Rafting or white water rafting is the challenging recreational outdoor activity of using an inflatable raft to navigate a river or other

bodies of water. This is usually done on white water or different degrees of rough water, in order to thrill and excite the raft passengers. The development of this activity as a leisure sport has become popular since the mid1970s. It is considered an extreme sport, as it can be dangerous. White water rafts The modern raft is an inflatable boat, consisting of very durable, multi-layered rubberized (hypalon) or vinyl fabrics (PVC) with several independent air chambers. The length varies between 3.5 m (11 ft) and 6 m (20 ft), the width between 1.8 m (6 ft) and 2.5 m (8 ft). The exception to this size rule is usually the packraft, which is designed as a portable single-person raft and may be as small as 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) long and weigh as little as 4 pounds (1.8 kg). Rafts come in a few different forms. In Europe and Australasia, the most common is the symmetrical raft steered with a paddle at the stern. Other types are the asymmetrical, ruddercontrolled raft and the symmetrical raft with central helm (oars) or Stern Mounts with the oar frame located at the rear of the raft. Rafts are usually propelled with ordinary paddles and or oars and typically hold 4 to 12 persons. In Russia, rafts are often hand made and are often a catamaran style with two inflatable tubes attached to a frame. Pairs of paddlers navigate on these rafts. Catamaran style rafts have become popular in the western United States as well, but are typically rowed instead of paddled. Grades of white water

Rafting on the Pacuare River, Costa Rica. Main article: International Scale of River Difficulty Below are the six grades of difficulty in white water rafting. They range from simple to very dangerous and potential death or serious injuries. Grade 1: Very small rough areas, might require slight maneuvering. (Skill level: very basic) Grade 2: Some rough water, maybe some rocks, might require some maneuvering. (Skill level: basic paddling skill) Grade 3: Whitewater, small waves, maybe a small drop, but no considerable danger. May require significant maneuvering. (Skill level: experienced paddling skills) Grade 4: Whitewater, medium waves, maybe rocks, maybe a considerable drop, sharp maneuvers may be needed. (Skill level: whitewater experience) Grade 5: Whitewater, large waves, large volume, possibility of large rocks and hazards, possibility of a large drop, requires precise maneuvering. (Skill level: advanced whitewater experience) Grade 6: Class 6 rapids are considered to be so dangerous that they are effectively unnavigable on a reliably safe basis. Rafters can expect to encounter substantial whitewater, huge waves, huge rocks and hazards, and/or substantial drops that will impart severe impacts beyond the structural capacities and impact ratings of almost all rafting equipment. Traversing a Class 6 rapid has a dramatically increased likelihood of ending in serious injury or death compared to lesser classes. (Skill level: successful completion of a Class 6 rapid without serious

injury or death is widely considered to be a matter of great luck or extreme skill and is considered by some as a suicidal venture) Techniques This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2010) Rafts in white water are very different vehicles than canoes or kayaks and have their own specific techniques to maneuver through whitewater obstacles. Punching Rafts carry great momentum, and on rivers hydraulics that are dodged by canoes and kayaks are often punched by rafts. This involves the rafting crew paddling the raft to give it enough speed to push through the hydraulic without getting stopped. High siding If a raft is caught in a hydraulic it will often quickly go sideways. In order to stop the raft flipping on its inside edge, the rafters can climb to the side of the raft furthest downstream, which will also be the side of the raft highest in the air leading to its name. In this position the rafters may be able to use the draw stroke to pull the raft out of the head Capsizing Dump truck Rafts are inherently stable crafts because of their size and low center of mass and often they will shed gear and passengers before they actually capsize. In the industry if a raft dumps some or all of its passengers but remains upright, it is said to have dump trucked. Left over right or right over left Rafts almost always flip side over side. If the left tube rises over the right tube, the raft is said to have flipped left over right and vice versa.

Taco If a raft is soft, or underinflated, it may taco, or reverse taco. Rafts are said to have tacoed if the middle of the raft buckles and the front of the raft touches or nearly touches the back of the raft. This often is a result of surfing in a hydraulic. A reverse taco is when the nose, or stern of the raft is pulled down under water and buckles to touch the middle or back, or nose of the raft. End over end Occasionally rafts will flip end over end. This is usually after the raft has dump trucked to lighten the load, allowing the water to overcome the weight of the boat flipping it vertically before it lands upside down. Rafts will usually taco and turn sideways, making an end-over-end flip a very rare flip in most rafts. Down Stream Flip- A raft capsizes after encountering an obstacle i.e. rock, feature like a hydraulic or even another raft. These objects are usually stationary or possibly surfing in a hydraulic. On this occasion the raft becomes unstable and usually flips over downstream or in the direction of travel. A downstream flip may be exacerbated by the load or people in the raft. People may physically assist in the inertia of the flip by pulling the boat over on top of themselves. Re-righting Flip line The flip line technique is the most used in commercial rafting where flips are common. The guide will take a loop of webbing that has a biner on it and attach it to the perimeter line on the raft, Standing on top of the upside down raft they will hold the line and lean to the opposite side from where the flip line is attached, re-righting the raft. Knee flipping Capsized rafts that are small enough with little or no gear attached can be knee flipped. This involves the rafter holding the webbing on the underside of the raft, and pushing their knees into the outer tube, and then lifting their body out of the water, leaning back to overturn the raft.

T rescue Much like the kayak technique some rafts are large enough that they need to be overturned with the assistance of another raft or land. Positioning the upturned raft or land at the side of the raft the rafters can then re-right the raft by lifting up on the perimeter line. T-grip re-flip - The T-grip on a rafting paddle may be used to re-flip light rafts by inserting the Tee into the self bailing holes around the floor perimeter and re-righting the boat in the same manner as the flip line technique. Alluvial - Pertaining to material carried or laid down by running water. Alluvium is the material deposited by streams. It includes gravel, sand, silt, and clay. Back Pivot - Turning the raft from a ferry angle to a stemdownstream position.Used in tight places to recover from an extreme ferry angle, this maneuver narrows the passing space of the boat and allows it to slide closely past obstructions. Back roller - A broad reversal such as that formed below a dam or ledge. Beam - The width of a raft at its widest point. Biner - Short for Carabiner which means "clip" in Italian. In rafting, biners are used in rope and pulley rescue systems to secure things to a raft and as items of adornment in river rafting. Tricks Rock splats If the rafters load the back of the raft, they can paddle the raft into a rock on the river, having it hit the bottom of the boat instead of the nose; if done correctly this can raise the raft up vertically on its stern. Surfing Commercial rafts often use waves on rivers to surf. Nose dunks Large rafts can enter hydraulics called holes from downstream and submerge their nose, or reverse taco. This can be a safe way to get rafters wet in a hydraulic.

Pirouette A move executed by either a sweep or draw stroke, sending the raft spinning with the current. Often useful for avoiding obstacles. Troying - This is a move done by only expert white water rafters, and is the action of popping the back of the boat for a sudden burst of speed. Safety White water rafting can be a dangerous sport, especially if basic safety precautions are not observed. Both commercial and private trips have seen their share of injuries and fatalities, though private travel has typically been associated with greater risk.[citation needed] Depending on the area, safety regulations covering raft operators may exist in legislation. These range from certification of outfitters, rafts, and raft leaders, to more stringent regulations about equipment and procedures. It is generally advisable to discuss safety measures with a rafting operator before signing on for a trip. The equipment used and the qualifications of the company and raft guides are essential information to be considered. Like most outdoor sports, rafting in general has become safer over the years. Expertise in the sport has increased, and equipment has become more specialized and increased in quality. As a result the difficulty rating of most river runs has changed. A classic example would be the Colorado River in the Grand Canyon or Jalcomulco River in Mexico, which has swallowed whole expeditions in the past, leaving only fragments of boats. In contrast, it is now run safely by commercial outfitters hundreds of times each year with relatively untrained passengers.[1] Risks in white water rafting stem from both environmental dangers and from improper behavior. Certain features on rivers are inherently unsafe and have remained consistently so despite the passage of time. These would include "keeper hydraulics", "strainers" (e.g. fallen trees), dams (especially low-

head dams, which tend to produce river-wide keeper hydraulics), undercut rocks, and of course dangerously high waterfalls. Rafting with experienced guides is the safest way to avoid such features. Even in safe areas, however, moving water can always present riskssuch as when a swimmer attempts to stand up on a rocky riverbed in strong current, risking foot entrapment. Irresponsible behavior related to rafting while intoxicated has also contributed to many accidents. One of the most simple ways to avoid injury while out of a raft, is to swim to an eddy to avoid being taken downstream. To combat the illusion that rafting is akin to an amusement park ride, and to underscore the personal responsibility each rafter faces on a trip, rafting outfitters generally require customers to sign waiver forms indicating understanding and acceptance of potential serious risks. Rafting trips often begin with safety presentations to educate customers about problems that may arise. White water rafting is often played for the adrenaline rush and this can become a problem for participants' safety. White water rafting accidents have occurred but are not common. Due to this the overall risk level on a rafting trip with experienced guides using proper precautions is low. [citation needed] Thousands of people safely enjoy raft trips every year. Environmental issues

Rafting in Montenegro

Like all outdoor activities, rafting must balance its use of nature with the conservation of rivers as a natural resource and habitat. Because of these issues, some rivers now have regulations restricting the annual and daily operating times or numbers of rafters. Conflicts have arisen when rafting operators, often in cooperation with municipalities and tourism associations, alter the riverbed by dredging and/orblasting in order to eliminate safety hazards or create more interesting whitewater features in the river. Environmentalists argue that this may have negative impacts to riparian and aquatic ecosystems, while proponents claim these measures are usually only temporary, since a riverbed is naturally subject to permanent changes during large floods and other events. Rafting contributes to the economy of many regions which in turn may contribute to the protection of rivers from hydroelectric power generation, diversion for irrigation, and other development. Additionally, white water rafting trips can promote environmentalism. By experiencing firsthand the beauty of a river, individuals who would otherwise be indifferent to environmental issues may gain a strong desire to protect and preserve that area because of their positive outdoor experience.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Trekking Trek is a long, adventurous journey undertaken on foot in areas where common means of transport are generally not available. Trekking should not be confused with mountaineering. Etymology The term derived from the Afrikaans word trek (noun), trekken (verb), (literally

meaning to "pull, travel"), became a word in English language in mid 19th century, and means a long arduous journey, typically on foot.[1] Trekking in the Himalayas The Himalayan routes are famous for attracting a large number of trekkers. Typical trekking regions in Nepal are Annapurna, Dolpo, Langtang,Manaslu, and Mount Everest. Other popular trekking routes in India include Chandra Taal, Gomukh, Hemkund, Kafni Glacier, Kangchenjunga,Kedarnath, Kedartal, Milam Glacier, Nanda Devi Sanctuary, Pindari Glacier, Richenpong, Roopkund, Sar Pass, Satopanth Tal, Saurkundi Pass,Singalila Ridge, and Valley of Flowers.

