exhaust pipe.
Exhaust pollutants
Three major automotive pollutants are carbon monoxide (CO), unburned hydrocarbons (HC), and oxides of nitrogen (NOx). When air and gasoline are mixed and burned in the combustion chambers, the by-products of combustion are carbon, carbon dioxide (CO2), CO, and water vapor. Gasoline is a hydrocarbon fuel containing hydrogen and carbon. Since the combustion process in the cylinders is never 100% complete, some unburned HC are left over in the exhaust. Some HC emissions occur from evaporative sources, such as gasoline tanks and carburetors. Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) are caused by high cylinder temperature. Nitrogen and oxygen are both present in air. If the combustion chamber temperatures are above 1,371 degrees Celsius, some of the oxygen and nitrogen combine to form NOx. In the presence of sunlight, HC and NOx join to form smog.
Catalytic convertor
The catalytic converter lowers emission levels by changing harmful pollutants into relatively harmless gases. The catalytic converter works by using heat, combined with catalyzing agents, to create a chemical process that changes hydrocarbons (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO) into carbon dioxide and water. Some catalytic converters are designed to reduce an additional pollutant, oxides of nitrogen (NOx), by breaking it down into base components, nitrogen and oxygen
The muffler is the end section of the exhaust. It is what "muffles" the sound coming out of the engine. i.e function of the muffler is to reduce the sound of the engines out-coming exhaust gases through the exhaust pipes to a minimal level. The muffler quiets the noise of the exhaust by "muffling" the sound waves created by the opening and closing of the exhaust valves. When an exhaust valve opens, it discharges the burned gases at high pressures into the exhaust pipe, which is at low pressure. This type of action creates sound waves that travel through the flowing gas, moving much faster than the gas itself (up to 625.8m/s), that the muffler must silence It generally does this by converting the sound wave energy into heat by passing the exhaust gas and its accompanying wave pattern, through perforated tubes and tuning chambers. Passing into perforations and reflectors within the chamber forces the sound waves to dissipate their energy.
muffler
resonators
What are resonators? They are similar to a muffler, but they are basically just a sound chamber. They are used for one of two reasons: To increase the volume of the exhaust. To decrease the volume of the exhaust. Most people use it to soften the volume, and recognize that there is little to no performance gain to be had. Resonators are basically a second muffler, usually "straight through" type which provides additional exhaust silencing. the resonator is either clamped into the tail pipe or fitted between catalytic convertor and the muffler.
Oxygen sensor
1. 2. This is not actually an exhaust components, but fitted into the exhaust system for means of AF mixture control. The oxygen sensor is an important part of the vehicle's exhaust system. The sensor keeps track of the unburned oxygen in the exhaust as the exhaust exits the engine. The sensor then controls the fuel mixture, regulating the engine emissions. Simply, an oxygen sensor reads the amount of oxygen in vehicle's exhaust, sends a signal to vehicle's engine control module which determines if there is too much or two little oxygen and makes adjustments in the amount of air or fuel being injected into the engine in effort to correct or balance engine's ignition and emissions. If there is too much oxygen then engine is likely using too little fuel. If your oxygen sensors are reading a lack of oxygen then it's probably due to too much fuel being pushed in.
Exhaust connecting pipes

Exhaust components needs to be connected to each others individually from one side and as a whole to the engine from the other side . Such is done using connecting pipes, and these are generally of three sections : 1. Front pipe 2. Mid of centre pipe 3. Tail pipe All of the components of an exhaust system requires as well series of clamps, hangers, flanges and gaskets.
front pipe
The pipe connecting the exhaust manifold to the catalytic converter. It is sometime called the exhaust pipe. Oxygen sensor is usually fitted in this section of the exhaust system.
Mid pipe
This is also known as the centre section The exhaust centre section works with 1. the silencer to reduce noise and 2. the tail pipe at the rear carries gases away from the vehicle.
Tail pipe
The tail pipe basically carries the flow of exhaust from the muffler to the rear of the vehicle. Some vehicles have an integral resonator in the tail pipe. Tail pipes have many different bends to fit around the chassis and driveline components. In general, all exhaust systems components must be positioned away from the chassis and driveline to prevent rattling. The tail pipe usually extends under the rear bumper, and the end of this pipe is cut or bend at an angle to deflect the exhaust downward
CHAPTER Five Thermo-chemistry

5.3.1 exhaust gas analysis
Engine exhaust analysis

engine management system (EMS) uses signals from various sensors to adjust engine parameters for better performance. one of these signals is the analysis of exhaust gases. sample of exhaust gas contains vapor which condenses during the sampling and analysis period of time, which effects the accuracy of the analysis results. so, dry analysis can be used by removing first water vapor from exhaust gas sample.
The analysis of exhaust gases, normally using orsat apparatus, is to determine their constituents . Orsat apparatus is used for the volumetric analysis of dry flue gas. A simple schematic diagram of which is shown below.
Merits of exhaust gas analysis Exhaust gas is obviously the remains of a combustion process, and Combustion process is actually a chemical reaction between air (O2) and fuel, therefore Exhaust gas , combustion, air and fuel are all linked to the original chemical reaction equation . Chemical reaction equation is therefore a very powerful tool for studying engine behavior and thus predicting engine performance, however Chemical reaction equation however is useful only when it is balanced equation.
The results from analyzing exhaust gas obtained by Orsat apparatus is inserted into the chemical reaction equation, and thereafter balancing such equation will present means of assessing the engine operation and performance .
Chemical reaction equation Balancing

Lets take liquid fuel as an example :
Since matter can not be destroyed nor can be created, then every element in the reaction side must appear in same quantity at the product side. Balancing in this respect is usually done for (C, O2, H2)
Advantages from exhaust gas analysis

The analysis of exhaust gases, normally using orsat apparatus, is to determine their constituents, and so to: 1. To identify concentration of pollutants 2. To device control strategies for pollution control. 3. To provide studies concerns human health. 4. To ensure compliance of engine with emission regulations. 5. To help improving engine design.
Useful predictions from exhaust gas analysis

Exhaust gas analysis can be useful to evaluate: 1. % mass of constituents from % volume. 2. Predict the chemical formula of an unknown fuel. 3. Determine the A/F ratio
Determination of % mass from % volume

The table below shows how to convert volumetric concentration of exhaust gas to mass concentration, when for example exhaust gas contain : C1 = % vol CO C2 = % vol CO2 O = % vol O2 N = % vol N2
constituent
% volume
Molecular weight 28 44 28 32
Proportional mass 28 C1 / 100 44 C2 / 100 28 N / 100 32 O/ 100 -----------------x
Mass of gas per kg of flue gas 28 C1 / 100 x 44 C2 / 100 x 28 N / 100 x 32 O / 100 x % mass
CO CO2 N2 O2
C1 / 100 C2 / 100 N / 100 O / 100
Determination of unknown fuel chemical formula

This could better understood by taking the following example : An unknown HC fuel (CxHy) was allowed to react with air. The dry product analysis shows : CO2 = 12.1 % O2 = 3.8 % CO = 0.9 %
Solution The chemical reaction equation is
N2 balance O2 balance Carbon balance Hydrogen balance
3.76 a = 83.2 a = 22.1 (2)(22.1) = (2)(12.1) + (2)(3.8) + 0.9 + b b = 11.5 x = 12.1 + 0.9 x = 13.0 y = 2b = 2 x 13 = 26
Therefore the final balanced chemical reaction equation for this fuel will be
Determination of (AF) from exhaust gas analysis From the chemical reaction equation
The factor of each element is its number of moles in the balanced equation Usually the balanced chemical reaction equation is set for one mole of fuel (1 CxHy), while the number of moles for air is the sum of [moles (O2) + moles (N2)] since AF ratio is either mass or mass rates of fuel and air, so Mass of fuel used (mf) = moles fuel x molecular weight of the fuel = 1 x[ (12x) +(1y)] Mass of air (ma) = [moles O2 + moles N2] x mol.wt of air = [moles O2 + moles N2] x 29 Therefore AF = ma / mf = [moles O2 + moles N2] x [ 29 / mol.Wt fuel ]
Direct prediction of AF ratio

