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PROKON User's Guide

(Win 32 Version)










March 2010












Information in this document is subject to change without notice. Companies, names and data
used in examples are fictitious.

This document may be reproduced for the sole purpose of reference by PROKON users. No
part of this document may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, for any other reason without the express written permission of
Prokon Software Consultants

Copyright 1988-2010 Prokon Software Consultants (Pty) Ltd. All rights reserved
PROKON is the registered trademark of Prokon Software Consultants (Pty) Ltd

Microsoft, Dos and Windows are registered trademarks of Microsoft Corporation.
Adobe Acrobat Reader is a registered trademark of Adobe System Incorporated.
Introduction i
Introduction
This is a guide to using the 32-bit Windows version of the PROKON suite of structural
analysis and design programs. It is designed to help you be more productive by explaining
ways of integrating everyday structural analysis, design and detailing tasks.
In this manual, the basic procedures of installing and using PROKON are explained.
Components of the suite not covered in this manual include the PROKON Drawing and
Detailing System, Padds, and the geotechnical analysis modules. These are explained
separately in the following manuals:
Padds User's Guide and Command Reference: Information on using the PROKON
Drawing and Detailing System.
Geotechnical Analysis and Design: Background on using the geotechnical analysis
modules are given on the online help, available on the Help menu of each module.
All analysis and design modules also have complete context-sensitive help to introduce you to
the use of the system. The on-line help information is updated on a regular basis and may
occasionally contain information not included in the manual.
This manual is also available in electronic form on the PROKON Structural Analysis and
Design installation CD-Rom. The complete text can be viewed and printed for the purpose of
reference by PROKON users a PDF viewer such as Adobe Acrobat Reader.
Note: A copy of this manual is available PDF format on the PROKON installation CD-Rom.
Introduction ii
Using this manual
The manual should introduce you to both the basic and more advanced features of the
PROKON suite of programs. The various procedures relating to installing and using the suite
are discussed in sequence to gradually lead you to productive use of the system:
Chapter 1 - Installing PROKON: This chapter deals with installing and activating the
software for use. The procedures for stand-alone and network installation are explained
in detail.
Chapter 2 - The PROKON basics: Essential reading for all new users and for users
upgrading to the 32-bit Windows version. Subjects covered include using Calcpad, setting
preferences and customising projects.
Chapter 3 - Structural analysis: Detailed discussion of the frame, beam and finite element
analysis modules.
Chapter 4 - Steel member design: Explains how you can design a variety of steel members
using elastic or plastic methods. The post-processing of frame analysis results is discussed
in detail.
Chapter 5 - Steel connection design: Design and generation of drawings of typical steel
connections.
Chapter 6 - Concrete design: Detailed explanation of the design and detailing of
reinforcement for typical concrete members.
Chapter 7 - Timber design: Detailed discussion of the design of timber members.
Chapter 8 - General analysis tools: Overview of using the general analysis utilities.
Chapter 9 Masonry section and Masonry wall design
Introduction iii
Getting help
An important part of the service provided to PROKON users, is technical support. If you are a
registered user, you can obtain free program updates and support information from the World
Wide Web or your nearest branch of PROKON Software Consultants.
Who qualifies for support?
You automatically qualify for free software maintenance and support in the following cases:
If you are renting programs on an annual basis.
If you purchased your software less than a year ago.
If you have entered a maintenance agreement with respect to your purchased programs.
Internet support
Access answers to frequently asked questions, news on new developments, revision
information and programs updates on-line:
PROKON Home Page: Visit www.prokon.com for news on the latest developments.
PROKON Support Web: Browse www.prokon.com/support for solutions to problems and
to obtain program updates and the latest versions of the help files and manuals.
Direct support
If you experience difficulties resolving your problems using PROKON, you may contact
Prokon Software Consultants directly for assistance:


South Africa United Kingdom Canada
Telephone
Facsimile
E-mail
+27-12-346-2231
+27-12- 346-3331
za@prokon.com
+44-20- 8780-5454
+44-20- 8788-8363
uk@prokon.com
+1-8888-PROKON
+1-866-323-7393
ca@prokon.com
Postal address P O Box 17295
Groenkloof
0027
South Africa
75 Lower Richmond Rd
Putney
London SW15 1ET
United Kingdom
PO Box 91693
West Vancouver, BC
V7V 3P3
Canada
Quick Reference iv
Quick Reference
Use the thumbnails alongside for quick access to the chapters in this manual.
Quick Reference v
Chapter 1: Installing PROKON
Chapter 2: The PROKON Basics
Chapter 3: Structural Analysis
Chapter 4: Steel Member Design
Chapter 5: Steel Connection Design
Chapter 6: Concrete design
Chapter 7: Timber Design
Chapter 8: General Applications
Chapter 9 : Masonry Design
Quick Reference vi