The Himalayan foothills are just ideal for trekking, Hiking and Camping offering energetic out-door people a different and exciting option for a Adventure holiday. The Garhwal and Kumaon regions of Uttaranchal are the most popular destinations for trekkers, though Chamba and Manali in Himachal Pradesh, Dajeeling & Sikkim himalayas in the north east and Ladakh and Zanskar in Jammu and Kashmir, have interesting trekking routes as well. A trekking expedition is as much a discovery of nature as a discovery of one's self. It also provides a perfect and balanced exercise for limbs, sheds excess body fat, keeps you agile and leaves you fitter than ever before. So pick up your rucksack and get going off the beaten track, on to the Himalaya where the trail seems to disappear over yonder ridge and leads somewhere.........

The Indian Himalaya have attracted geologists, geographers, Trekkers and lovers of nature. They have a strange fascination for artists, poets, photographers and mystics. They are a paradise for Trekkers and mountaineers and are the cradle of thousands of rivers, streams and glaciers. India trekking arranges trekking tours, mountain biking tour, rafting tours, Jeep safaris tours, and cultural tours in this interesting and varied Himalayan region.

Low altitude treks, generally below 3000 m, on easy trails. Treks on some more difficult itineraries, generally below 4500 m. They are suitable for any fit person able to walk 5 to 6 hours per day. High altitude treks (up to 5500 m), often with important altitude differences in the daily stages. They require fitness and endurance.

RECOMMENDED TREKKING PROGRAMS Day by Day Program Across Zanskar (Darcha - Lamayuru) Across Zanskar (Darcha-Padum) Across Zanskar (Padum-Lamayuru) Duration Difficulty 26 days 18 days 18 days Maximum altitude 5090 m 5090 m 5050 m

The High Rupshu Plateau Trek Markha Valley Trek Gangotri-Goumukh Trek The Source of the Ganges Trek Sham and Indus monasteries Trek

17 days 14 days 21 days 25 days 15 days

5300 m 5030 m 4450 m 4450 m 4200 m 3640 m 4940 m 4940 m 4940 m

Darjeeling and Sikkim 17 days Trek Sikkim and Kanchenjunga Trek Sikkim and Kanchenjunga Trek From Darjeeling to Kanchenjunga Trek 20 days 23 days 23 days

Mountaineering

Mountaineering or mountain climbing is the sport, hobby or profession of hiking, skiing, and climbing mountains. While mountaineering began as attempts to reach the highest point of unclimbed big mountains it has branched into specializations that address different aspects of the mountain and consists of three areas: rock-craft, snow-craft and skiing, depending on whether the route chosen is over rock, snow or ice. All require experience, athletic ability, and technical knowledge to maintain safety. [2]

Mountaineering is often called Alpinism, especially in European languages, which implies climbing with difficulty such high mountains as the Alps. A mountaineer with such great skill is called an Alpinist. The word alpinism was born in the 19th century to refer to climbing for the purpose of enjoying climbing itself as a sport or recreation, distinct from merely climbing while hunting or as a religious pilgrimage that had been done generally at that time.[3] The UIAA or Union Internationale des Associations d'Alpinisme is the world governing body in mountaineering and climbing, addressing issues like access, medical, mountain protection, safety, youth and ice climbing. [4] Technique

Climbers descending the ridge of Aiguille du Midi (France) Snow Compacted snow conditions allow mountaineers to progress on foot. Frequently crampons are required to travel efficiently over snow and ice. Crampons have 8-14 spikes and are attached to a mountaineer's boots. They are used on hard snow (neve) and

ice to provide additional traction. Using various techniques from alpine skiing and mountaineering to ascend/descend a mountain is a form of the sport by itself, called ski mountaineering. Ascending and descending a snow slope safely requires the use of an ice axe and many different footwork techniques that have been developed over the past century, mainly in Europe. The progression of footwork from the lowest angle slopes to the steepest terrain is first to splay the feet to a rising traverse, to kicking steps, to front pointing the crampons. The progression of ice axe technique from the lowest angle slopes to the steepest terrain is to use the ice axe first as a walking stick, then a stake, then to use the front pick as a dagger below the shoulders or above, and finally to swinging the pick into the slope over the head. These various techniques may involve questions of differing ice-axe design depending on terrain, and even whether a mountaineer uses one or two ice axes. Anchors for the rope in snow are sometimes unreliable, and include the snow stakes, called pickets, deadmandevices called flukes which are fashioned from aluminium, or devised from buried objects that might include an ice axe, skis, rocks or other objects.Bollards, which are simply carved out of consolidated snow or ice, also sometimes serve as anchors. Glaciers When travelling over glaciers, crevasses pose a grave danger. These giant cracks in the ice are not always visible as snow can be blown and freeze over the top to make a snowbridge. At times snowbridges can be as thin as a few inches. Climbers use a system of ropes to protect themselves from such hazards. Basic gear for glacier travel includes crampons and ice axes. Teams of two to five climbers tie into a rope equally spaced. If a climber begins to fall the other members of the team perform a self-arrest to stop the fall. The other members of the team enact a crevasse rescue to pull the fallen climber from the crevasse. Ice

Ice climbing Multiple methods are used to safely travel over ice. If the terrain is steep but not vertical, then the lead climber can place ice screws in the ice and attach the rope for protection. Each climber on the team must clip past the anchor, and the last climber picks up the anchor itself. Occasionally, slinged icicles or bollards are also used. This allows for safety should the entire team be taken off their feet. This technique is known as Simul-climbing and is sometimes also used on steep snow and easy rock. If the terrain becomes too steep, standard ice climbing techniques are used in which each climber is belayed, moving one at a time. Shelter "Basecamp" redirects here. For the online project manager, see Basecamp (software). For the live music service, see Basecamp Productions. Climbers use a few different forms of shelter depending on the situation and conditions. Shelter is a very important aspect of safety for the climber as the weather in the mountains may be

very unpredictable. Tall mountains may require many days of camping on the mountain. Base Camp The "Base Camp" of a mountain is an area used for staging an attempt at the summit. Base camps are positioned to be safe from the harsher conditions above. There are base camps on many popular or dangerous mountains. Where the summit cannot be reached from base camp in a single day, a mountain will have additional camps above base camp. For example, the southeast ridge route on Mount Everest has Base Camp plus (normally) camps I through IV. Hut The European alpine regions, in particular, have a network of mountain huts (called "refuges" in France, "rifugi" in Italy, "cabanes" in Switzerland, "Htten" in Germany and Austria, "Bothies" in Scotland, "koa" in Slovenia, "chaty" in Slovakia, "refugios" in Spain, "hytte" or "koie" in Norway, and "cabane" in Romanian). Such huts exist at many different heights, including in the high mountains themselves in extremely remote areas, more rudimentary shelters may exist. The mountain huts are of varying size and quality, but each is typically centred on a communal dining room and have dormitories equipped with mattresses, blankets or duvets, and pillows; guests are expected to bring and to use their own sleeping bag liner. The facilities are usually rudimentary but, given their locations, huts offer vital shelter, make routes more widely accessible (by allowing journeys to be broken and reducing the weight of equipment needing to be carried), and offer good value. In Europe, all huts are staffed during the summer (mid-June to mid-September) and some are staffed in the spring (mid-March to mid-May). Elsewhere, huts may also be open in the fall. Huts also may have a part that is always open, but unmanned, a socalled winter hut. When open and manned, the huts are generally run by full-time employees, but some are staffed on a voluntary basis by members of Alpine clubs (such as Swiss

Alpine Club and Club alpin franais) or in North America by Alpine Club of Canada. The manager of the hut, termed a guardian or warden in Europe, will usually also sell refreshments and meals; both to those visiting only for the day and to those staying overnight. The offering is surprisingly wide; given that most supplies, often including fresh water, must be flown in by helicopter, and may include glucose-based snacks (such as Mars and Snickers bars) on which climbers and walkers wish to stock up, cakes and pastries made at the hut, a variety of hot and cold drinks (including beer and wine), and high carbohydrate dinners in the evenings. Not all huts offer a catered service, though, and visitors may need to provide for themselves. Some huts offer facilities for both, enabling visitors wishing to keep costs down to bring their own food and cooking equipment and to cater using the facilities provided. Booking for overnight stays at huts is deemed obligatory, and in many cases is essential as some popular huts; even with more than 100 bed spaces may be full during good weather and at weekends. Once made, the cancellation of a reservation is advised as a matter of courtesy and, indeed, potentially of safety, as many huts keep a record of where climbers and walkers state they planned to walk to next. Most huts may be contacted by telephone and most take credit cards as a means of payment. In the UK the term Hut is used for any cottage or cabin used as a base for walkers or climbers and these are mostly owned by mountaineering clubs for use by members or visiting clubs and generally do not have wardens or permanant staff, but have cooking and washing facilities and heating. In the Scottish Highlands small simple unmanned shelters without cooking facilities known as Bothies are maintained to break up cross country long routes and act as base camps to certain mountains. Bivouac (bivy or bivvy) Main article: Bivouac shelter