For 1kg of fuel, the stoichiometric air/fuel ratio can be evaluated from fuel elements:
Stoichiometric mass of air
Actual mass of air
For 1kg of fuel, the actual air/fuel ratio is determined from exhaust gases
Where C carbon content in fuel H hydrogen content in fuel O oxygen content in fuel S sulfur content in fuel
Where N - %vol of nitrogen in exhaust C - %mass of carbon in fuel C1 - %vol of (CO) in exhaust C2 - %vol of (CO2) in exhaust
Chapter Six Emission & Air Pollution

6.1 - Introduction
INTRODUCTION Air pollution can be defined as an addition to our atmosphere of any material which will have a deleterious effect on life upon our planet. Beside I.C. Engines, other sources such as electric power stations, industrial and domestic fuel consumers also contributes to air pollution. There has been great concern, in recent years, that the Internal Combustion Engines is responsible for too much atmospheric pollution, which is detrimental to human health and the environment. Thus concerted efforts are being made to reduce the responsible pollutants emitted from the exhaust system without sacrificing power and fuel economy.
The internal combustion engine has been developed into a powerful, reliable and compact power unit. These engines work by burning fuel in cylinders and expansion of this burning fuel pushes a piston down. The piston in turn pushes a crankshaft around. The rotary motion of the crankshaft is then used to power for example the transmission that allows a vehicle to be driven at different speeds. The big disadvantage of these engines is the combination of impurities in the fuel and the process of burning it produces pollutants. Pollution from cars comes from 1. by-products of the combustion process (tailpipe exhaust) and from 2. the evaporation of fuel during the refueling process and from 3. the vehicle fuel system
I -The Combustion Process
Most vehicle fuels (gasoline, diesel, natural gas, ethanol, etc.) are mixtures of hydrocarbons, compounds that contain hydrogen and carbon atoms. In a perfect engine, oxygen in the air would convert all of the hydrogen in fuel to water and all of the carbon in the fuel to carbon dioxide (carbon mixed with oxygen). Nitrogen in the air would remain unaffected. In reality, the combustion process is not perfect, and automotive engines emit several types of pollutants: a. Perfect Combustion Process: FUEL (hydrocarbons) + AIR (oxygen and nitrogen) = CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) + Water (H2O) + Nitrogen b. Typical Real-World Engine Combustion Process: FUEL (hydrocarbons) + AIR (oxygen and nitrogen) = UNBURNED or PARTIALLY BURNED HYDROCARBONS (VOCs) + NITROGEN OXIDES (NOx) + CARBON MONOXIDE (CO) + CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) + Water (H2O) VOCs : Volatile Organic Compounds
II - Evaporative Emissions
HYDROCARBONS: Hydrocarbons also escape into the air through fuel evaporation. With todays efficient exhaust emission controls and todays clean burning gasoline formulations, evaporative losses can account for a majority of the total hydrocarbon pollution from current model cars on hot days when ozone levels are highest. Evaporative emissions occur from fuel vapors escaping from the fuel system or while the vehicle is being refueled.
In general, combustion products will eventually expelled through the exhaust system, and pollutants that are produced and expelled with the exhaust gases are nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, benzene, particulates and hydrocarbons. The problems associated with these different pollutants are given below: :
1. HYDROCARBONS (HC): Hydrocarbon emissions result when fuel molecules in the engine do not burn or burn only partially. Hydrocarbons react in the presence of nitrogen oxides and sunlight to form ground-level ozone, a major component of smog. Ozone can irritate the eyes, damage lungs, and aggravate respiratory problems. It is our most widespread urban air pollution problem. Some kinds of exhaust hydrocarbons are also toxic, with the potential to cause cancer. Hydrocarbons (Ozone): Irritates the mucous membrane of the respiratory system, causing coughing, choking and impaired lung function, particularly in people who exercise respiratory difficulties. Other symptoms include headaches, eye-nosethroat irritation and chest pain on deep breathing. Can make airways more sensitive to allergens such as pollen. Can also impair defenses against bacteria and viruses.
2. NITROGEN OXIDES (NOx): Under the high pressure and high temperature conditions in an engine, nitrogen and oxygen atoms in the air we breathe react to form various nitrogen oxides, collectively known as NOx. Nitrogen oxides, like hydrocarbons, are precursors to the formation of ozone. They also contribute to the formation of acid rain. Nitrogen dioxide: May aggravate asthma symptoms. Can cause a tightening of the chest and reduced lung function. Can make airways more sensitive to allergens such as house dust mite. By disrupting the body's natural cleansing mechanisms nitrogen dioxide may increase the body's susceptibility to viral infections. The mechanism of (NO) formation is as follows at high temperature and behind the flame: N2 + O2 = 2NO N2 + 2H2O = 2NO + 2H2 such reaction rate, will fairly high when surplus oxygen is available in a high temperature environment. Therefore it cab said the NO formation will be less in rich mixture than in lean mixture.
3. CARBON OXIDES i Carbon monxides(CO): Carbon monoxide is a product of incomplete combustion and occurs when carbon in the fuel is partially oxidized rather than fully oxidized to carbon dioxide. Carbon monoxide reduces the flow of oxygen in the bloodstream and is particularly dangerous to persons with heart disease. Carbon monoxide: Slows reflexes, impairs thinking and causes drowsiness by reducing the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood. Can increase the likelihood of exercise- related pain in people with coronary heart disease. ii - CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2): Carbon dioxide does not directly impair human health, but it is considered a greenhouse gas. In other words, as it accumulates in the atmosphere, it is believed to trap the earths heat and contribute to the potential for climate change.
4. Particulates the carbon particles (soot or smoke) is the main constituent of particulates. This has adverse effects on health and environment, where there is consistent correlation between particle levels and death rates. High levels of particles have also been linked with increased hospital admissions and asthma attacks. Smaller particles can carry carcinogenic particles into the lungs. Smoke is an indication of incomplete combustion, and it is actually black carbon particles known commonly as soot smoke density measurement is made by two types of smoke meters : 1 Bosch smoke meter : it is a filter darkening type, where a measured volume of exhaust gas is drawn through a white filter paper which is then blackened to various degree depending on the carbon present. The density of the soot is measured by timing out amount of light reflected from the sooted paper. Smoke number is another way of measuring smoke intensity by comparing smoke color to a standard black to light spectrum. 2 Hatridge smoke meter : exhaust sample is passed through tubes of about (0.46 m) which has ligh source at one end and photocell or solar cell at the other end. The amount of light passed through this smoke column is used as indication of smoke level. The Hatridge meter is used for continuous measurement, while the Bosch meter is used only under steady state conditions.
5 - Smog Smog is a combination of the words smoke and fog. It is a form of air pollution, which looks like a foggy cloud, is formed from the emissions from combustion reacting with sunlight to produce secondary pollutants. Smog often comes from vehicles and utility factories, and it's most prominent in warmer months because the warmth in the atmosphere reacts with the pollutants in the ozone. Other sources of particle pollution include exhaust from transportation, burning of wood, construction exhaust and activity and pollutants set off by the agriculture industry. These pollutants can cause smog to occur at any point during the day, since they mix with the ground-level ozone layer.
6.
OTHERS i - Benzene: A known carcinogen (something that causes cancer) that can cause leukemia. ii sulfur oxides ( SOx): CI. engine fuel may contain small amount of sulfur which when exhausted contributes to the acid rain problem. It is irritant gas and effect the mucous membrane when inhaled iii lead: It is the major additives (TEL) to improve the gasoline octane number lead compounds discharged from vehicles using leaded gasoline can cause a variety of human health disorder. iv phosphorus: This may be found in small amount in some fuel blends and lub. oil which is considered as air pollutant. v odour: it is the products of partial oxidation (diesel) is the main cause of odour in diesel exhaust. vi carbon dioxide: it is a major greenhouse gas that contribute to global warming by creating thermal radiation shield, and thus reduces the amount of thermal radiation energy allowed to escape from the earth. vii noise: this can be defined as undesirable sound when at high level can possibly be a health hazard. Noise generated by engines has therefore been considered as pollution.
are requirements that set specific limits to the amount of pollutants that can be released into the environment. Many emissions standards focus on regulating pollutants released: 1. by automobiles (motor cars) and other powered vehicles 2. from industry, power plants, small equipment such as lawn mowers and diesel generators. Frequent policy alternatives to emissions standards are technology standards (which mandate Standards generally regulate the emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides, particulate matter (PM) or soot, carbon monoxide (CO), or volatile hydrocarbons (see carbon dioxide equivalent).
Emission Standards for Gasoline Vehicles (GVW 3,500 kg), g/km Year 1991 1996 1998* 2000 2005 Reference Euro 1 Euro 2 CO 14.3-27.1 8.68-12.4 4.34-6.20 2.72-6.90 2.2-5.0 HC 2.0-2.9 HC+NOx 3.00-4.36 1.50-2.18 0.97-1.70 0.5-0.7
Emission standards
These time improved standards throughout the years, forced vehicles & engines designers & manufacturers to reduce the amount of emissions emitted during the engine or vehicle lifetime. For example: *** A new 1965 car produced about a ton of smog-forming hydrocarbons during 100,000 miles of driving. *** Standards in the 1990's reduced new car emissions to about 20 kgs of hydrocarbons. *** By 2010, new cars will emit only about 4 kgs of hydrocarbons in 100,000 miles.
Chapter Six Emission & Air Pollution