Installing PROKON 1-1
Chapter
1
Installing PROKON
This explains the procedures for installing and activating PROKON. step-by-step to help new
and experienced users alike avoid pitfalls.
Installing PROKON 1-2
Quick Reference
System Requirements 1-3
Program Installation 1-5
Updating PROKON 1-17
System Requirements 1-3
System Requirements
The minimum system requirements and recommended specification to run the 32-bit Windows
version of PROKON are:

Required Recommended
PC with 1RAM
PC with dual CPU cores, 4GB RAM
or more
1,024 x 768 SVGA display.
Nvidia Quaddro FX or quivalent
graphics adaptor that supports
OpenGL support.
CD-Rom drive or access to one over a
network

Any version of Windows XP, Windows
Vista, or Windows 7 (32-bit or 64-bit).
Windows 7(32-bit or 64-bit).
Internet connection required for
activation


The suite often needs to save temporary information on your hard disk. For this purpose, the
Windows temporary folder, e.g. ' C:\Users\YourName\AppData\Local\Temp', is used. When
analysing large structures, a significant amount of disk space may be required.
System Requirements 1-4

Program Installation 1-5
Program Installation
You can install PROKON on a stand-alone computer, or on a network for access by multiple
computers on your network. Setting up your system PROKON consists of the following steps:
1. Install PROKON on your computer or on your network.
2. Activate PROKON.
3. Set up the design codes and section and material databases. This is explained in Chapter 2.
PROKON uses a sophisticated licensing scheme that allows a lot of flexibility in your choices:
The software is modular: No need to pay for features you don't use; order only the
modules you need.
Short-term license available: In addition to the conventional way of purchasing software,
you can rent PROKON modules on an annual basis. You may have a special project, for
example, that requires certain design modules that you would not normally use.
Network use: PROKON software can be installed on stand-alone computers or on a
network server. When installing on a network server, multiple workstation computers can
access the software (the number of concurrent users is limited to the number of
workstations including in the license). No special network license is required to use
PROKON software on a network.
License portability: You can deactivate and activate your programs (storing your license
on the PROKON license server) at any time. Moving your license between computers at
the office (and even your home computer) is simple.
Note: When not activated, e.g. directly after the initial installation, the PROKON suite will
function in 'demo mode' a special mode with reduced functionality meant for evaluation
purposes.
Program Installation 1-6
PROKON installation tree
Before installing PROKON, please take a moment to study the folder tree that will be created
during installation. The main components are:
The main suite folder: This is the folder enclosing all
program folders and is always called 'Prokon'. You can
locate this folder on the root of your hard drive, i.e.
'C:\Prokon', or elsewhere, e.g. 'C:\Program
Files\Prokon'.
The main program folder: The 'bin' folder that
contains all the executable programs and other files
that make up the system. The folder has a child folder
'Updates' that is used for storage by the PROKON Live
Update utility.
The default data folder: This is the folder used for
data storage. Directly after installation, the working
folder is set to '\Prokon\Data\Demo'. When you start to
use the suite, you will be creating new working folders
where input and output data will be stored. Working
folders can be created anywhere on your computer or
on your network.
The license folder: When you activate PROKON, the 'Prolock' folder is created and your
license key stored in it. Please do not remove this folder without first deactivating your
programs; doing so will destroy your license.
User folders: Each user's preferences, e.g. favourite design codes and on-screen layout of
each program, are automatically stored in a dedicated folder.
Note: When installing PROKON on a network, you need to adjust some folder permissions
to enable network users to access PROKON. See page 1-12 for more information.
Program Installation 1-7
PROKON licence structure
Below are some key concepts regarding your PROKON license:
License key: A special file that contain your license information. Your license key is
supplied either on your CD-Rom or made available via electronic download.
Expiry date: Annual rental license have a fixed expiry date 12 months after order.
Purchased licences allow perpetual use of the programs, but software maintenance
(program updates and technical support) expires after 12 months. Both annual rental and
software maintenance of purchased programs can be renewed.
Sets: The modules that you order is grouped in a set. Your license can include up to two
sets. Here is an example: You have a group of engineers that specialise in steel design, and
another group that specialises in concrete design. Both groups use the Frame Analysis