In the mountaineering context, a bivouac or "biv(v)y" is a makeshift resting or sleeping arrangement in which the climber has less than the full complement of shelter, food and equipment that would normally be present at a conventional campsite. This may involve simply getting a sleeping bag and Bivouac sack/bivvy bag and lying down to sleep. Typically bivvy bags are made from breathable waterproof membranes, which move moisture away from the climber into the outside environment while preventing outside moisture from entering the bag. Many times small partially sheltered areas such as a bergschrund, cracks in rocks or a trench dug in the snow are used to provide additional shelter from wind. These techniques were originally used only in emergency; however some climbers steadfastly committed to alpine style climbing specifically plan for bivouacs in order to save the weight of a tent when suitable snow conditions or time is unavailable for construction of a snow cave. The principal hazard associated with bivouacs is the greater level of exposure to cold and the elements. Tent

Night Camp at Mount Whitney Tents are the most common form of shelter used on the mountain. These may vary from simple tarps to much heavier designs intended to withstand harsh mountain conditions. In exposed positions, windbreaks of snow or rock may be required to shelter the tent. One of the downsides to tenting is that high winds and snow loads can be dangerous and may ultimately

lead to the tent's failure and collapse. In addition, the constant flapping of the tent fabric can hinder sleep and raise doubts about the security of the shelter. When choosing a tent, alpinists tend to rely on specialised mountaineering tents that are specifically designed for high winds and moderate to heavy snow loads. Tent stakes can be buried in the snow ("deadman") for extra security. Snow cave

Snow Cave on Mount Hood Where conditions permit snow caves are another way to shelter high on the mountain. Some climbers do not use tents at high altitudes unless the snow conditions do not allow for snow caving, since snow caves are silent and much warmer than tents. They can be built relatively easily, given sufficient time, using a snow shovel. A correctly made snow cave will hover around freezing, which relative to outside temperatures can be very warm. They can be dug anywhere where there is at least four feet of snow. The addition of a good quality bivvy bag and closed cell foam sleeping mat will also increase the warmth of the snow cave. Another shelter that works well is a quinzee, which is excavated from a pile of snow that has been work hardened or sintered (typically by stomping). Igloos are used by some climbers, but are deceptively difficult to build and require specific snow conditions. Hazards

Climbing over a Crevasse Bridge Mountaineering is considered to be one of the most dangerous activities in the world. Loss of life is not uncommon on most major extreme altitude mountaineering destinations every year. Dangers in mountaineering are sometimes divided into two categories: objective hazards that exist without regard to the climber's presence, like rockfall, avalanches and inclement weather, and subjective hazards that relate only to factors introduced by the climber. Equipment failure and falls due to inattention, fatigue or inadequate technique are examples of subjective hazards. A route continually swept by avalanches and storms is said to have a high level of objective danger, whereas a technically far more difficult route that is relatively safe from these dangers may be regarded as objectively safer. In all, mountaineers must concern themselves with dangers: falling rocks, falling ice, snow-avalanches, the climber falling, falls from ice slopes, falls down snow slopes, falls into crevasses and the dangers from altitude and weather. [5] To select and follow a route using one's skills and experience to mitigate these dangers is to exercise the climber's craft. Falling rocks

Climbing a steep rocky cliff Every rock mountain is slowly disintegrating due to erosion, the process being especially rapid above the snow-line. Rock faces are constantly swept by falling stones, which may be possible to dodge. Falling rocks tend to form furrows in a mountain face, and these furrows (couloirs) have to be ascended with caution, their sides often being safe when the middle is stoneswept. Rocks fall more frequently on some days than on others, according to the recent weather. Ice formed during the night may temporarily bind rocks to the face but warmth of the day or lubricating water from melting snow or rain may easily dislodge these rocks. Local experience is a valuable help on determining typical rock fall on such routes. The direction of the dip of rock strata sometimes determines the degree of danger on a particular face; the character of the rock must also be considered. Where stones fall frequently debris will be found below, whilst on snow slopes falling stones cut furrows visible from a great distance. In planning an ascent of a new peak or an unfamiliar route, mountaineers must look for such traces. When falling stones get mixed in considerable

quantity with slushy snow or water a mud avalanche is formed (common in the Himalayas). It is vital to avoid camping in their possible line of fall. Falling ice The places where ice may fall can always be determined beforehand. It falls in the broken parts of glaciers (seracs) and from overhanging cornices formed on the crests of narrow ridges. Large icicles are often formed on steep rock faces, and these fall frequently in fine weather following cold and stormy days. They have to be avoided like falling stones. Seracs are slow in formation, and slow in arriving (by glacier motion) at a condition of unstable equilibrium. They generally fall in or just after the hottest part of the day. A skillful and experienced iceman will usually devise a safe route through a most intricate ice-fall, but such places should be avoided in the afternoon of a hot day. Hanging glaciers (i.e. glaciers perched on steep slopes) often discharge themselves over steep rock-faces, the snout breaking off at intervals. They can always be detected by their debris below. Their track should be avoided. Falls from rocks A rock climber's skill is shown by their choice of handhold and foothold, and their adhesion to the holds once chosen. Much depends on the ability to estimate the capability of the rock to support the weight placed on it. Many loose rocks are quite firm enough to bear a person's weight, but experience is needed to know which can be trusted, and skill is required in transferring the weight to them without jerking. On rotten rocks the rope must be handled with special care, lest it should dislodge loose stones on to those below. Similar care must be given to handholds and footholds, for the same reason. When a horizontal traverse has to be made across very difficult rocks, a dangerous situation may arise unless at both ends of the traverse there are firm positions. Mutual assistance on hard rocks takes all manner of forms: two, or even three, people climbing on one another's shoulders, or using an ice

axe propped up by others for a foothold. The great principle is that of co-operation, all the members of the party climbing with reference to the others, and not as independent units; each when moving must know what the climber in front and the one behind are doing. After bad weather steep rocks are often found covered with a veneer of ice (verglas), which may even render them inaccessible. Crampons are useful on such occasions. Avalanches Main article: Avalanche

Triple Avalanches on Mt. Index Every year, 120 to 150 people die in small avalanches in the Alps alone. The vast majority of Alpine victims are reasonably experienced male skiers aged 2035 but also include ski instructors and guides.[citation needed] However a significant number of climbers are killed in Scottish avalanches often on descent and often triggered by the victims. There is always a lot of pressure to risk a snow crossing. Turning back takes a lot of extra time and effort, supreme leadership, and most importantly there is seldom an avalanche that proves the right decision was made. Making the decision to turn around is especially hard if others are crossing the slope, but any next person could become the trigger.

There are many types of avalanche, but two types are of the most concern. These are Snow Avalanches and Ice Avalanches: Snow Avalanches Slab avalanche This type of avalanche occurs when a plate of snow breaks loose and starts sliding downhill; these are the largest and most dangerous. Hard slab avalanche This type of avalanche is formed by hard-packed snow in a cohesive slab. The slab will not break up easily as it slides down the hill, resulting in large blocks tumbling down the mountain. Soft slab avalanche This type of avalanche is formed again by a cohesive layer of snow bonded together, the slab tends to break up more easily. Loose snow avalanche This type of avalanche is triggered by a small amount of moving snow that accumulates into a big slide. Also known as a "wet slide or point release" avalanche. This type of avalanche is deceptively dangerous as it can still knock a climber or skier off their feet and bury them, or sweep them over a cliff into a terrain trap. Dangerous slides are most likely to occur on the same slopes preferred by many skiers: long and wide open, few trees or large rocks, 30 to 45 degrees of angle, large load of fresh snow, soon after a big storm, on a slope "lee to the storm". Solar radiation can trigger slides as well. These will typically be a point release or wet slough type of avalanche. The added weight of the wet slide can trigger a slab avalanche. Ninety percent of reported victims are caught in avalanches triggered by themselves or others in their group.[citation needed]

Ice Avalanches are a hazard that exists in glaciated mountain ranges. They are caused by the collapse of unstable ice blocks from a steep or overhanging part of a glacier, referred to as ahanging glacier. Due to the fact that they are part of a glacier, ice avalanches can have large amounts of rock in them. Ice avalanches are quite dangerous because they can travel long distances, sometimes as far as 8 km out onto the glacier valley floor. Ice avalanches are a common everyday occurrence in ranges such as the Alaska Range, Saint Elias Mountains, or Columbia Icefield. When going off-piste or travelling in alpine terrain, parties are advised to always carry: avalanche beacon probe shovel (retrieving victims with a shovel instead of hands is five times faster)[citation needed] They are also advised to have had avalanche training. Ironically, expert skiers who have avalanche training make up a large percentage of avalanche fatalities; perhaps because they are the ones more likely to ski in areas prone to avalanches, and certainly because most people do not practice enough with their equipment to be truly fast and efficient rescuers. [citation
needed]

Even with proper rescue equipment and training, there is a onein-five chance of dying if caught in a significant avalanche, and only a 50/50 chance of being found alive if buried more than a few minutes. The best solution is to learn how to avoid risky conditions.[citation needed] Ice slopes

Mountaineers descending mixed rock, snow and ice slope in winter High Tatras. For travel on slopes consisting of ice or hard snow, crampons are a standard part of a mountaineer's equipment. While step-cutting can sometimes be used on snow slopes of moderate angle, this can be a slow and tiring process, which does not provide the higher security of crampons. However, in soft snow or powder, crampons are easily hampered by balling of snow, which reduces their effectiveness. In either case, an ice axe not only assists with balance but provides the climber with the possibility of selfarrest in case of a slip or fall. On a true ice slope however, an ice axe is rarely able to effect a self-arrest. As an additional safety precaution on steep ice slopes, the climbing rope is attached to ice screws buried into the ice. Snow slopes

Part of the Haute Route between Franceand Switzerland; two alpinists can be seen following the trail in the snow.