6.2 Emission control
Several methods are used to control and reduce engine emission such as: 1. Improve engine and fuel technology to get better combustion. 2. Exhaust gas after-treatment, by using thermal and catalytic convertor that promote chemical reaction in the exhaust to convert harmful emission to acceptable CO2, H2O and N2 3. EGR- exhaust gas recirculation, to control NOx formation 4. After-burner: the exhaust gases is further burnt by supplying air and means of ignition 5. Exhaust manifold reactor
The most effective after-treatment system for reducing engine emissions is the catalytic convertor. Catalytic convertors are mostly associated with automobile, where it is located in the engine exhaust pipe as near as possible to engine exhaust manifold.
CATALYTIC CONVERTERS What Is a Catalytic Converter? The catalytic converter is a device located in the exhaust system of all modern motor vehicles. It is an important device in the exhaust gas de-pollution process, which reduces harmful environmental exhaust emissions of motor vehicles combustion cycle byproducts. Its function is to chemically change harmful pollutants that the engine has combusted in the process of its various starting, driving, power and idle conditions to harmless gases. What Are The Pollutants? These pollutants include carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, nitrous oxides, etc. A catalytic converter chemically changes these into harmless substances like carbon dioxide, nitrogen and water vapor. How Are Harmful Exhaust Pollutants Eliminated? The catalytic converter uses an inside structure called a substrate. This is a ceramic or stainless steel monolith block that is covered with precious metals such as platinum, palladium and rhodium. The monolithic block consists of many fine channels, which are covered by a coarse wash coat above which the catalytically effective precious metal layer is placed. It is these elements, which cause the chemical change.
The catalytic converter works by using heat, combined with catalyzing agents, to create a chemical process that changes hydrocarbons (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO) into carbon dioxide and water. Some catalytic converters are designed to reduce an additional pollutant, oxides of nitrogen (NOx), by breaking it down into base components, nitrogen and oxygen A catalytic convertor reduces pollutants like (HC, CO) by oxidizing catalysts, and (NOx) by reducing catalyst. Catalytic convertors usually contains a mesh coated with noble metals like: 1 - platinum and palladium promotes the oxidation of (CO & HC), 2 rhodium promotes the reaction of NOx . These metals are the catalysts which accelerate the oxidation and reaction of: CO CO2 HC CO2 & H2O NOx N2 The catalysts themselves do not participate in the reaction, but helps to accelerate reaction. Catalytic convertor should have the following desirable properties: 1. Low volumetric heat capacity to reach the operating temperature. 2. Quick light off to reach operating temperature quickly. 3. Good chemical stability to prevent any deterioration in performance. 4. Physical durability with attrition resistance. 5. Robust design. 6. High surface area of noble metal for better reactions. 7. Minimum pressure drop during exhaust gas flow through it to prevent engine back pressure. 8. lower loading of noble metal for reduced cost.
Catalytic convertors are stainless steel container mounted somewhere along the exhaust pipe of the engine. Inside the container is a porous ceramic structure through which the gas flows. 1 - In most convertors the ceramic is a single honeycomb structure with many flow passage. 2 some convertors use loose granular ceramic with the gas passing between the packed spheres. The surface of the ceramic passage contains small embedded particles of catalytic material (catalysts) that promote the oxidation reaction and the reduction process to remove pollutants in the exhaust gas as it passes through.
Types of catalytic convertors

1. Two-way catalytic convertor the exhaust line has two catalytic convertor: i a reduction catalyst which is required to reduce NOx ii an oxidation catalyst to convert the excess HC and CO 2. Three-way catalytic convertor consist of both reduction and oxidation parts for the removal of the three main pollutants (HC, CO, NOx)
EGR system
The EGR system (Exhaust Gas Recirculation system) is designed to reduce emissions. To be precise, it lowers the amount of nitrogen oxides (NOx) in the exhaust emissions. Nitrogen oxides are formed at very high combustion temperatures. What the EGR system actually does is direct part of the exhaust gases back into the intake manifold, which in turn helps reduce the combustion temperature and consequently lower the amount of NOx in the exhaust gases. The EGR flow is controlled by the engine computer which opens or closes the EGR valve depending on the operating conditions. One of the most common problems with an EGR system is that the EGR passages or the EGR valve itself getting clogged with carbon deposits causing restrictions to the EGR gas flow. This turns the "check engine" light on and sets the code, for example, P0401, which means "Insufficient EGR flow" . This problem happens mostly if a car is driven for only short trips so it can't warm up fully, or when the oil is not changed regularly.
EGR gas flow rate is controlled by the EMS, and the mass percentage of EGR to the total mass flow into the cylinder is:
After EGR combines with the exhaust residual left from previous cycle, the total fraction of exhaust in the cylinder during compression stroke is:
Xex - fraction of exhaust gas Xres - fraction of residual gas
Example: Isooctane (C8H18)with (120%) theoretical air in a small 3-cylinder automobile engine have (AF=18.16), and equivalence ratio of (=0.833). The reaction temperature at the end of compression stroke is (427 C), and the adiabatic flame temperature is (2146 C). If the balanced chemical reaction equation is:
To reduce formation of NOx it is desired to reduce the maximum cycle temperature. This is done by exhaust gas recycling (EGR). Calculate the amount of EGR needed to reduce maximum combustion temperature to (2200K). Exhaust gas which consists mostly of (N2, CO2 and H2O) will be approximated as all nitrogen at temperature (1000 K). SOLUTION An unknown number of moles of EGR (x moles of N2 at 1000K) is added to the reactants
Solving for (x) gives x = 16.28 moles Recalling (N = m / MWt) m = N.MWt Therefore x = (16.28 kg mole)(28 kg/kg mole) = 455.8 kg
Mass of air in is mass of fuel vapor in is
Total mass in is
Therefore the percentage of EGR is
Advantages 1. Reduces NOx formation by holding combustion chamber temperature down
Disadvantages 1. Reduces engine thermal efficiency. 2. Slows combustion and lower the overall combustion efficiency. 3. The soot present in the exhaust gas acts as an abrasive and breaks down the lubricant, thus resulting in greater wear on the piston rings and valve train
After-burner It is a separate box located very near to exhaust manifold, where air is supplied to the exhaust gases and thus is burnt with the help of ignition system. This process will burn the unburned HC, and oxidize (CO) to (CO2) This is further modified into exhaust manifold reactor, to provide sufficient time for mixing of exhaust and secondary air
CHAPTER seven ENGINE HEAT TRANSFER

Engine cooling system
About 35% of the total chemical energy that enters the engine in the fuel is converted to useful crankshaft work. 30% of the fuel energy is carried away from the engine in the exhaust flow. This leaves about one third of the total energy that must be dissipated to the surroundings by some mode heat transfer. Therefore , engine cooling is very important to prevent excessive heat build-up, and thus avoid material damage and engine failure.
There are generally two methods of engine cooling : 1 water cooled : cylinder block water jacket is filled with coolant circulated through the engine by the water pump. 2 air cooled : engine with fins to increase heat transfer surface area, over-which air flow is directed.
1 heat lost to coolant

Heat to coolant can be evaluated as follows :
Where Qcl : heat transferred to coolant (kJ/s = kW) mw : cooling water mass rate (kg/s) Cpw : water specific heat (kJ/kg.K) to : cooling water outlet temperature (deg.K) ti : cooling water inlet temperature (deg.K)
2 heat lost to exhaust

Heat to coolant can be evaluated as follows :
Where Qex : heat transferred to exhaust (kJ/s = kW) mex : exhaust gas mass rate (kg/s) = mf + ma Cpw : exhaust gas specific heat (kJ/kg.K) tex : exhaust gas temperature (deg.K) tamb : ambient temperature (deg.K)
What is a Cooling System?