module to calculate forces in building frames. Your PROKON license can be configured
with two sets. Set 1(Steel) will contain the Frame Analysis module and some steel member
and connection design modules. Set 2 (Concrete) will also contain the Frame Analysis
module and some concrete design modules. The two sets form part of the same license
key, and can be activated and used separately. When combining two sets in the same
license key, a substantial discount is applicable to modules that are included in both sets.
Workstations: A workstation is one set of programs that is accessible on a standalone
computer or network. Each set of modules in your license key has a number of
workstations assigned to it. The number of workstations determine the number of times the
set of programs can be used simultaneous. Simultaneous use can either be standalone
computers that have been activated individually, or users accessing PROKON on a
network at the same time. Expanding on the example above, imagine that Set 1 (Steel) has
three workstations and Set 2 (Concrete) two. The license key therefore allows five users to
access PROKON at the same time: three using the steel design modules, and two using the
concrete design modules. All five users will be able to access Frame Analysis that is
included in both sets.
Activation: You have to activate your programs in order to access their full capacity.
When you activate your programs, you can choose the number of workstations for Set 1
and Set 2 to activate. The number of available (for activation) workstations is decremented
accordingly. In the above example, Set 1 can be activated on three standalone computers,
or on a network for simultaneous use by three engineers.
Deactivation: You can deactivate an active set of programs at any time. The number of
available workstations is incremented accordingly.
Note: The PROKON license server (an internet service) keeps track of the number of
workstations that have been activated and the number of workstations available for
activation. An internet connection is required to activate or deactivate your programs.
Program Installation 1-8
Installing on a standalone computer
You can install PROKON on a stand-alone computer or on a network for sharing between
multiple users. This section describes the installation procedure for a standalone computer.
Note: Your PROKON license proper functioning is sensitive to your computer's date and
time. To guarantee error-free operation, ensure that the date and time is correct.
Installing the program files to your hard disk.
Depending on your system settings the PROKON Setup application will auto-run automatically
when you insert the PROKON CD-Rom. If it does not, explore the CD-Rom contents and
launch Setup.exe manually.
Note: If the Setup program appears to freeze while copy program files, it may be because of
your anti-virus software scanning the program files. For a faster installation, we recommend
you temporarily disable your anti-virus software.
Follow the prompts to copy the program files to your computer:
Read and accept the license agreement before you can continuing with the installation.
Enter an installation folder.
By default, PROKON is
installed in the 'C:\Prokon'
folder. Optionally click
Change to choose a
installation folder. If you
browse to 'C:\Program Files',
for example, the suite will be
installed in 'C:\Program
Files\Prokon'.
Choose whether you want to
set up program shortcuts for
the current logged in user
(you) only, or for all users that
uses the computer..
Allow the Setup program to complete the installation
Program Installation 1-9
Activating the programs
The above installation procedure copies all necessary program files to your computer. To
access the full capability of your licensed modules, you need to activate them. If you do not
activate your software, all modules will function in 'demo mode' a special mode with reduced
functionality meant for evaluation purposes.
To activate your PROKON software:
Run PROKON.
On the Tools menu, choose Activate Programs, and then choose one of the displayed
activation methods:
Direct Internet activation: This is the preferred
method, and instructs your PROKON software to
communicate directly with the PROKON license
server for instantaneous activation. In some situations,
e.g. restrictive corporate firewalls, the direct
communication may not work and you have to use to
one of the other methods below.
Browser: This method uses your web browser to
exchange a Report Code and Return Code with the
PROKON license server.
E-mail: This method is similar to the browser method, except that it uses your email
client, e.g. Microsoft Outlook, to exchange a Report Code and Return Code. Even
though the PROKON license server responds to activation emails, possible delays in
email communication and spam filters make this method less desirable.
Phoning Prokon: If all else fails, use this option to call a Prokon branch for
activation assistance.
Enter the number of workstations to activate in Set 1 and Set 2. For a standalone
installation, you would typically not enter '1' workstation for Set 1 and/or Set 2.