Snow slopes are very common, and usually easy to ascend. At the foot of a snow or ice slope is generally a big crevasse, called a bergschrund, where the final slope of the mountain rises from a snow-field or glacier. Such bergschrunds are generally too wide to be stepped across, and must be crossed by a snow bridge, which needs careful testing and a painstaking use of the rope. A steep snow slope in bad condition may be dangerous, as the whole body of snow may start as an avalanche. Such slopes are less dangerous if ascended directly, rather than obliquely, for an oblique or horizontal track cuts them across and facilitates movement of the mass. New snow lying on ice is especially dangerous. Experience is needed for determining the feasibility of advancement over snow in doubtful condition. Snow on rocks is usually rotten unless it is thick; snow on snow is likely to be sound. A day or two of fine weather will usually bring new snow into sound condition. Snow cannot lie at a very steep angle, though it often deceives the eye as to its slope. Snow slopes seldom exceed 40. Ice slopes may be much steeper. Snow slopes in early morning are usually hard and safe, but the same in the afternoon are quite soft and possibly dangerous; hence the advantage of an early start. Crevasses

Crevasses on Mount Baker Crevasses are the slits or deep chasms formed in the substance of a glacier as it passes over an uneven bed. They may be open or hidden. In the lower part of a glacier the crevasses are open.

Above the snow-line they are frequently hidden by arched-over accumulations of winter snow. The detection of hidden crevasses requires care and experience. After a fresh fall of snow they can only be detected by sounding with the pole of the ice axe, or by looking to right and left where the open extension of a partially hidden crevasse may be obvious. The safeguard against accident is the rope, and no one should ever cross a snow-covered glacier unless roped to one, or even better to two companions. Anyone venturing onto crevasses should be trained increvasse rescue. Weather

Lenticular Cloud before Bad Weather

Sun Beams in the Valley The primary dangers caused by bad weather centre around the changes it causes in snow and rock conditions, making movement suddenly much more arduous and hazardous than under normal circumstances. Whiteouts make it difficult to retrace a route while rain may prevent taking the easiest line only determined as such under

dry conditions. In a storm the mountaineer who uses a compass for guidance has a great advantage over a merely empirical observer. In large snow-fields it is, of course, easier to go wrong than on rocks, but intelligence and experience are the best guides in safely navigating objective hazards. Summer thunderstorms may produce intense lightning.[5] If a climber happens to be standing on or near the summit, they risk being struck. There are many cases where people have been struck by lightning while climbing mountains. In most mountainous regions, local storms develop by late morning and early afternoon. Many climbers will get an "alpine start"; that is before or by first light so as to be on the way down when storms are intensifying in activity and lightning and other weather hazards are a distinct threat to safety. High winds can speed the onset of hypothermia, as well as damage equipment such as tents used for shelter.[5][6] Under certain conditions, storms can also create waterfalls which can slow or stop climbing progress. A notable example is the Fhn wind acting upon the Eiger. Altitude Rapid ascent can lead to altitude sickness.[5][7] The best treatment is to descend immediately. The climber's motto at high altitude is "climb high, sleep low", referring to the regimen of climbing higher to acclimatise but returning to lower elevation to sleep. In the South American Andes, the chewing ofcoca leaves has been traditionally used to treat altitude sickness symptoms. Common symptoms of altitude sickness include severe headache, sleep problems, nausea, lack of appetite, lethargy and body ache. Mountain sickness may progress to HACE (High Altitude Cerebral Edema) and HAPE (High Altitude Pulmonary Edema), both of which can be fatal within 24 hours. [5][7][8] In high mountains, atmospheric pressure is lower and this means that less oxygen is available to breathe. [5] This is the

underlying cause of altitude sickness. Everyone needs to acclimatise, even exceptional mountaineers that have been to high altitude before.[9] Generally speaking, mountaineers start using bottled oxygen when they climb above 7,000 m. Exceptional mountaineers have climbed 8000-metre peaks (including Everest) without oxygen, almost always with a carefully planned program of acclimatisation. Solar radiation Solar radiation increases significantly as the atmosphere gets thinner with increasing altitude thereby absorbing less ultraviolet radiation.[5][6] Snow cover reflecting the radiation can amplify the effects by up to 75% increasing the risks and damage from sunburn and snow blindness.[6] In 2005, researcher and mountaineer John Semple established that above-average ozone concentrations on the Tibetan Plateau may pose an additional risk to climbers. [10] Volcanic activity Some mountains are active volcanoes as in the case of the many stratovolcanoes that form the highest peaks in island arcs and in parts of the Andes. Some of these volcanic mountains may cause several hazards if they erupt, such as lahars, pyroclastic flows, rockfalls, lava flows, heavy tephra fall, volcanic bomb ejections and toxic gases. Styles of mountaineering There are two main styles of mountaineering: Expedition style and Alpine style. A mountaineer who adopts Alpine style is referred to as an Alpine Mountaineer. Alpine Mountaineers are typically found climbing in medium-sized glaciated mountain areas such as the Alps orRocky Mountains. Medium-sized generally refers to altitudes in the intermediate altitude (7,000' to 12,000') and first half of high altitude (12,000' to 18,000') ranges. However, alpine style ascents have been done throughout history

on extreme altitude (18,000' to 29,000') peaks also, albeit in lower volume to expedition style ascents. Alpine style refers to a particular style of mountain climbing that involves a mixture of snow climbing, ice climbing, rock climbing, and glacier travel, where climbers generally single carry their loads between camps, in a single push for the summit. Light and fast is the mantra of the Alpine Mountaineer. The term alpine style contrasts with expedition style (as commonly undertaken in the Himalayan region or other large ranges of the world), which could be viewed as slow and heavy, where climbers may use porters, pack animals, glacier airplanes, cooks, multiple carries between camps, usage of fixed lines etc. A mountaineer who adopts this style of climbing is referred to as anExpedition Mountaineer. Expedition mountaineers still employ the skill sets of the alpine mountaineer, except they have to deal with even higher altitudes, expanded time scale, longer routes, foreign logistics, more severe weather, and additional skills unique to expeditionary climbing. The prevalence of expedition style climbing in the Himalaya is largely a function of the nature of the mountains in the region. Because Himalayan base camps can take days or weeks to trek to, and Himalayan mountains can take weeks or perhaps even months to climb, a large number of personnel and amount of supplies are necessary. This is why expedition style climbing is frequently used on large and isolated peaks in the Himalaya. In Europe and North America there is less of a need for expedition style climbing on most medium-sized mountains. These mountains can often be easily accessed by car or air, are at a lower altitude and can be climbed in a shorter time scale. Expedition style mountaineering can be found in the larger high altitude and extreme altitude North American ranges such as the Alaska Range and Saint Elias Mountains. These remote mountaineering destinations can require up to a 2 week trek by foot, just to make it to base camp. Most expeditions in these regions choose a glacier flight to basecamp. Route length in

days from basecamp can vary in these regions, typically from 10 days to 1 month during the climbing season. Winter mountaineering on major peaks in these ranges can generally consume between 30 to 60 days depending on the route, and can generally only be tackled via expedition style mountaineering during this season. The differences between, and advantages and disadvantages of, the two kinds of climbing are as follows: [2] Expedition style uses multiple trips between camps to carry supplies up to higher camps group sizes are often larger than alpine style climbs because more supplies are carried between camps fixed lines are often used to minimize the danger involved in continually moving between camps supplemental oxygen is frequently used higher margin of safety in relation to equipment, food, time, and ability to wait out storms at high camps avoidance of being trapped in storms at high altitudes and being forced to descend in treacherous avalanche conditions possible higher exposure to objective hazards such as avalanches or rockfall, due to slower travel times between camps higher capital expenditures longer time scale Alpine style climbers only climb the route once because they do not continually climb up and down between camps with supplies

fewer supplies are used on the climb therefore fewer personnel are needed alpine style ascents do not leave the climber exposed to objective hazards as long as an expedition style climb does; however, because of the speed of the ascent relative to an expedition style climb there is less time for acclimatization supplemental oxygen is not used danger of being trapped at high altitude due to storms, potentially being exposed to HAPE or HACE lower capital expenditures shorter time scale Locations Mountaineering has become a popular sport throughout the world. In Europe the sport largely originated in the Alps, and is still immensely popular there. Other notable mountain ranges frequented by climbers include the Caucasus, the Pyrenees, Rila mountains, the Tatra Mountains and Carpathian Mountains. In North America climbers frequent the Rocky Mountains, the Sierra Nevada ofCalifornia, the Cascades of the Pacific Northwest, the high peaks of The Alaska Range and Saint Elias Mountains. There has been a long tradition of climbers going on expeditions to the Greater Ranges, a term generally used for the Andes and the high peaks of Asia including the Himalayas, Karakoram,Hindu Kush, Pamir Mountains, Tien Shan and Kunlun Mountains. The Poles with a strong track record in high mountains, call climbing in the Himalayas and Karakoram - himalaism. In the past this was often on exploratory trips or to make first ascents. With the advent of cheaper, long-haul air travel, mountaineering holidays in the Greater Ranges are now undertaken much more frequently and ascents of even Everest and Vinson Massif (the highest mountain in Antarctica) are offered as a "package holiday".