A typical 4 cylinder vehicle cruising along the highway at around 50 miles per hour, will produce 4000 controlled explosions per minute inside the engine as the spark plugs ignite the fuel in each cylinder to propel the vehicle down the road. Obviously, these explosions produce an enormous amount of heat and, if not controlled, will destroy an engine in a matter of minutes. Controlling these high temperatures is the job of the cooling system. Today's cooling system must maintain the engine at a constant temperature whether the outside air temperature is 110 degrees Fahrenheit or 10 below zero. ** If the engine temperature is too low, fuel economy will suffer and emissions will rise. ** If the temperature is allowed to get too hot for too long, the engine will self destruct.
The Components of a Cooling System
1 - The Radiator
The radiator core is usually made of flattened aluminum tubes with aluminum strips that zigzag between the tubes. These fins transfer the heat in the tubes into the air stream to be carried away from the vehicle. On each end of the radiator core is a tank, usually made of plastic that covers the ends of the radiator, On most modern radiators, the tubes run horizontally with the plastic tank on either side. On other cars, the tubes run vertically with the tank on the top and bottom. On older vehicles, the core was made of copper and the tanks were brass. The tanks, whether plastic or brass, each have a large hose connection, one mounted towards the top of the radiator to let the coolant in, the other mounted at the bottom of the radiator on the other tank to let the coolant back out. On the top of the radiator is an additional opening that is capped off by the radiator cap.
Another component in the radiator for vehicles with an automatic transmission is a separate tank mounted inside one of the tanks. Fittings connect this inner tank through steel tubes to the automatic transmission. Transmission fluid is piped through this tank inside a tank to be cooled by the coolant flowing past it before returning the the transmission.
Pressure cap and reserve tank

As coolant gets hot, it expands. Since the cooling system is sealed, this expansion causes an increase in pressure in the cooling system, which is normal and part of the design. When coolant is under pressure, the temperature where the liquid begins to boil is considerably higher. This pressure, coupled with the higher boiling point of ethylene glycol, allows the coolant to safely reach temperatures in excess of 250 degrees. The radiator pressure cap is a simple device that will maintain pressure in the cooling system up to a certain point. If the pressure builds up higher than the set pressure point, there is a spring loaded valve, calibrated to the correct Pounds per Square Inch (psi), to release the pressure.
When the cooling system pressure reaches the point where the cap needs to release this excess pressure, a small amount of coolant is bled off. It could happen during stop and go traffic on an extremely hot day, or if the cooling system is malfunctioning. If it does release pressure under these conditions, there is a system in place to capture the released coolant and store it in a plastic tank that is usually not pressurized. Since there is now less coolant in the system, as the engine cools down a partial vacuum is formed.
Water Pump
A water pump is usually mounted on the front of the engine and turns whenever the engine is running. The water pump is driven by the engine
through a fan belt that will also be responsible for driving an additional component like an alternator or power steering pump . The water pump is made up of a housing, an impeller, a spinning shaft and a pulley attached to the shaft on the outside of the pump body. A seal keeps fluid from leaking out of the pump housing past the spinning shaft. The impeller uses centrifugal force to draw the coolant in from the lower radiator hose and send it under pressure into the engine block. There is a gasket to seal the water pump to the engine block and prevent the flowing coolant from leaking out where the pump is attached to the block.
Thermostat
The thermostat is simply a valve that measures the temperature of the coolant and, if it is hot enough, opens to allow the coolant to flow through the radiator. If the coolant is not hot enough, the flow to the radiator is blocked and fluid is directed to a bypass system that allows the coolant to return directly back to the engine. The bypass system allows the coolant to keep moving through the engine to balance the temperature and avoid hot spots. Because flow to the radiator is blocked, the engine will reach operating temperature sooner and, on a cold day, will allow the heater to begin supplying hot air to the interior more quickly. The heart of a thermostat is a sealed copper cup that contains wax and a metal pellet. As the thermostat heats up, the hot wax expands, pushing a piston against spring pressure to open the valve and allow coolant to circulate.
Hoses
There are several rubber hoses that make up the plumbing to connect the components of the cooling system. The main hoses are called the upper and lower radiator hoses. These two hoses are approximately 2 inches in diameter and direct coolant between the engine and the radiator. Two additional hoses, called heater hoses, supply hot coolant from the engine to the heater core. These hoses are approximately 1 inch in diameter. One of these hoses may have a heater control valve mounted in-line to block the hot coolant from entering the heater core when the air conditioner is set to max-cool. A fifth hose, called the bypass hose, is used to circulate the coolant through the engine, bypassing the radiator, when the thermostat is closed. Some engines do not use a rubber hose. Instead, they might use a metal tube or have a built-in passage in the front housing.
Bypass System / a passage
allows the coolant to bypass the radiator and return directly back to the engine.
Freeze Plugs /
a special sand is molded to the shape of the coolant passages in the engine block.
Head Gaskets and Intake Manifold Gaskets
Heater Core
The hot coolant is also used to provide heat to the interior of the vehicle when needed.
How Does a Cooling System Work? A cooling system works by 1-sending a liquid coolant through passages in the engine block and heads. 2- As the coolant flows through these passages, it picks up heat from the engine. 3-The heated fluid then makes its way through a rubber hose to the radiator in the front of the car. 4- As it flows through the thin tubes in the radiator, the hot liquid is cooled by the air stream entering the engine compartment from the grill in front of the car. 5-Once the fluid is cooled, it returns to the engine to absorb more heat. 6-The water pump has the job of keeping the fluid moving through this system of plumbing and hidden passages.
A thermostat is placed between the engine and the radiator to make sure that the coolant stays above a certain preset temperature. If the coolant temperature falls below this temperature, the thermostat blocks the coolant flow to the radiator, forcing the fluid instead through a bypass directly back to the engine. The coolant will continue to circulate like this until it reaches the design temperature, at which point, the thermostat will open a valve and allow the coolant back through the radiator.
Pressure Regulation
In order to prevent the coolant from boiling, the cooling system is designed to be pressurized. Under pressure, the boiling point of the coolant is raised considerably. However, too much pressure will cause hoses and other parts to burst, so a system is needed to relieve pressure if it exceeds a certain point. The job of maintaining the pressure in the cooling system belongs to the radiator cap. The cap is designed to release pressure if it reaches the specified upper limit that the system was designed to handle. Prior to the '70s, the cap would release this extra pressure to the pavement. Since then, a system was added to capture any released fluid and store it temporarily in a reserve tank. This fluid would then return to the cooling system after the engine cooled down. This is what is called a closed cooling system.
Antifreeze
The coolant that circulates through the engine and associated plumbing 1 - must be able to withstand temperatures well below zero without freezing. 2 -It must also be able to handle engine temperatures in excess of 250 degrees without boiling. 3 - The fluid must also contain rust inhibiters and 4 - a lubricant. The coolant in today's vehicles is a mixture of ethylene glycol (antifreeze) and water. The recommended ratio is fifty-fifty. In other words, one part antifreeze and one part water. This is the minimum recommended for use in automobile engines. Less antifreeze and the boiling point would be too low. In certain climates where the temperatures can go well below zero, it is permissible to have as much as 75% antifreeze and 25% water, but no more than that. Pure antifreeze will not work properly and can cause a boil over.
Chapter 11 friction & lubrication