Program Installation 1-10
Click Ok to process the activation:
If using the Direct Internet activation method, the result will be displayed within a
few seconds.
If using the Browser activation method, your web browser will display a page with a
Return Code that you should enter.
If you using the E-mail activation method, open your email client and send the
activation request message. The PROKON license server will reply automatic reply to
your message with a Return Code that you should enter.
When using the option to Phone Prokon, a Report Code will be displayed. Contact
your local Prokon branch and request a matching Return Code.
Note: For the Direct Internet activation method to work, your firewall should allow
communication on TCP port 80 (HTTP) as well as 20 and 21 (FTP).
Deactivating an active workstation
Deactivation is a procedure similar to activation described on the previous page:
Run PROKON Structural Analysis and Design.
On the Tools menu, choose Deactivate Programs, and then choose one of the
deactivation methods. As with activation, the Direct Internet deactivation method is the
preferred method for a instantaneous result.
If using one of the indirect methods, submit the Report Code to the Prokon license server
(via your web browser, e-mail, or phoning Prokon). This step is essential to ensure that
your deactivation workstation(s) is correctly credited back to your license key on the
Prokon license server.
After deactivation, PROKON will operate in 'demo mode' a special mode with reduced
functionality meant for evaluation purposes.
Note: Deactivating does not delete any files. Instead, all program and data files are left in
position to enable you to later activate the workstation again. To completely remove
PROKON from a PC, you must uninstall the software 1-15
Program Installation 1-11
Activating a deactivated workstation
To reactivate a deactivated workstation, simply follow the activation procedure described on
page 1-9.
Installation, activation and deactivation suggestions
Here are a few suggestions to consider for simplifying your license management:
Use the Direct Internet method for activating and deactivating whenever possible. This
allows for direct communication with the PROKON license server and instantaneous
results. Note that firewall restrictions on your company network may prevent this method
from working.
You can install PROKON on any number of standalone computers. However, activation of
the programs will be limited to the number of available workstations. You can any time
deactivate an active workstation (storing it the PROKON license server) and then activate
your programs on another computer.
If you find that you have to deactivate and activate PROKON very often, consider
installing your PROKON a USB memory stick (instead of a hard drive on your computer),
and moving the memory stick from between computers.
If you have about five or more engineers using PROKON on a regular basis, consider a
network installation instead of separate installations on standalone computers. Doing so
can save you money (more optimal use of fewer licensed workstations) and will make
upgrading PROKON more convenient (only one instance requires updating).