Other mountaineering areas of interest include the Southern Alps of New Zealand, the Coast Mountains of British Columbia, the Scottish Highlands, and the mountains of Scandinavia, especiallyNorway. History

Fannie Bullock Workman made ascents into the Himalayas at the turn of the 20th century. Though it is unknown whether his intention was to reach a summit, "tzi the Iceman" ascended at least 3,210 metres (10,530 ft) in the Alps about 5,300 years ago. His remains were found at that altitude, preserved in a glacier. The first recorded mountain ascent in the Common Era is Roman Emperor Hadrian's ascent of Etna (3,350 m) to see the sun rise in 121. Peter III of Aragon climbed Canigou in the Pyrenees in the last quarter of the 13th century. The first ascent of the Popocatpetl (5,426 m in Mexico) was reported in 1289 by members of a local tribe (Tecanuapas)[citation
needed]

Jean Buridan climbed Mont Ventoux around 1316.[11] The Italian poet Petrarch wrote that on April 26, 1336 he, together with his brother and two servants, climbed to the top of Mont Ventoux (1,909 m). His account of the trip was composed later as a letter to his friend Dionigi di Borgo San Sepolcro.[12] The Rocciamelone (3,538 m) in the Italian Alps was climbed in 1358. In the late 15th and early 16th centuries, ascents were made of numerous high peaks in the Andes, for religious purposes by the citizens of the Inca Empire and their subjects. They constructed platforms, houses and altars on many summits and carried out sacrifices, including human sacrifices. The highest peak they are known for certain to have climbed is Llullaillaco (6,739 m). They may also have ascended the highest peak in the Andes,Aconcagua (6,962 m) as a sacrifice victim has been found at over 5,000 m on this peak.[13] In 1492 the ascent of Mont Aiguille was made by order of Charles VIII of France. The Humanists of the 16th century adopted a new attitude towards mountains, but the disturbed state of Europe nipped in the bud the nascent mountaineering of the Zurich school. Leonardo da Vinci climbed to a snow-field in the neighborhood of Monte Rosa and made scientific observations. in 1573, Francesco De Marchi reached the summit of Gran Sasso (2912m) in central Italy. In 1642 Darby Field made the first recorded ascent of Mount Washington, then known as Agiocochook, in New Hampshire. Konrad Gesner and Josias Simmler of Zurich visited and described mountains, and made regular ascents. The use of ice axe and rope were locally invented at this time. No mountain expeditions of note are recorded in the 17th century.

Richard Pococke and William Windham's historic visit to Chamonix was made in 1741, and set the trend for visiting glaciers. The first attempt to ascend Mont Blanc was made in 1775 by a party of natives. In 1786 Dr Michel-Gabriel Paccard and Jacques Balmat gained the summit for the first time. Horace-Bndict de Saussure, the initiator of the first ascent followed next year. The Norwegian mountain climber, Jens Esmark was the first person to ascend Snhetta in 1798, part of the Dovrefjell range in Southern Norway. The same year he led the first expedition toBitihorn, a small mountain in the southernmost outskirts of Jotunheimen, Norway. In 1810 he was the first person to ascend Mount Gaustatoppen in Telemark, Norway. The Grossglockner was climbed in 1800, the Ortler in 1804, the Jungfrau in 1811, the Finsteraarhorn in 1812, and the Breithorn in 1813. Thereafter, tourists showed a tendency to climb, and the body of Alpine guides began to come into existence as a consequence. The British scientist, Sir John Herschel, makes an ascent in 1824 where on July 23 he carries out a barometric determination of the height of Mount Etna. Citlaltpetl (5720 m in Mexico) was first climbed in 1848 by F. Maynard & G. Reynolds.

Mountaineers, circa 1900 Systematic mountaineering, as a sport, is usually dated from Sir Alfred Wills's ascent of the Wetterhorn in 1854. The first ascent of Monte Rosawas made in 1855. The Alpine Club was founded in London in 1857, and was soon imitated in most European countries. Edward Whymper's ascent of the Matterhorn in 1865 marked the close of the main period of Alpine conquest, the Golden age of alpinism, during which the craft of climbing was "invented" and "perfected", the body of professional guides formed and their traditions fixed. Passing to other ranges, the exploration of the Pyrenees was concurrent with that of the Alps. The Caucasus followed, mainly owing to the initiative of D. W. Freshfield; it was first visited by exploring climbers in 1868, and most of its great peaks were climbed by 1888. The Edelweiss Club Salzburg was founded in Salzburg in 1881. Eventually 3 of its members made the first ascent on two Eightthousanders, Broad Peak (1957) and Dhaulagiri (1960).

Trained climbers turned their attention to the mountains of North America in 1888, when the Rev. W. S. Green made an expedition to the Selkirk Mountains. From that time exploration has gone on apace, and many English and American climbing parties have surveyed most of the highest peaks; Pikes Peak (14,110 ft) having been climbed by Mr. E. James and party in 1820, and Mt. Saint Elias (18,008 ft) by the Duke of the Abruzziand party in 1897. The exploration of the highest Andes was begun in 1879-1880, when Whymper climbed Chimborazo and explored the mountains of Ecuador. The Cordillera between Chile and Argentina was visited by Dr. Gussfeldt in 1883, who ascended Maipo (17,270 ft) and attemptedAconcagua (22,841 ft). That peak was first climbed by the Fitzgerald expedition in 1897. New Zealand's Southern Alps were first visited in 1882 by the Rev. W. S. Green, and shortly afterwards a New Zealand Alpine Club was founded, and by their activities the exploration of the range was pushed forward. In 1895, Major Edward Arthur Fitzgerald, made an important journey in this range. Tom Fyfe and party climbed Aoraki / Mount Cook on Christmas Day 1894, denying Fitzgerald the first ascent. Fitzgerald was en route from Britain with Swiss guide Matthias Zurbriggen to claim the peak. So piqued at being beaten to the top of Mount Cook, he refused to climb it and concentrated on other peaks in the area. Later in the trip Zurbriggen soloed Mount Cook up a ridge that now bears his name. Of the high African peaks, Mount Kilimanjaro was climbed in 1889 by Ludwig Purtscheller and Hans Meyer, Mt. Kenya in 1899 by Halford Mackinder,[14] and a peak of Ruwenzori by H. J. Moore in 1900. The Asiatic mountains were initially surveyed on orders of the British Empire. In 1892 Sir William Martin Conway explored the Karakoram Himalaya, and climbed a peak of 23,000 ft (7,000 m) In 1895 Albert F. Mummery died while attempting Nanga Parbat, while in 1899 D. W. Freshfield took

an expedition to the snowy regions of Sikkim. In 1899, 1903, 1906 and 1908 Mrs Fannie Bullock Workman made ascents in the Himalayas, including one of the Nun Kun peaks (23,300 ft). A number of Gurkha sepoys were trained as expert mountaineers by Major the Hon. C. G. Bruce, and a good deal of exploration was accomplished by them. The Sierra Club was founded by John Muir in San Francisco, California in 1892.[15] The first mountains of the arctic region explored were those of Spitsbergen by Sir W. M. Conway's expeditions in 1896 and 1897. Aconcagua (22,831 feet), the highest peak of the Andes was first climbed in 1897 and the Grand Teton (13,747 feet)in North America's Rocky Mountains was ascended in 1898. The Italian Duke of the Abruzzi in 1897 made the first ascent on Mount Saint Elias (18,009 feet) which stands at the boundary of Alaska and Canada and in 1906 successfully climbedMargherita in the Ruwenzori group (16,795 feet) in East Africa. The Andes of Bolivia were first explored by Sir William Martin Conway in 1898. Chilean and Argentine expeditions revealed the structure of the southern Cordillera in the years 1885-1898. Conway visited the mountains of Tierra del Fuego. The Rucksack Club was founded in Manchester, England in 1902. The American Alpine Club was founded in 1902. In 1902, the Eckenstein-Crowley Expedition, led by mountaineer Oscar Eckenstein and author and occultist Aleister Crowley, was the first to attempt to scale Chogo Ri (now known as K2 in the west). They reached 22,000 feet (6,700 m) before turning back due to weather and other mishaps.

In 1905, Aleister Crowley led the first expedition to Kangchenjunga, the third highest mountain in the world. Four members of that party were killed in an avalanche. They probably turned back at around 6,500 metres (21,300 ft), though in his autobiography Crowley claimed they reached a world-record height of 25,000 feet (7,600 m). In 1913, a party including Hudson Stuck ascended Mount McKinley (20,320 feet) in Alaska, the highest peak in North America. A few Olympics in the 1920s included prizes for alpinism, but these were discontinued after World War II. [16] The British made several attempts in the 1920s to climb Mount Everest. The first in 1921 was more of an exploratory expedition but the 1922 expedition reached 8,320 metres (27,300 ft) before being aborted on the third summit attempt after seven porters were killed in an avalanche. The 1924 expedition saw another height record achieved but still failed to reach the summit whenGeorge Mallory and Andrew Irvine disappeared on the final attempt. 1938 saw the first ascent of the North Face of the Eiger by Andreas Heckmair, Wiggerl Vorg, Fritz Kasparek and Heinrich Harrer. This route was feted as the "last great problem of the Alps" (one of several). The 1950s saw the first ascents of all the eight-thousanders but two, starting with Annapurna in 1950 by Maurice Herzog and Louis Lachenal. The world's highest mountain (above mean sea level), Mount Everest (8,848 m) was first climbed on May 29, 1953 by Sir Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay from the south side in Nepal. Just a few months later, Hermann Buhl made the first ascent of Nanga Parbat (8,125 m), a siege style expedition culminating in a remarkable solo push for the summit, it's the only eightthousander to be summited solo on the first ascent. K2(8,611 m), the second highest peak in the world was

first scaled in 1954 by Lino Lacedelli and Achille Compagnoni. In 1964, the final eight-thousander to be climbed was Shishapangma(8,013 m), the lowest of all the 8,000 metre peaks. 1973 - The first winter ascent of a seven-thousander, Noshaq, by Andrzej Zawada and Tadeusz Piotrowski. 1980 - The first winter ascent of an eight-thousander, Mount Everest, by Krzysztof Wielicki and Leszek Cichy. Melissa Arnot is the only woman to summit Mount Everest five times.