11.1 - Introduction
What is friction What is lubrication Why friction & lubrication
In almost all machines, moving parts have relative motion and rub against each other . Such rubbing will create a resistance against such relative motion, and this resistance is friction. Lubrication therefore is required to reduce this rubbing action, and to increase the service life of the machine parts.
Therefore
Friction refers to the forces acting between surfaces in relative motion And Lubrication is the admittance of viscous fluid between two surfaces in relative motion.
When two surfaces are in contact, they will touch each other at a roughness high spot of the surface, as shown magnified in this figure, where fig. : a represent dry non-lubricated surface, friction is created by high-spot that resist motion. b - represent lubricated surface showing reduction of friction by hydraulic floating. Reducing resistance of surface-to-surface motion, lubricating oil is added to the space between the surfaces. Lub oil adheres to the solid surfaces, and when one surface moves relative to the other, oil is dragged along with the surface, and thus keeps them apart, thereby, one surface hydraulically floats on the other
Friction resistance to motion is almost inevitable, as it is impossible to totally remove all friction effects (losses), but it however be reduced greatly by using lubrication between the parts which have relative motion with each other. Increase in friction is ultimately dissipated as heat to the cooling water and it further increases the pump and fan power requirements also.
The frictional resistance between two moving parts have relative motion is mostly dependent on the following factors :
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Lub oil properties Surface condition Material of the surfaces Rate of relative motion Nature of relative motion Quantity of lub oil
Chapter 11 Friction & lubrication

11.2 - Friction
Friction
Friction refers to : i- the forces acting between mechanical components due to their relative motion and to ii - forces on and by fluids when they move through the engine A percentage of power generated within the engine cylinders are lost to friction, that cause some reduction in the resulting brake power obtained off the crankshaft. Engines accessories that cause some reduction in crankshaft power are also classified as part of engine friction load. Therefore friction can be defined as FRICTION is the resistance to motion which takes place when one body is moved upon another. Friction is generally defined as "that force which acts between two bodies at their surface of contact, so as to resist their sliding on each other".
Engine friction (FP)

This can be defined as the difference between the indicated power (IP), which is the power developed inside the cylinder, and the brake power (BP), which is the power available at the crank-shaft. i.e
FP = IP - BP
Total engine friction

The difference between IP & BP is known as total engine friction. This includes the following losses: 1. direct frictional losses 2. Pumping losses 3. Blow-by losses 4. Valve throttling loses 5. Combustion chamber pump losses 6. Power loss to drive the auxiliaries
losses
Engine losses can be characterized as follows: 1- friction losses these are mechanical losses due to friction between all sliding surfaces; con rod bearings; crankshaft bearing; camshaft bearings etc 2- parasitic losses these are the losses due to loads required to operate engine auxiliaries such; air conditioner; oil pump; water pump; alternator; supercharger; and all other auxiliaries.
Engine Friction
(mep) concepts can be expanded to include all work and power inputs & outputs of an engine. Various (mep) terms and the work they corresponds to include:
Engine Friction
The constants A, B and C must be determined for the operating conditions of a given engine. 1. The first term (A=constant) is sometimes called boundary friction, and it occurs between components of the engine where there is no enough lubricant to hydraulically separate totally the motion of one surface from another. This is also related to hydraulic shear force (). (see next slide) The second term (BN) is proportional to engine speed and relates to the hydraulic shear between many lubricated engine parts. The third term (CN) is proportional to square engine speed (N).
2. 3.
hydraulic shear force ().

Shear force per unit surface area is given as:
In practice these terms can actually means the followings : shear force U instantaneous speed y clearance between two surfaces Example : If (A = contact area ) Then the friction force is [Ff = . A ] See ex. 11-1 / p.359 Text book
Friction mep can also be related to average piston speed by the empirical equation:
The components that contribute a major part of total friction are the pistons and piston rings as shown in the figure below. The contribution of the friction forces are classified as: 1 - Piston assemblies contribute about half of the total friction and can be as much as 75% at light load. 2 Piston rings contribute about 20% of the total friction. 3 - Valve train contributes about 25% of the total friction. 4 - Crankshaft bearing contributes about 10% of the total load. 5 -Accessories contribute about 15% of the total load.
Forces on piston
Force that act on a piston are shown in figure. The positive direction of the diagram x-axis and y-axis are as shown. The resultant forces in both x-axis & y-axis are :
Where : P gas pressure in comb. chamber Ft slide thrust force Ff friction force Fr con rod force crank angle - angle con rod and centerline B cylinder bore m mass of piston dUp/dt acceleration of piston Fx resultant force in x-direction Fy resultant force in y-direction
The sign of the friction force (Ff) term depends on the crank angle
Since
From which we can obtain that
[See hand-out for derivation] (Ft) is very important to be specified in a single equation, because this is the force exerted sideway between piston skirt and cylinder wall and causes friction force to resists the piston reciprocating motion. (Ft) is not constant, but changes with: 1. Piston position (angle ) 2. Piston acceleration (dUp/dt) 3. Gas pressure 4. Friction force (Ff) These terms are all varying during engine cycle.
See ex. 11.2 / p.363
How To Reduce Engine Friction

To reduce engine friction: 1 - Using piston with a less mass lowers the piston inertia and reduce acceleration. b shorter skirt. 2 - Shorter piston skirts reduce rubbing friction because of the smaller surface contact area. 3 - Shorter skirts require closer tolerance between the piston and cylinder wall to keep piston from cocking in the cylinder. 4 - Using fewer and thinner piston rings but require closer tolerances. 5 - Using offset wrist pin from the center towards the minor thrust side of the piston. To reduce the side thrust force and resulting wear on the major thrust side. 6 - Using the shorter stroke. This, for a given displacement requires a larger bore which results in a greater heat losses due to larger cylinder surface area, b greater knock tendency due to longer flame travelling distance.
Friction power measurement
The friction power of an engine can be determined by the following methods : 1. Willans line method (for CI engines only) 2. Motoring test 3. Difference between IP & BP 4. Morse test
1 - Willans line method
At constant engine speed, a graph is drawn of fuel consumption against brake power for different engine load. This graph line is extrapolated back to cut the brake power axis at the negative side at (L), as shown in the figure, giving thereby the flowing graphical values means : I - OL : power loss at this speed II - OM: fuel consumption at zero brake power Therefore the power lost due to friction is read from the graph and it is equal to the amount (OL) .
2 - Motoring test Run the engine until it reaches steady operation. The power of the engine during this period is absorbed by electric dynamometer. The fuel supply is then cut off by a suitable electrical switching device, whereby the dynamometer is converted to run as motor to drive the engine at the same speed. The power supplied to the motor is measured , which is a measure of the friction power of the engine.
3 - Difference between IP & BP FP = IP - BP This methods of finding the friction power is by the difference between: 1. IP as obtained from the indicator diagram, and 2. BP as obtained by a dynamometer Which is considered as a very accurate method if an accurate indicator diagram can be provided.
An engine connected to a absorption-type dynamometer with load weighing gear and tachometer will enable the indicated power (Pi) to be calculated providing care is taken to maintain the exact rev/min and particular attention is paid to the torque arm setting and the reading of the load figures. The test consists of measuring the total brake power (Pb) with all engine cylinders working normally under full throttle, and then cutting out each cylinder in turn. 1. With spark ignition engines , is to short circuit the spark plug of each cylinder in turn. 2. With oil engines, disconnecting the fuel injector will cut off the fuel supply to that cylinder . When a cylinder has been cut out, the remaining working cylinders have to overcome the frictional and pumping loses of the cut-out cylinder.
4 - The Morse method
Chapter 11 friction & lubrication

11.3 - Lubrication
LUBRICATION SYSTEM
Mechanical Friction and Lubrication When two solid surfaces are in contact, they will touch each other at the roughness high spots of the surfaces. Points of contact will become hot, sometimes to the point of trying to weld together. To reduce resistance of surface-to-surface motion, lubricating oil is added to the space between the surfaces. Lubricating oil holds the surface apart and one surface hydro-dynamically floats on the others surface. The resistance to relative motion is the shearing of fluid layers between the surfaces, which is less than that of dry surface motion.
Dry or non lubricating surface showing friction caused by high spots lubricating surface showing reduction of friction by hydraulic floating
Characteristics of Lubricating Fluid

Three important characteristics of a lubricating fluid: 1. it must adhere to solid surface. 2. It must resist being squeezed out from between the surfaces, even under the extreme forces. 3. It should not require excessive force to shear adjacent liquid layers. 4. Viscosity that should satisfy the conflicts of (1) & (3) above.
Lubricating Oil functions