Program Installation 1-12
Installing on a network
PROKON can be installed on a network for simultaneous use by more than one person. The
number of simultaneous users will be limited to the number of workstations ordered, e.g. if
Set 1 has three workstations, then a maximum of three engineers can use that set at a time.
The network installation procedure has three steps:
1. Copying the program files to the server.
2. Activating the programs for simultaneous use.
3. Configure folder permissions for network access
4. Configuring each workstation that will use PROKON.
You do not need a dedicated file server to be able to install PROKON on your network. Any
PC on the network, even an ordinary PC connected to a peer-to-peer network, can be identified
as the 'server' for the purpose of sharing PROKON on your network.
Note: To install PROKON on a server version of Windows, you may need to be seated at
the server (or accessing its desktop remotely) and logged in as an administrator.
Copying the program files to the server
The procedure for installing the program files to the server is the same as described from
page 1-8 for installing on a standalone computer. The only difference is that the target folder
should be located on the server, i.e. a shared drive or folder on the network. (If seated at the
server when performing the installation, this will off course be a local folder.)
Activating the programs for simultaneous use over the network
The procedure to activate the network instance of PROKON is the same as described on
page 1-9 for a standalone computer. There is one difference though, and that is that you would
likely want to activate not only one, but all the available workstations on the server.
Once activated on the server, PROKON is ready for use from multiple PCs on the network. No
further steps are required to make the license activation network-aware.
Note: When not activated, e.g. directly after the initial installation, the PROKON will operate
in 'demo mode' a special mode with reduced functionality meant for evaluation purposes.
Program Installation 1-13
Configure folder permissions
To allow network users to access PROKON on the server, you need to adjust some folder
preferences. All installed folders may have read-only access except for the following folders
that require full control:
The 'User' folder and sub-folders where each user's preferences are saved.
The 'Prolock' folder contains the PROKON installation status and keeps a log of users
accessing the system.
The 'Data' folder is the default location for saving program input and output data. You will
likely have a different project storage location set up elsewhere on your network. To
change the default storage location, set the Working Folder. See Chapter 2 for more
information.
Refer to page 1-6 for more detail regarding the PROKON folder tree.
Configuring the network workstations to use PROKON
After successfully installing and activating PROKON on your server, configuring the
individual workstations is a simple case of creating a shortcut on each station.
To create a shortcut on a workstation:
Seated at the workstation, use
Windows Explorer to browse to the
PROKON prorgam folder on the
network, e.g. \\server\prokon\bin
Locate the file, 'Prokon32.exe' within
the main program folder.
Right-click the file, select Sent To in
the context menu to appears, and then
choose Desktop (create shortcut)
Optionally rename the shortcut from
'Prokon32.exe' to 'Prokon Structural
Analysis'.
Note: For a network installation it is not necessary to install the PROKON CD on each
individual workstation.
Deactivating your network installation
The procedure to deactivate is identical that that for a standalone installation described on page
1-10.
Program Installation 1-14
Switching between Set 1 and Set 2
If your license key contains workstations on both Set 1 and Set 2, then you can switch between
them while using PROKON (assuming both sets have been activated on the computer or on the
network).
In the example used before, your license
key may contain some steel design
modules in Set 1 (Steel) and some
concrete design modules in Set 2
(Concrete). To switch between the two
sets, run PROKON, open the Settings
menu, and select Username. You can then
edit your username and select the set of
programs you want to use.
You set selection will remain active until
your change it againMore detail regarding
the setting of a user name are in given in
Chapter 2.
Program Installation 1-15
Uninstalling PROKON
To remove PROKON from a PC or network, follow the steps below:
Deactivate your PROKON license as described on page 1-10. Failure to deactivate your
license before uninstalling PROKON may result in your license being destroyed.
Seated at the PC where PROKON is installed (or at the server in the case of a network
installation), open the Windows Control Pane.
Choose Uninstall or Change a Program (Add/Remove Programs in some versions of
Windows).
Select PROKON from the list and follow the steps to uninstall.
As a safeguard, PROKON data is not erased during the uninstall procedure. If you wish to
remove PROKON data as well, then manually delete the PROKON installation tree see page
1-6 for more information.
Note: Before uninstalling , please deactivate the software first as discussed on page 1-10.
Program Installation 1-16
Precautionary measures to protect your license
The activation status of your PROKON programs may be damaged in some instances. The
following situations require the programs to be deactivated first and activated again afterwards:
Moving the programs to another folder on a local or network drive. You are free to move
or copy data folders though.
Converting the hard disk file structure, e.g. from to FAT32 to NTFS.
Upgrading of hardware, e.g. replacement of the hard disk.
Note: Disk defragmenting utilities can be used safely with PROKON.
To deactivate the PROKON suite, follow the procedures described on page 1-10.
The importance of dates and times
The date are recorded as part of the suite's copy protection system. To prevent unnecessary
errors, it is important that all relevant computers should have the correct date and time.

Updating PROKON 1-17
Updating PROKON
The PROKON development team is continuously working at improving the software. Changes
in design codes, support for additional design codes, new program features and occasional bug
fixes make for regular program updates.
Upgrade Eligibility
You are eligible for free program updates in the following cases:
If you have an annual rental agreement.
If you have a maintenance agreement for your purchased PROKON software.
If you do not have a maintenance agreement but have purchased or upgraded your
PROKON software less than 12 months ago.
Upgrading your Programs
You can use either of the following methods to update your PROKON programs:
PROKON Live Update: An automated utility that downloads the latest versions of your
programs and installs them for you. This is the preferred method if you are already using
the current major version of PROKON.
PROKON Service Pack: A package that contains all program modules for manual
installation. This is the preferred method when upgrading from one major version of
PROKON to another, i.e. from an older version to the current version.
Tip: For up-to-date version information and update instructions, please refer to the
following web page: www.prokon.com/updates.
Updating PROKON 1-18
Using PROKON Live Update
The Live Update utility allows to you easily update all your PROKON modules to the latest
versions. To use Live Update:
Close all running PROKON programs except Calcpad. Launch Live Update from the
Tools menu in Calcpad. Alternatively, launch it from the PROKON group on the
Windows Start Menu.
Live Update will automatically connect with the PROKON update server to retrieve the
latest version information. After a few moments, it will show which modules have updates
available.
Download and install the updates. Depending on your internet connection speed and
anti-virus scanning, the process should complete in a few minutes.