Bungee jumping Bungee jumping (/bndi/; also spelt "Bungy" jumping)[1][2] is an activity that involves jumping from a tall structure while connected to a large elastic cord. The tall structure is usually a fixed object, such as a building, bridge or crane; but it is also possible to jump from a movable object, such as a hot-airballoon or helicopter, that has the ability to hover above the ground. The thrill comes from the free-falling and the rebound. [3] When the person jumps, the cord stretches and the jumper flies upwards again as the cord recoils, and continues to oscillate up and down until all the energy is dissipated. History

View from the top of AJ Hackett Bungy Tower, Cairns, Queensland The word "bungee" originates from West Country dialect of English language, meaning "Anything thick and squat", as defined by James Jennings in his book "Observations of Some of the Dialects in The West of England" published 1825. Around 1930, the name became used for a rubber eraser. The word bungy, as used by A J Hackett, is "Kiwi slang for an Elastic Strap".[4] Cloth-covered rubber cords with hooks on the ends have been available for decades under the generic name bungy cords. In April 1960 BBC Television broadcast a documentary film The Land Divers of Pentecost, made by David Attenborough, which featured the "land divers" (Sa: Naghol) of Pentecost Island in Vanuatu, young men who jumped from tall wooden platforms with vines tied to their ankles as a test of their courage and passage into manhood.[5][6] A similar practice, only with a much slower pace for falling, has been practised as the Danza de los Voladores de Papantla or the 'Papantla flyers' of central Mexico, a tradition dating back to the days of the Aztecs. A tower 4,000 feet (1,200 m) high with a system to drop a "car" suspended by a cable of "best rubber" was proposed for the Chicago World Fair, 1892-1893. The car, seating two hundred people, would be shoved from a platform on the tower and then bounce to a stop. The designer engineer suggested that for safety the ground below "be covered with eight feet of feather bedding". The proposal was declined by the Fair's organizers. [7]

Bungee at Kawarau Bridge The first modern bungee jumps were made on 1 April 1979 from the 250-foot (76 m) Clifton Suspension Bridge in Bristol, by members of the Oxford University Dangerous Sports Club. [8] The jumpers were arrested shortly after, but continued with jumps in the US from the Golden Gate and Royal Gorge bridges, (this last jump sponsored by and televised on the American programme That's Incredible) spreading the concept worldwide. By 1982, they were jumping from mobile cranes and hot air balloons. Organised commercial bungee jumping began with the New Zealander, A J Hackett, who made his first jump from Auckland's Greenhithe Bridge in 1986.[9] During the following years, Hackett performed a number of jumps from bridges and other structures (including the Eiffel Tower), building public interest in the sport, and opening the world's first permanent commercial bungee site; the Kawarau Bridge Bungy at Queenstown in the South Island ofNew Zealand. [10] Hackett remains one of the largest commercial operators, with concerns in several countries. Several million successful jumps have taken place since 1980. This safety record is attributable to bungee operators rigorously conforming to standards and guidelines governing jumps, such as double checking calculations and fittings for every jump. As with any sport, injuries can still occur (see below), and there have been fatalities. A relatively common mistake in fatality cases is to use a cord that is too long. The cord should be substantially shorter than the height of the jumping platform to allow it room to stretch. When the cord becomes taut and then is stretched, the tension in the cord progressively increases. Initially the tension is less than the jumper's weight and the jumper continues to accelerate downwards. At some point, the tension equals the jumper's weight and the acceleration is temporarily zero. With further stretching, the jumper has an

increasing upward acceleration and at some point has zero vertical velocity before recoiling upward. See also Potential energy for a discussion of the spring constant and the force required to distort bungee cords and other spring-like objects. The Bloukrans River Bridge was the first bridge to be 'bungee jumped off' in Africa when Face Adrenalin introduced bungee jumping to the African continent in 1990. Bloukrans Bridge Bungy has been operated commercially by Face Adrenalin since 1997, and is the highest commercial bridge bungy in the world.
[11]

In April 2008 a 37-year-old Durban man, Carl Mosca Dionisio, made bungy jumping history when he jumped off a 30 m (100 ft) tower attached to a bungy cord made entirely of 18,500 condoms.[12][13] [14] [15] Equipment

Bungee Jump in Normandy, France (Souleuvre Viaduct) The elastic rope first used in bungee jumping, and still used by many commercial operators, is factory-produced braided shock cord. This consists of many latex strands enclosed in a tough

outer cover. The outer cover may be applied when the latex is pre-stressed, so that the cord's resistance to extension is already significant at the cord's natural length. This gives a harder, sharper bounce. The braided cover also provides significant durability benefits. Other operators, including A. J. Hackett and most southern-hemisphere operators, use unbraided cords with exposed latex strands (pictured at right). These give a softer, longer bounce and can be home-produced. There may be a certain elegance in using only a simple ankle attachment, but accidents where participants became detached led many commercial operators to use a body harness, if only as a backup for an ankle attachment. Body harnesses generally derive from climbing equipment rather than parachute equipment. The highest jump

Looking down from atop the Verzasca Dam bungee tower near Locarno in Ticino, Switzerland In August 2005, AJ Hackett added a SkyJump to the Macau Tower, making it the world's highest jump at 233 metres (764 ft).[16] The SkyJump did not qualify as the world's highest bungee as it is not strictly speaking a bungee jump, but instead what is referred to as a 'Decelerator-Descent' jump, using a steel cable and decelerator system, rather than an elastic rope. On 17 December 2006, the Macau Tower started operating a proper bungee jump, which became the "Highest Commercial Bungee Jump In The World" according to the

Guinness Book of Records. The Macau Tower Bungy has a "Guide cable" system that limits swing (the jump is very close to the structure of the tower itself) but does not have any effect on the speed of descent, so this still qualifies the jump for the World Record. Another commercial bungee jump currently in operation is just 13m smaller, at 220 metres (720 ft). This jump, made without guide ropes, is from the top of the Verzasca Dam near Locarno, Switzerland. It appears in the opening scene of the James Bond film GoldenEye. The Bloukrans Bridge Bungy in South Africa and the Verzasca Dam jumps are pure freefall swinging bungee from a single cord. Bloukrans Bridge Bungy has been operated by Face Adrenalin commercially since 1997 and uses a pendulum bungee system. It is 216m high, from the platform to the river below. [17] It is the highest commercial bridge bungy in the world. [11] Guinness only records jumps from fixed objects to guarantee the accuracy of the measurement. John Kockleman however recorded a 2,200-foot (670 m) bungee jump from a hot air balloon in California in 1989. In 1991 Andrew Salisbury jumped from 9,000 feet (2,700 m) from a helicopter over Cancun for a television program and with Reebok sponsorship. The full stretch was recorded at 3,157 feet (962 m). He landed safely under parachute. One commercial jump higher than all others is at the Royal Gorge Bridge in Colorado. The height of the platform is 321 metres (1,053 ft). However, this jump is rarely available, as part of the Royal Gorge Go Fast Gamesfirst in 2005, then again in 2007. Previous to this the record was held in West Virginia, USA, by New Zealander Chris Allum, who bungee jumped 823 ft (251m) from the New River Gorge Bridge on "Bridge Day" 1992 to set a world's record for the longest bungee jump from a fixed structure. In popular culture

Bungee jumping from theSouleuvre Viaduct inNormandy Several major movies have featured bungee jumps, most famously the opening sequence of the 1995 James Bond film GoldenEye in which Bond makes a jump over the edge of a dam in Russia (in reality the dam is in Switzerland: Verzasca Dam, and the jump was genuine, not an animated special effect). The jump in the dam later makes an appearance as a Roadblock task in the 14th season of the reality competition series The Amazing Race. It appears in the title of the South Korean film Bungee Jumping of Their Own (Beonjijeompeureul hada ; 2001), although it does not play a large part in the film. A fictional proto-bungee jump is a plot point in the Michael Chabon novel The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier and Clay . In the film Selena, in which Jennifer Lopez plays Selena Quintanilla-Perez, she is shown bungee jumping at a carnival. This actual event took place shortly before Selena's murder on March 31, 1995. Variations Catapult In "Catapult" (Reverse Bungee or Bungee Rocket) the 'jumper' starts on the ground.[18] The jumper is secured and the cord

stretched, then released and shooting the jumper up into the air. This is often achieved using either a crane or a hoist attached to a (semi-)perma structure. This simplifies the action of stretching the cord and later lowering the participant to the ground. Twin Tower "Twin Tower" is similar with two oblique cords. There are two towers, each with a cord leading the jumper. When the cords are stretched the jumper is released and shoots straight up. [19] Trampoline "Bungy Trampoline" uses, as its name suggests, elements from bungy and trampolining. The participant begins on a trampoline and is fitted into a body harness, which is attached via bungy cords to two high poles on either side of the trampoline. As they begin to jump, the bungy cords are tightened, allowing a higher jump than could normally be made from a trampoline alone. Running "Bungee Running" involves no jumping as such. It merely consists of, as the name suggests, running along a track (often inflatable) with a bungee cord attached. One often has a velcrobacked marker that marks how far the runner got before the bungee cord pulled back. This activity can often be found at fairs and carnivals and is often most popular with children. Ramp Bungee jumping off a ramp. Two rubber cords - the "bungees" are tied around the participant's waist to a harness. Those bungee cords are linked to steel cables along which they can slide due to stainless pulleys. The participants bicycle, sled or ski before jumping. Suspended Catch Air Device

SCAD diving is similar to bungee jumping in that participant is dropped from a height, but in this variation there is not a cord; instead the participant falls into a net. [20][21] Safety and possible injury