The oil used in an engine must serve as 1. a lubricant, 2. a coolant, and 3. an impurity & contaminants removal. 4. seals
Therefore the required properties for the lubricating oil used in an engine are: 1. Stability over a large temperature range and must operate over an extreme temperature range. 2. must lubricate properly from the starting temperature to beyond the extreme steady-state temperatures that occur within the engine cylinders. 3. It must reduce friction and wear within the engine. It improves engine efficiency by reducing friction forces between moving parts. 4. Enhancement of ring seal and reduction of blow-by 5. must not oxidize on the combustion chamber walls or at other hot spots. 6. should adhere to surfaces so that they always lubricate and provide a protective covering against corrosion.
7. Should have high film strength to assure on metalto-metal contact even under extreme loads. 8. Should be non-toxic and nonexplosive. 9. Should have Long life span 10.Should be of low cost
Purpose of Lubrication System

1 - Lubricate
Reduces Friction by creating a thin film(Clearance) between moving parts (Bearings and journals)
2 - Seals
The oil helps form a gastight seal between piston rings and cylinder walls (Reduces Blow-By)
Internal oil leak (blow-by) will result in BLUE SMOKE at the tale pipe.
3 Cleans
As it circulates through the engine, the oil picks up metal particles and carbon, and brings them back down to the pan.
4 - Cools
Picks up heat when moving through the engine and then drops into the cooler oil pan, giving up some of this heat.
*
5 - Absorbs shock
When heavy loads are imposed on the bearings, the oil helps to cushion the load.
6 - Absorbs Contaminants
The additives in oil helps in absorbing the contaminants that enter the lubrication system.
VISCOSITY
Viscosity is a measure of oils resistance to flow, or may be oil thickness.. A low viscosity oil is thin and flows easily A high viscosity oil is thick and flows slowly.
VISCOSITY
If the oil is too thin(has very low viscosity) it will be forced out from between the moving parts, resulting in rapid wear. If the oil is too thick(has very high viscosity) it will flow very slowly to engine parts, especially when the engine and the oil are cold, resulting in rapid wear. Single viscosity oils SAE 5W, SAE 10W (Winter) and SAE 20, SAE30 (Summer) Multiple viscosity oils SAE 10W-30. This means that the oil is same as SAE 10W when cold and SAE30 when hot.
Lubricating Oil Additives

For maximum performance and life span of the engine, following additives are required: Antifoam agents Oxidation inhibitors Pour-point depressant Antirust agents Detergents Anti-wear agents Friction reducers Viscosity index improvers
Parts & components

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Oil pan Oil pump Pressure relief valve Oil galleries Oil pressure indicators Oil filter Oil cooler
Oil Pan
Stores the oil and helps in cooling the oil Pan gasket splits if over tightened.
Oil Pumps
Driven by camshaft, crankshaft (Rarely
rebuild by an auto technician)
Rotor Pump(Two star shaped rotors
pumps the oil)
Gear oil Pump
Pressure Relief Valve

to prevent the buildup of high Pressure (Causes the oil filter to bulge, but not a common
problem).
Good oil pressure is 40-60 psi
Oil Pressure Indicator

Light or a Gauge The light turns on or gauge reads low when the pressure drops below 10psi. Good oil pressure is 40-60 psi. Common causes of low oil pressure are: Low oil level Worn out pump Low oil pressure Safety system will shuts down the car by cutting the ignition System(Spark).
Oil Filter
Oil Galleries
These are passage-ways For oil through out engine. Deliver the oil to top end and returning it To the oil pan.
Positive Crankcase ventilation Valve

Pollution prevention Blow-by back into the intake Prevent sludge in the engine.
Oil Pressure sending unit

electrically sends the signal to the Light or Gauge mounted on the dash.
If the wires get shorted the light will come on or the gauge will read high.
Temperature Regulator (Oil Cooler)
An oil temperature regulator is designed to maintain the temperature of the oil for an operating engine at the correct level These regulators are often called oil coolers since cooling of engine oil is one of their main functions
OIL CHANGE
Every 5000Km 3 months Ignoring regular oil change intervals will shorten engine life and performance.
Good Luck
Chapter nine induction & exhaust systems

9.1 - Introductiom
Introduction
An ordinary four-stroke engine dedicates one stroke to the process of air intake. There are three steps in this process: 1.The piston moves down from TDC towards BDC 2.This creates a vacuum. 3.Air at atmospheric pressure is sucked into the combustion chamber. Once air is drawn into the engine, it must be combined with fuel to form the charge, ignition initiation is essential for the combustion to takes place. As the fuel undergoes oxidation, a great deal of energy is released. The force of this explosion, concentrated above the cylinder head, drives the piston down and creates a reciprocating motion that is eventually transferred to the output shaft.
Getting more fuel into the charge would make for a more powerful explosion. But you can't simply pump more fuel into the engine because an exact amount of oxygen is required to burn a given amount of fuel. This chemically correct mixture -- 14 parts air to one part fuel -- is essential for an engine to operate efficiently. The bottom line: To put in more fuel you have to put in more air.
That is engine boosting
Engine boosting therefore is the process of increasing the inlet charge, i.e increasing the mass of air induced into the cylinder, facilitating thereby the possibility of increasing the fuel charge , when burned will produce extra power output for the same engine size. Engine boosting can be achieved by two common well established methods: 1 super-charging 2 - turbo-charging
super-charging
turbo-charging
Superchargers and turbochargers are compressors mounted in the intake system, and used to raise the pressure of the incoming air. This results in more air and fuel entering each cylinder during each cycle. This added air and fuel creates more power output during combustion, and the net power output of the engine is increased
As stated earlier, Superchargers increase intake by compressing air above atmospheric pressure, without creating a vacuum. This forces more air into the engine, providing a "boost." With the additional air in the boost, more fuel can be added to the charge, and the power of the engine is increased. Supercharging adds an average of 46 percent more horsepower and 31 percent more torque.

9.2 - supercharging
As stated earlier, Superchargers increase intake by compressing air above atmospheric pressure, without creating a vacuum. This forces more air into the engine, providing a "boost." With the additional air in the boost, more fuel can be added to the charge, and the power of the engine is increased. Supercharging adds an average of 46 percent more horsepower and 31 percent more torque.
Superchargers
Superchargers are mechanically driven directly off the engine, i.e they draws their power directly from the crankshaft driven by an accessory belt, which wraps around a pulley that is connected to a drive gear. The drive gear, in turn, rotates the compressor gear. The rotor of the compressor can come in various designs, but its job is to draw air in, squeeze it into a smaller space and discharge it into the intake manifold. In this respect the power to drive the compressor is a parasitic load on the engine output, and this is considered as one of the disadvantages of superchargers. The ideal power needed to drive the supercharger is evaluated as
Isentropic efficiency (ideal) means no losses are considered, but in actual practice there is always losses encountered in any mechanical system. Therefore the actual efficiency of the supercharger compressor is less than (100%). This means that the actual power needed will be greater than ideal.
If (Tin and Pin) are known, and design output pressure is set. Then the ideal gas isentropic correlation is:
If (
) is known, then (
) can be calculated when ( k = 1.4) is taken for air
From the above the actual power needed to drive the supercharger can be derived as follows : Since
and and
Sub the second into the first to give
The isentropic efficiency is
But mechanical efficiency of the supercharger is
where
Additional requirement 1. After-cooler : due to compressive heating of air by the supercharger, a cooler after the supercharger is used to cool down air temperature back to normal, and thus to improve overall cycle efficiency. Such after cooler may be : i engine water cooling (air-to-liquid heat exchanger) ii air cooling (air-to-air heat exchanger) In C.I engines, after coolers are not generally needed, as there will be no concern about higher cycle temperature ( why ? ). after cooler efficiency is known as cooler effectiveness which can be expressed as :
2.
Multistage compression supercharger with more compressors to improve air/fuel delivery.