Note: Firewall restrictions on your network can prevent Live Update from communicating
with the PROKON server. Please refer to the following web page for alternative update
options: www.prokon.com/updates.
The PROKON Basics 2-1
Chapter
2
The PROKON Basics
The basic principles of using PROKON are discussed in this chapter. Starting with the issues
you need to address when using the program for the first time, e.g. setting up a working folder,
the text progresses to everyday tasks like running analysis and design modules. The chapter
ends with explaining advanced procedures like creating an equation library and customising the
page layout for your projects.
The PROKON Basics 2-2
Quick Reference
Using PROKON for the First Time 2-3
Using the Analysis and Design Modules 2-11
Using the Table Editor 2-15
Using the PROKON Calculator 2-23
Working with Pictures 2-25
Adding Text and Graphics 2-31
Working with Equations 2-37
Customising the Page Layout 2-47
Configuring the Section Database 2-53
Configuring the Material Database 2-57





Using PROKON for the First Time 2-3
Using PROKON for the
First Time
Depending on the shortcut options chosen during the installation procedure, you will be able to
run PROKON by double-clicking the shortcut on the Desktop or selecting it from the Start
Menu.



Using PROKON for the First Time 2-4
Configuring PROKON
On launching PROKON, the main program, called Calcpad, is displayed. From here, you are
able to launch the individual analysis and design modules. Calcpad is also the application that
you will use to collect analysis and design results and save them in project files.
Some aspects are best attended to immediately when using PROKON for the first time:
Creating a user folder.
Setting the preferred design codes, design parameters and units of measurement.
Setting up a working folder.
Selecting a wallpaper.
Customising your project's appearance.
Note: When running PROKON for the very first time, the default design codes and units of
measurement are automatically set to match your current Windows Regional Settings. To
check or change your settings, open Control Panel and double-click Regional Settings.
Once you start using the PROKON analysis and design modules, you will want to progress to
working with project files:
Entering a header for a project.
Working with more than one project at a time.
File management.
Setting your user name
The PROKON suite can be made to adapt to your style of working by automatically saving
your preferences in a user folder. Information recorded include:
Preferences: Design codes, units of measurement and custom sections.
Display properties: Size and position of each module on the screen.
To select your user folder or create a new one, open the Settings menu and choose User. The
user folder resides under the main PROKON program folder. If you use the system on a
network, you will be able to select your user folder regardless of which workstation on the
network you use.
Using PROKON for the First Time 2-5
If you are using multiple sets on a network
Your license key may include two sets of programs. You may, for example, have set 1
configured with mainly steel design modules and set 2 with mainly concrete design modules. If
configured this way, different users can use the respective sets simultaneously.
The set selected is saved as part of the
user preferences. In other words, using
the example of separate steel design
and concrete design sets, a steel
designer needs to select the steel
design set only the first time he uses
PROKON. The next time he uses the
system, he will automatically be
presented with the steel design set.
More details regarding the activating license keys and individual sets are in given in Chapter 2.
Selecting your preferences
During program installation, the default design
codes and units of measurement are automatically
set according to your PC's regional settings, i.e. the
information recorded in the Regional settings
function of the Windows Control Panel.
To change your preferred design code and
parameters, use the General preferences command
on the Settings menu.
The design modules use the selected preferences to
determine the default values for design codes and
relevant design parameters. You can however
temporarily override these setting using the Design
code, Units or Preferences command on a design
module's File menu.
If a particular preference is not available in module,
e.g. the preferred design code is not supported, the
module will automatically make a next-best
selection.