Jumping at Kawarau Bridge inQueenstown, New Zealand, April 2007. Bungee jumping injuries may be divided into those that occur after jumping secondary to equipment mishap or tragic accident, and those that occur regardless of safety measures. In the first instance, injury can happen if the safety harness fails, the cord elasticity is miscalculated, or the cord is not properly connected to the jump platform. In 1986 Michael Lush died of multiple injuries after bungee jumping for a stunt on a BBC television programmeand in 1997 Laura Patterson, one of a 16-member professional bungee jumping team, died of massive cranial trauma when she jumped from the top level of the Louisiana Superdome and collided head-first into the concrete-based playing field. She was practicing for an exhibition intended to be performed during the halftime show of Super Bowl XXXI. In 2002 Chris Thomas died after his

harness tore off during a charity jump in Swansea, Wales: it was later claimed that the harness was not safe for his weight. [22] On New Year's Eve 2011, Erin Langworthy, an Australian woman was plunged into the Zambezi River at Victoria Falls, where she nearly drowned with her feet still tied together after her bungee rope snapped during a jump.[23] Injuries that occur despite safety measures generally relate to the abrupt rise in upper body intravascular pressure during bungee cord recoil. Eyesight damage is the most frequently reported complication.[24][25][26][27][28][29][30] Impaired eyesight secondary to retinal haemorrhage may be transient [28] or take several weeks to resolve.[26] In one case, a 26 year old woman's eyesight was still impaired after 7 months. [27] Whiplash injuries may occur as the jumper is jolted on the bungee cord and in at least one case, this has led to quadriplegia secondary to a broken neck. Very serious injury can also occur if the jumper's neck or body gets entangled in the cord. [31] More recently, carotid artery dissection leading to a type of stroke after bungee jumping has also been described.[32] All of these injuries have occurred in fit and healthy people in their twenties and thirties. Bungee jumping has also been shown to increase stress and decrease immune function. [33]

Rock climbing is an activity in which participants climb up, down or across natural rock formations or artificial rock walls. The goal is to reach the summitof a formation or the endpoint of a pre-defined route without falling. To successfully complete a climb you must return to base safely, due to the length and extended endurance required accidents are more likely to happen on decent than ascent, especially on the larger multiple pitches (class III- IV and /or multi-day grades IV-VI climbs). Rock climbing competitions have objectives of completing the route in the quickest possible time or the farthest along an increasingly difficult route. Scrambling, another activity involving the scaling of hills and similar formations, is similar to

rock climbing. However, rock climbing is generally differentiated by its sustained use of hands to support the climber's weight as well as to provide balance. Rock climbing is a physically and mentally demanding sport, one that often tests a climber's strength, endurance, agility and balance along with mental control. It can be a dangerous sport and knowledge of proper climbing techniques and usage of specialised climbing equipment is crucial for the safe completion of routes. Because of the wide range and variety of rock formations around the world, rock climbing has been separated into several different styles and sub-disciplines. [1] While not an Olympic event, rock climbing is recognized by the International Olympic Committee as a sport. History Main article: History of rock climbing

Climbing in Germany, circa 1965. Note the lack of intermediate protection points and the potentially deadly tie-in method, which demonstrate the maxim of the day: "The leader must not fall."

Paintings dating from 400 BC show Chinese men rock climbing. In early America, the cliff-dwelling Anasazi in the 12th century were thought to be excellent climbers. Early European climbers used rock climbing techniques as a skill required to reach the summit in their mountaineering exploits. The 1880s saw European rock climbing become an independent pursuit outside mountain climbing.[2] Although rock climbing was an important component of Victorian mountaineering in the Alps, it is generally thought that the sport of rock climbing began in the last quarter of the nineteenth century in various parts of Europe. Rock climbing evolved gradually from an alpine necessity to a distinct athletic activity. Aid climbing, climbing using equipment that acts as artificial handhold or footholds, became popular during the period 19201960, leading to ascents in the Alps and in Yosemite Valley that were considered impossible without such means. However, climbing techniques, equipment and ethical considerations have evolved steadily. Today, free climbing, climbing on holds made entirely of natural rock, using gear solely for protection and not for upward movement, is the most popular form of the sport. Free climbing has since been divided into several substyles of climbing dependent on belayconfiguration. Over time, grading systems have also been created in order to more accurately compare the relative difficulties of climbs. Style In How to Rock Climb, John Long notes that for moderately skilled climbers simply getting to top of a route is not enough, how one gets to the top matters.[3] In rock climbing, style refers to the method of ascending the cliff. There are three main styles of climbing: on-sight, flash, and redpoint. To on-sight a route is to ascend the wall without aid or any foreknowledge. It is considered the way to climb with the most style. Flashing is similar to on-sighting, except that the climber has previous

information about the route including talking about the beta with other climbers. Redpointing means to make a free ascent of the route after having first tried it. [4][5][6] Types of climbing Main article: Types of climbing Most of the climbing done in modern times is considered free climbingclimbing using one's own physical strength, with equipment used solely as protection and not as supportas opposed toaid climbing, the gear-dependent form of climbing that was dominant in the sport's earlier days. Free climbing is typically divided into several styles that differ from one another depending on the choice of equipment used and the configurations of their belay, rope and anchor systems. As routes get higher off the ground, the increased risk of lifethreatening injuries necessitates additional safety measures. A variety of specialized climbing techniques and climbing equipmentexists to provide that safety. Climbers will usually work in pairs and utilize a system of ropes and anchors designed to catch falls. Ropes and anchors can be configured differently to suit many styles of climbing, and roped climbing is thus divided into further sub-types that vary based on how their belay systems are set up. Generally speaking, beginners will start with top roping and/or easy bouldering and work their way up to lead climbing and beyond. Aid climbing Main article: Aid climbing Still the most popular method of climbing big walls, aid climbers make progress up a wall by repeatedly placing and weighting gear which is used directly to aid ascent and enhance safety. Free climbing

Main article: Free climbing The most commonly used method to ascend climbs refers to climbs where the climber's own physical strength and skill are relied on to accomplish the climb. Free climbing may rely on top rope belay systems, or on lead climbing to establish protection and the belay stations. Anchors, ropes and protection are used to back up the climber and are passive as opposed to active ascending aids. Subtypes of free climbing are trad climbing and sport climbing. Free climbing is generally done as "clean lead" meaning no pitons or pins are used as protection.[7] Bouldering

Bouldering in Joshua Tree National Park,United States. Main article: Bouldering Climbing on short, low routes without the use of the safety rope that is typical of most other styles. Protection, if used at all, typically consists of a cushioned bouldering pad below the route and a spotting, a person who watches from below and directs the fall of the climber away from hazardous areas. Bouldering may be an arena for intense and relatively safe competition, resulting in exceptionally high difficulty standards. Solo climbing Main article: Solo climbing Deep-water soloing (DWS)

Main article: Deep-water soloing Similar to free soloing in that the climber is unprotected and without a rope, but different in that if the climber falls, it is into deep water instead of on to the ground. Free soloing Main article: Free soloing Free soloing is single-person climbing without the use of any rope or protection system whatsoever. If a fall occurs and the climber is not over water (as in the case of deep water soloing), the climber is likely to be killed or seriously injured. Though technically similar to bouldering, free solo climbing typically refers to routes that are far taller and/or far more lethal than bouldering. The term "highball" is used to refer to climbing on the boundary between soloing and bouldering, where what is usually climbed as a boulder problem may be high enough for a fall to cause serious injury and hence could also be considered to be a free solo. Roped solo climbing Main article: Roped solo climbing Solo climbing with a rope secured at the beginning of the climb allowing a climber to self-belay as they advance. Once the pitch is completed the soloist must descend the rope to retrieve their gear, and then reclimb the pitch. This form of climbing can be conducted free or as a form of aid climbing. Lead climbing Main article: Lead climbing

Leader belays the second on Illusion Dweller in Joshua Tree National Park, United States. In lead climbing, the first climber will climb from the ground up with rope directly attached to his or her harness, and not through a top anchor. The second person, belays the leader by feeding out enough rope to allow upward progression without undue slack. As the leader progresses he clips the rope, using a quickdraw, to intermediate points of protection such as active cams, or passive protection such as nuts; this limits the length of a potential fall. The leader also may clip into predrilled bolts. If the climber is lead climbing in an indoor climbing gym, they will almost always attach quickdraws to fixed bolts in the wall, from which they will attach the rope to the quickdraw as they would if they were lead climbing outdoors. Because the climbing rope is of a fixed length, the leader can only climb a certain distance. Thus longer routes are broken up into several pitches; this is known as multi-pitch climbing. At the top of a pitch, the leader sets up an anchor and then belays the second up to the anchor; as the second follows the route taken by the leader, the second removes the equipment placed along the way in order to use it again on the next pitch. Once

both are at the anchor, the leader begins climbing the next pitch and so on until the top is reached. In either case, upon completion of a route, climbers can walk back down if an alternate descent path exists, or rappel (abseil) down with the rope. Unlike top-rope climbing where the climber is always supported by an anchor located above the climber, lead climbing often has scenarios where the climber will be attached to a point under him or her. In these cases, if the climber were to fall, the distance fallen would be much greater than that of top-rope and this is one of the main reasons lead climbing can be dangerous. The fall factor is the ratio of the height a climbers falls and the length of rope available to absorb the fall. The higher the fall factor, the more force placed on the climber as the ropes decelerates them. The maximum fall factor is 2. It is often advised that climbers who are interested in lead climbing should learn from experienced climbers and participate in training sessions before actually lead climbing on their own. Sport climbing Main article: Sport climbing Unlike traditional rock climbing, sport climbing involves the use of protection (bolts) or permanent anchors which are attached to the rock walls. Traditional climbing Main article: Traditional climbing Traditional or trad climbing involves rock climbing routes in which protection against falls is placed by the climber while ascending. Gear is used to protect against falls but not to aid the ascent directly. Top rope climbing Main article: Top rope climbing