9.3 - turbocharging
Turbochargers
The compressor of the turbocharger is powered by a turbine mounted in the exhaust flow of the engine. the advantage of this is that none of the engine shaft output is used to drive the compressor, and only waste energy in the exhaust is used. In order to achieve engine boosting, the turbocharger uses the exhaust flow from the engine to spin a turbine, which in turn spins a compressor (air pump). The turbocharger is bolted to the exhaust manifold of the engine.
The turbocharger has three main components: 1. A turbine, which is almost always a radial inflow turbine 2. A compressor, which is almost always a centrifugal compressor 3. The center housing/hub rotating assembly (CHRA).
For turbo-charger, in the apposite of supercharger, where the actual power needed from the engine is greater than ideal (isentropic) due losses considerations. Therefore the isentropic efficiencies for the compressor and the turbine are as follows : i compressor
ii - turbine
The mechanical efficiency between turbine and compressor is
the overall turbocharger efficiency is
Notes See example 5.3 / p. 194/195
Turbo lag is the time required to change speed and function effectively in response to a throttle change.
Turbo lag All turbocharger applications can be roughly divided into 2 categories, those requiring rapid throttle response and those that do not. While important to varying degrees, turbo lag is most problematic when rapid changes in engine performance are required.
For example, this is noticed as a hesitation in throttle response when accelerating from idle as compared to a naturally aspirated engine. Throttle lag may be noticeable under any driving condition, yet becomes a significant issue under acceleration. This is symptomatic of the time needed for the exhaust system working in concert with the turbine to generate enough extra power to accelerate rapidly. A combination of inertia, friction, and compressor load are the primary contributors to turbo lag. By eliminating the turbine, the directly driven compressor in a supercharger does not suffer from this problem.
Boost threshold The boost threshold of a turbo system describes the lower bound of the region within which the compressor will operate. Below a certain rate of flow at any given pressure multiplier, a given compressor will not produce significant boost. This has the effect of limiting boost at particular rpm regardless of exhaust gas pressure. Turbochargers start producing boost only above a certain exhaust mass flow rate. Electrical boosting ("E-boosting") uses a high-speed electrical motor to drive the turbocharger to speed before exhaust gases are available. A similar system utilizing a hydraulic drive system and over-speed clutch arrangement to accelerate the turbocharger. The boost threshold is determined by the engine displacement, engine rpm, throttle opening, and the size of the turbo. Without adequate exhaust gas flow to spin the turbine blades, the turbo cannot produce the necessary force needed to compress the air going into the engine.
The point at full throttle in which the mass flow in the exhaust is strong enough to force air into the engine is known as the boost threshold rpm. The boost threshold is not to be confused with turbo lag .
Engineers have, in some cases, been able to reduce the boost threshold rpm to idle speed to allow for instant response.
Turbocharging versus supercharging

1 - In contrast to turbochargers, superchargers are not powered by exhaust gases but are connected directly or indirectly to an engine. Belts, chains, shafts, and gears are only a few of the ways this is performed. 2 - A supercharger uses mechanical energy from the engine to drive the compressor. Example ** on a single-stage single-speed supercharged Rolls Royce Merlin engine, the supercharger uses up about (110 kW). ** Yet the benefits outweigh the costs: For that (110 kW), the engine generates an additional power and delivers (750 kW) when it would otherwise deliver (560 kW). ** a net gain of (190 kW). 3 - In comparison, a turbocharger does not place a direct mechanical load on the engine. It is more efficient because it converts the waste heat of the exhaust gas into horsepower used to drive the compressor. In contrast to supercharging, the principal disadvantages of turbo-charging are the back-pressuring (exhaust throttling) of the engine and the inefficiencies of the turbine versus direct-drive.
A combination of an exhaust-driven turbocharger and an engine-driven supercharger can mitigate the weaknesses of the other. This technique is called twin-charging . Some two-stroke diesel engines even used a triple system.
CAUTIONS In all engine boosting applications, boost pressure is limited to keep the entire engine system, including the turbo, inside its thermal and mechanical design operating range. Over-boosting an engine frequently causes damage to the engine in a variety of ways including pre-ignition, overheating, and overstressing the engine's internal hardware. For example, to avoid engine knocking ( pre-ignition or detonation) and the related physical damage to the engine, the intake manifold pressure must not get too high, thus the pressure at the intake manifold of the engine must be controlled by some means. Opening the waste-gate allows the energy for the turbine to bypass it and pass directly to the exhaust pipe. The turbocharger is forced to slow as the turbine is starved of its source of power, the exhaust gas. Slowing the turbine/compressor rotor begets less compressor pressure.
Chapter 14 ENGINE TESTING

14.1 - Introduction
Introductory notes
The basic task of the development engineer is to :
1. Reduce cost 2. Improve power output 3. Improve reliability
For the engine
To achieve these goals he has to try various design concepts, and thereafter to find the effects on engine performance of a particular design concept he has to conduct a wide variety of engine test. The type of tests to be carried depends upon great number of factors such as : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Degree of development of a particular design Level of accuracy required Funds available Status of manufacturing company Company design strategy Product application
In general, testing is used in evaluating engine performance, whereby certain basic parameters are chosen to study : I. II. III. Effects of various operating conditions Design concept Necessary modifications
It should be noted that testing is actually measuring, and so the basic measurement which usually should be undertaken to evaluate engine performance on almost all tests are : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Engine speed Fuel consumption Air consumption Smoke density Brake, indicated and friction power Heat lost to coolant Heat lost to exhaust Exhaust gas analysis
1 Engine Speed
Measurement of engine speed can be done by any of the methods below which ever suitable to the conducted test : 1. Revolution counter 2. Mechanical tachometer 3. Electrical tachometer
2 Fuel Consumption
Fuel consumption by an engine can be measured by any of these methods: 1. Fuel flow method 2. Gravimetric method 3. Continuous flow meter
3 Air Consumption
Air consumption rate can be measured by any of the followings : 1. Air box method 2. Viscous flow air meter
4 Smoke Density Smoke is an indication of incomplete combustion, and therefore it limits the engine output if air pollution regulation is enforced. Exhaust emission have become a matter of great concern, as with the enforcement of legislation on air pollution in many countries, thereby such subject has become necessary to consider it as performance parameter. Exhaust smoke can be measured by any of the following smoke meters : 1. Bosch smoke meter 2. Hatridge smoke meter 3. PHS smoke meter These three devices are basically soot (carbon) density measuring equipments (gm/m), that is the meter readings are a function of the mass of carbon in a given volume of exhaust gas.
5 Engine Power
Recalling previous lectures, Power has being defined as the rate at which work is done. The more power a thing generates, the more work it can do in a given space of time There is in fact no way of directly measuring power - all types of devices dynamometer measure torque and then power is calculated from formulas weve seen in earlier sections (see chapter 2).
5.1 -Measurement of brake power This done by the use of dynamometer which can be broadly classified as : 1. Absorption dynamometer 2. Transmission dynamometer 3. Fan dynamometer 4. Chassis dynamometer
The absorption type is the most widely used. They measure and absorb the power output of the engine to which they are coupled. The power absorbed is usually dissipated as heat by some means. Examples of such dynamometers are : 1. Prony brake (mechanical friction brake) 2. Rope brake 3. Hydraulic dynamometer 4. Eddy current dynamometer (electromagnetic brake) 5. Swinging field D.C dynamometer
Dynamometer principles The basic principle of a dynamometer can be summarized as follows : 1. An electrical, hydraulic, or magnetic rotor driven by the engine under test at one side is coupled to a stator at the other side. 2. For every revolution of engine shaft the rotor periphery moves a distance of (2R) against the coupling force (F) Hence the work done per revolution is W = (2R) (F) 4. The dynamometer external moment (torque) Td , and the engine turning moment (torque) Te are respectively expressed as follows : Td = S.L S(scale reading), L(device arm) Te = R.F R(rotor radius), F(couple force) 5. Under steady and balanced operation Te = Td RF=SL 6. The work done therefore W = 2R.F = 2S.L 7. The work done /min = 2S.L.N 8. The power = 2S.L.N / 60,000 kW S=Newton , L=meter, N=rpm
One of the simplest methods of measuring brake power is to attempt to stop the engine by means of a brake on the flywheel and measure the weight which an arm attached to the brake will support, as it tries to rotate with the flywheel The prony brake shown in the figure works on the principle of converting power into heat by dry friction. It consists of wooden blocks mounted on a flexible rope or band the wooden blocks when pressed into contact with the rotating drum takes the engine torque and the power dissipated in frictional resistance. Spring loaded are provided to tighten the wooden block and hence increases friction. The whole of the power absorbed is converted into heat and hence this type of dynamometer must be cooled. The brake power is given by : BP = 2NT where T=W.l W : weight applied at radius (l)
Prony brake
Rope brake The rope brake as shown in the figure is another simple device for measuring brake power. It consists of a number of turns of rope wound around the rotating drum attached to the output shaft. One side of the rope is connected to a spring balance and the other to a loading device. The power is absorbed in friction between the rope and the drum. The drum therefore requires cooling. The brake power is given by: BP = DN(W-S) Where D brake drum diameter W the weight in Newton S the spring scale reading It,s important to note that some times the brake drum diameter may considered as the some of the drum and rope diameters , i.e D = Db + dr
Eddy current type absorber

EC dynamometers are currently the most common absorbers used in modern chassis dynos. The EC absorbers provide the quick load change rate for rapid load settling. Most are air cooled, but some are designed to require external water cooling systems. Eddy current dynamometers require an electrically conductive core, shaft or disc, moving across a magnetic field to produce resistance to movement. Iron is a common material, but copper, aluminum and other conductive materials are usable. In current (2009) applications, most EC brakes use cast iron discs, similar to vehicle disc brake rotors, and use variable electromagnets to change the magnetic field strength to control the amount of braking. The electromagnet voltage is usually controlled by a computer, using changes in the magnetic field to match the power output being applied.
5.2 Indicated power The engine indicated power is usually determined by the use of PV diagram taken with the help of indicator system. If the indicated power cannot be measured directly, then it is possible to evaluate it indirectly by measuring the brake power and engine losses. If indicator diagram is available, the indicated power can be computed by measuring the area of the diagram with a planimeter or other such means, to evaluate the (imep) as :
Where imep bar ---Net diagram area mm ---Length of diagram mm --- and Spring constant - bar/mm In general, several methods are commonly available for the purpose of evaluating the indicated power, and these are : 1. Indicator diagram 2. Morse test 3. Calculation of IP ( see section 2.03 IP = f . CV . th.i )
1 - Indicator diagram ( refer to 7.02) there are many types of engine indicators, but the most suitable modern type is the electronic indicator, which consist of the following main parts : 1. Pressure pick-up (transducer) 2. Pre-amplifying device 3. Time-base recording system 4. Display system
An engine connected to a absorption-type dynamometer with load weighing gear and tachometer will enable the indicated power (Pi) to be calculated providing care is taken to maintain the exact rev/min and particular attention is paid to the torque arm setting and the reading of the load figures. The test consists of measuring the total brake power (Pb) with all engine cylinders working normally under full throttle, and the cutting out each cylinder in turn. 1. With spark ignition engines , is to short circuit the spark plug of each cylinder in turn. 2. With oil engines, disconnecting the fuel injector will cut off the fuel supply to that cylinder . When a cylinder has been cut out, the remaining working cylinders have to overcome the frictional and pumping loses of the cut-out cylinder. Consider 4- cylinder 4-stroke engine where (Pi = indicated , Pb = brake, and Pf = friction ) power : of 4 cylinders Let A = Pb = 4 Pi - 4 Pf And B = Pb = 3 Pi - 4 Pf of 3 cylinders Thus case A - case B = 1 Pi is the (Pi )of the cut-out cylinder. When each cylinders indicated power is known and added together, the result gives the total indicated power for the engine under those speed and load conditions.
2 - The Morse method
5.3 Friction power The total engine friction can be divided into five main components as follows : 1. Crankcase mechanical friction this is subdivided into : i- bearing friction (includes main & con rod bearings) ii- valve gear friction iii- miscellaneous friction 2. Blow-by losses these are pumping losses during compression and expansion process, during which, leakage of combustion products occurs past the piston and piston rings from the cylinder to the crankcase. 3. Exhaust and inlet system throttling losses due to restriction in flow area during valve movement from closed to full open positions 4. Combustion chamber pumping losses these are the losses due pumping work required to pump gases into and out of the combustion chamber during mainly exhaust strokes. 5. Piston mechanical friction this can be subdivided into : i- viscous friction which depends on the lub oil viscosity and the temperature of the various parts of the piston. ii-non-viscous friction and these are (a)due to ring tension (b)gas pressure force behind the ring
The friction power of an engine can be determined by the following methods : 1. Willans line method (for CI engines only) 2. Motoring test 3. Difference between IP & BP 4. Morse test Willans line method At constant engine speed, a graph is drawn of fuel consumption against brake power for different engine load. This graph line is extrapolated back to cut the brake power axis at the negative side at (L), as shown in the figure, giving thereby the flowing graphical values I - OL : power loss at this speed II - OM: fuel consumption at zero brake means : power
Therefore the power lost due to friction is read from the graph and it is equal to the amount (OL) .
Motoring test Run the engine until it reaches steady operation. The power of the engine during this period is absorbed by electric dynamometer. The fuel supply is then cut off by a suitable electrical switching device, whereby the dynamometer is converted to run as motor to drive the engine at the same speed. The power supplied to the motor is measured , which is a measure of the friction power of the engine.
Difference between IP & BP FP = IP - BP This methods of finding the friction power is by the difference between: 1. IP as obtained from the indicator diagram, and 2. BP as obtained by a dynamometer Which is considered as a very accurate method if an accurate indicator diagram can be provided.
Morse test As discussed earlier in the measurement of the engine indicated power
6 Heat Losses
The performance of an engine is generally given by heat balance method. To obtain such heat balance, the engine must run under constant specific operating conditions, i.e, constant load, constant speed, and the followings are to be considered: 1. Heat supplied by the fuel 2. Heat absorbed to produce engine power 3. Heat taken away by cooling system 4. Heat taken away by exhaust gas For petrol and diesel engine, heat supplied by the fuel (Qf) is theoretically evaluated as follows:
The engine power is evaluated as mentioned above
6.1 Heat lost to coolant

Heat to coolant can be evaluated as mentioned in chapter (10), may be recalled here :
6.2 Heat lost to exhaust

Heat to coolant can be evaluated as mentioned in chapter (10), may be recalled here :
7 Exhaust Gas Analysis

Substances which are emitted to the atmosphere from any opening down stream of the exhaust part of the engine are termed as exhaust emissions. Some of the more commonly used instruments for measuring exhaust components are : 1. Flame ionization detector 2. Spectroscopic analyzers 3. Gas chromatograph

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Internal Combustion Engines

Dr. Raoof M. Radhi

3rd year class Mechanical Engineering

Class time table

2 hrs / week 1 hr / week 3 hrs / week

2-3 exams 2-3 exams

7.5 Teacher assessment 2.5 Lab work 5.0 ---------------------------------------------------Total 15

Industrial & scientific visits

Industrial & scientific visits report

Operating characteristics Engine cycles

Students will be asked to

Open Book Exam

** Students will be asked to show detailed answers

Be careful how you interpret results

Internal Combustion Engine

Class weekly hours

Internal Combustion Engines

Internal Combustion Engines

Internal Combustion Engines

Internal Combustion Engines

Internal Combustion Engines

Internal Combustion Engines

Internal Combustion Engines

1.2 Energy conversion

Internal Combustion Engines

1.3 Engine Classification

Internal Combustion Engines

Internal Combustion Engines

1.4 Engine Parts & Components

Internal Combustion Engines

Internal Combustion Engines

Internal Combustion Engines

Internal Combustion Engines

Internal Combustion Engines

Internal Combustion Engines

Internal Combustion Engines

Internal Combustion Engines

1-5 Basic Engine Cycles

Internal Combustion Engines

Internal Combustion Engines

1.5.1 4-stroke SI engine cycle

Internal Combustion Engines

Internal Combustion Engines

Internal Combustion Engines

Internal Combustion Engines

Otto Cycle, ideal for spark ignition engines

Ideal cycles are simplified

1-5-2 / 4-stroke CI engine cycle

5. Combustion combustion occurs at almost constant volume near TDC.

1.6 engine emissions & air pollution

Internal Combustion Engines

Methods to reduce engine emission

Internal Combustion Engines

Internal Combustion Engine

Class weekly hours

Chapter One - Introduction

I cylinder numbers & arrangement

Two stroke Four stokes Five stroke Six strokes

III type of ignition

1. Spark ignition 2. Compression ignition

IV valve position & location

V cam shaft properties

direct valve-cam contact valve train (push rod + rocker arm)