Top roping Balthazar (12), in the Morialta Conservation Park near Adelaide, South Australia. Top roping is the most accessible style of climbing for beginners. Climbing with the protection of a rope that's already suspended through an anchor (or also known as a "top rope system") at the top of a route. Abelayer controls the rope, keeping it taut and preventing long falls. Due to its reduced risk, most beginners are introduced to climbing through top-roping. In top rope climbing, an anchor is set up at the summit of a route prior to the start of a climb. Rope is run through the anchor; one end attaches to the harness of the climber and the other to the belay device on the belayer. The belayer keeps the rope taut, taking in the slack in the rope as the climber progresses which helps minimize the length of the fall if a climber falls. This type of climbing is widely regarded as the safest type of climbing, with the lowest chance of injury. Climbing techniques Different types of rock require different techniques to successfully climb. Crack climbing

Main article: Crack climbing Crack climbing is a type of rock climbing that ascends cracks and uses specialized climbing techniques. Cracks used in climbing vary in size from ones you can barely fit a pinky finger to those that fit an entire body. Climbers use techniques such as jamming, laybacking, and stemming. Some climbers use gloves made out of athletic tape to protect their hands. Face climbing Main article: Face climbing Face climbing is a type of climbing where climbers use features and irregularities in the rock such as finger pockets and edges to ascend a vertical rock face. Slab climbing Main article: Slab climbing Slab climbing is a type of rock climbing where the rock face is at an angle of less steep than vertical. It is characterized by balance- and friction-dependent moves on very small holds. Simul climbing Main article: Simul climbing When two climbers move at the same time. The pseudo-lead climber places gear that the pseudo-follower collects. When the leader runs low on gear they construct a belay station where the follower can join them to exchange gear. The stronger climber is often the pseudo-follower since a fall by the follower would pull the leader from below towards the last piece of gear a potential devastating fall for the leader. In contrast, a fall from the leader would pull the follower from above, resulting in a less serious fall. Most speed ascents involve some form of simul climbing but may also include sections of standard free climbing and the use of placed gear for advancement (i.e. partial aid or pulling on gear).

Via ferrata Main article: Via ferrata A method of fairly easily ascending a route, heavily dependent on permanent protection rather than using natural rock features to proceed. Grading systems Main articles: Grade (climbing) and Grade (bouldering) Climbing communities in many countries and regions have developed their own rating systems for routes. Ratings, or grades, record and communicate consensus appraisals of difficulty. Hence, there may be occasional disagreements arising from physiological or stylistic differences among climbers. The ratings take into account multiple factors affecting a route, such as the slope of the ascent, the quantity and quality of available handholds, the distance between holds, ease of placing protection and whether advanced technical maneuvers are required. Whilst height of a route is generally not considered a factor, a long series of sustained hard moves will often merit a higher grade than a single move of the same technical difficulty. The typical rating system for top-roping and lead climbing is from 5.2-5.15b. There can be debate on the difficulty rating. Typically the rating for the hardest move on the wall will be the rating for the whole climb, although sometimes climbs are rated for endurance factor. For example, a climb can have multiple 5.11 moves with no rests and thus be rated 5.12. The most commonly used rating systems in the United States are the Yosemite Decimal System and the Hueco V-scale bouldering grade. As systems of ratings are subjective in nature, variation of difficulty can be seen between two climbs of the same grade. The practice of rating a climb below its actual difficulty is known as sandbagging. Terminology Main article: Glossary of climbing terms

As climbing routes or problems increase in difficulty, climbers learn to develop skills that help them complete the climbs clean. There are several techniques for hands and feet as well as terms for motions that combine the two. For indoor gyms, route setters visualize and create routes for climbers, placing different kinds of holds in specific parts of the wall at particular angles because they intend climbers to use certain techniques. Environments

An indoor climbing wall. Indoor climbing Main article: indoor climbing Climbing within a building or other structure, usually on specially constructed fake rock walls. Permits climbing in all types of weather and at all times of day. Often used for improving climbing skills and techniques, as well as for general exercise. Climbs can occur either outdoors on varying types of rock or indoors on specialized climbing walls. Outdoors, climbs usually take place on sunny days when the holds are dry and provide the best grip, but climbers can also attempt to climb at

night or in adverse weather conditions if they have the proper training and equipment. However, night climbing or climbing in adverse weather conditions will increase the difficulty and danger on any climbing route. Equipment Main article: Rock-climbing equipment The equipment used in rock climbing is mostly optional. Most climbers choose to wear specialized rubber shoes which are often of a smaller size than their normal shoes in order to improve sensitivity towards foot placements and use the tightness to their advantage. Most other equipment is of a protective nature. Rock climbing is inherently dangerous, so to minimize the potential consequences resulting from a fall, climbers use protection. The most basic protective equipment is a climbing rope. Climbing pioneers would attach the rope to themselves; in the event of a fall, the rope would usually cause injury to the climber in the hope that it prevented death. With advances in technology came the development of specialized harnesses,carabiners, and belay devices. Eventually, the placement of bolts with the use of quickdraws led to the rise of sport climbing. Traditional climbersdeveloped the spring-loaded camming device, which increased safety over chocks, hexes, and pitons. Some climbers choose to wear a specialized climbing helmet. Injuries Main article: Climbing injuries Injuries in rock climbing are mainly sports injuries that occur due to falls or overuse. Injuries due to falls are relatively uncommon; the vast majority of injuries result from overuse, most often occurring in the fingers, elbows, and shoulders. [8] Such injuries are often no worse than torn calluses, cuts, burns and bruises. However, overuse symptoms, if ignored, may lead to permanent damage especially to tendons, tendon

sheaths, ligaments, and capsules. Injuries from lead climbing are common. Access to climbing areas See also: Access Fund and British Mountaineering Council Indigenous culture considerations Some areas that are popular for climbing, for example in the United States and Australia, are also sacred places for indigenous peoples. Many such indigenous people would prefer that climbers not climb these sacred places and have made this information well known to climbers. A well-known example is the rock formation that Americans have named Devils Tower National Monument.[9]Native American cultural concerns also led to complete climbing closures at Cave Rock at Lake Tahoe, [10] Monument Valley, Shiprock and Canyon de Chelly.[11] Climbing activities can sometimes encroach on rock art sites created by various Native American cultures and early European explorers and settlers. The potential threat to these resources has led to climbing restrictions and closures in places like Hueco Tanks, Texas,[12] and portions of City of Rocks National Reserve, Idaho. In Australia, the monolith Uluru (Ayers Rock) is sacred to local indigenous communities and climbing is banned on anything but the established ascent route (and even then climbing is discouraged). Indigenous peoples are not the only cultures that object to climbing on certain rock formations. Professional climber Dean Potter kicked off a major controversy when he ignored longaccepted convention to scale Delicate Arch in 2006, resulting in strict new climbing regulation in Arches National Park.[13] Climbing on private property Many significant rock outcrops exist on private land. Some people within the rock climbing community have been guilty

of trespassing in many cases, often after land ownership transfers and previous access permission is withdrawn. In the U.S. the climbing community responded to access closures by forming the Access Fund. This is an "advocacy organization that keeps U.S. climbing areas open and conserves the climbing environment. Five core programs support the mission on national and local levels: public policy, stewardship and conservation (including grants), grassroots activism, climber education and land acquisition." [14] In the U.K. the British Mountaineering Council represents climbers and their interest of public access to crags, cliffs and boulders. Environmental impact Main article: Clean climbing Although many climbers adhere to "minimal impact" and "leave no trace" practices, rock climbing is sometimes damaging to the environment. Common environmental damages include: soilerosion, chalk accumulation, litter, abandoned bolts and ropes, human excrement, introduction of foreign plants through seeds on shoes and clothing and damage to native plant species, especially those growing in cracks and on ledges as these are often intentionally removed during new route development through a process commonly referred to as cleaning. Clean climbing is a style of rock climbing which seeks to minimize some of the aesthetically damaging side effects of some techniques used in trad climbing and more often, aid climbing by avoiding using equipment such as pitons, which damage rock. Climbing can also interfere with raptor nesting, since the two activities often take place on the same precipitous cliffs. Many climbing area land managers institute nesting season closures of cliffsknown to be used by protected birds of prey like eagles, falcons and osprey.[15]

Many non-climbers also object to the appearance of climbing chalk marks, anchors, bolts and slings on visible cliffs. Since these features are small, visual impacts can be mitigated through the selection of neutral, rock-matching colors for bolt hangers, webbing and chalk. Vandalism The most significant form of vandalism directly attributable to rock climbers is alteration of the climbing surface to render it more climber-friendly. With the advent of hard, bolted sport climbing in the 1980s, many routes were "chipped" and "glued" to provide additional features, allowing them to be climbed at the standard of the day. This attitude quickly changed as the safer sport climbing technique allowed climbers to push hard without much risk, causing the formerly more-or-less fixed grades to steadily rise. Altering routes began to be seen as limiting and pointless. Unlike traditional climbing which generally uses protection only as a backup in case of falls, some forms of climbinglike sport climbing, canyoneering or, especially, aid climbingrely heavily on artificial protection to advance, either by frequent falls or by directly pulling on the gear. Often these types of climbing involve multiple drilled holes in which to place temporary bolts and rivets, but in recent years an emphasis on clean techniques has grown. Today, the charge of vandalism in climbing is more often a disagreement about the appropriateness of drilling and placing permanent bolts and other anchors. Typically in the USA, the first ascensionists decide where to place protection on a new route and later climbers are supposed to live with these choices. This can cause friction and retro-bolting when the route is perceived to be dangerous to climbers who actually lead at the grade of the climb, since the first ascensionists often lead at a higher grade and therefore don't require as much protection. Failing to properly design a new route at its

grade is considered arrogant and very poor form. Even in strongholds of rock-climbing tradition like Yosemite National Park, many routes are being gradually upgraded to safer standards of protection.