Using PROKON for the First Time 2-6
Setting up a working folder
By default, all input and
output data is saved in the
working folder. The first
time you use PROKON, the
working folder will be set to
'. . .\Prokon\Data\Demo'.
Once you get accustomed to
using the suite, it is
recommended that you create
a new working folder for
each project you are working
on. Working folders can be
created in any convenient
location, be it on you own
hard disk or on the network.
To create a new working
folder or select another
existing folder, open the
Settings menu and choose
Working Folder. When
naming a new working
folder, you should use a valid
Windows folder name:
A folder name may contain up to 255 characters, including spaces.
A folder name may not contain any of the following characters: \ / : * ? " < > |.
Selecting a wallpaper
To personalise your PROKON workstation, you may want to display a wallpaper in Calcpad.
To load a wallpaper, open the Settings menu and choose Wallpaper. The following limitations
apply to wallpapers:
Supported graphics formats include: Windows Bitmap (.bmp), Icon (.ico), Metafile (.wmf)
and Enhanced Metafile (.emf).
The wallpaper image is scaled to fit the Calcpad working area. Therefore, not all images
will necessarily look well.
Using PROKON for the First Time 2-7
Working with project files
Apart from acting as a launch platform for the analysis and design modules, you can use
Calcpad to group analysis results and design calculations and then save all the information in a
project file.
You can use project files to keep a complete record of all your analysis and design calculations:
In an analysis or design module, the input data and results are typically collected on the
module's Calcsheets page from where you send it to Calcpad. For an explanation of the
procedure, refer to page 2-13.
Results obtained from the various analysis and design modules are then saved together in a
project file.
You can then use Calcpad to supplement the results from the analysis and design modules
with additional design notes and pictures. Refer to page 2-31 for more detail.
Links are retained with each individual analysis via data file objects. These objects are
visible in the right-hand margin as yellow folders. Double-clicking a data file object recalls
the original input data in the relevant analysis or design module.
To perform calculations not covered in the scope of the design modules, you can use
equations a feature built into Calcpad. The use of the Equation Editor is explained on
page 2-37.
Entering a header for a project
The information at the top each page should be completed to reflect the designers name, the
date etc. To edit the header information:
Select the Header
command from the
Edit menu or double-
click the header in
Calcpad.
Type the information
for each field.
To insert the current
date, click Insert date.
If you use similar headers for your different projects, you can save retyping information by
saving the header information. Click Save as default to save the information and Load default
to retrieve it.

Using PROKON for the First Time 2-8
Click OK to apply the new header to the active project. The new header will apply to the
current and following pages. This allows you, for example, to use different people's names in
the Designed by field if more than one person is working on the same project file.
The composition of the header can be changed to suit your own needs by customising the page
template. For more details, refer to the customisation procedures explained from page 2-47.
Working with more than one project at a time
You can open more than one project in Calcpad at a time. The current selected project is
referred to as the active project. All results sent to Calcpad from the analysis and design
modules are placed in the active project.
To select an open project and make it the active project, click its tab with the mouse.
File management
Use the File menu commands to open and save project files in the working folder or any other
location on your own computer or on a network drive that you have write access to:
To create a new project file, select New Project.
To open an existing project file, use the Open Project command.
Use Save Project to save the active project.
To save a new, unnamed project file, use Save Project as.
To close the active projects or all open projects, use Close Project or Close All.
To open a recently used project file, click the file name at the bottom of the File menu.
PROKON Project files as saved with the extension '.PPF' for easy recognition.
To open a project file on your hard disk or network
1. On the File menu, click Open Project.
2. In the Look in box, click the drive and folder that contains the document.
3. In the folder list, double-click folders until you locate the folder that contains the
document you want.
By default, the file list is filtered to show only project files created by Calcpad. You can
change this by selecting All files in the Files of type box, e.g. when wanting to open a text
file. You can also type a filter File name box; for example, type 'p*.*' to find all files
starting with the letter p.
4. To change the appearance of the file list, click List or Details. With Details selected, you
can click a column heading to sort the data files by name, size, date or type.
Using PROKON for the First Time 2-9
5. Double-click the document you want to open.
Saving a new, unnamed project file
1. On the File menu, click Save Project.
2. To save the project in a different folder, click a different drive in the Save Project in box,
or double-click a different folder in the folder list.
3. To save the document in a new folder, click Create New Folder.
4. In the File name box, type a name for the document. You can use long, descriptive file
names if you want. The program will automatically add an appropriate file extension.
5. Click Save.
Customising your project's appearance
Once you get accustomed to using PROKON, it is recommended that you use the procedures
explained from page 2-47 to load another page template or create your own template.


Using PROKON for the First Time 2-10

Using the Analysis and Design Modules 2-11
Using the Analysis and Design
Modules
To run a PROKON analysis or design module, click its icon on the shortcut bar or select it
from the Program menu. If a particular module's shortcut icon or menu item is dimmed, it
means that the module is not included in your workstation.
A number of discontinued modules, notably Plastic Frame Analysis and Design and Finite
Element Slab Design are available on the Program menu only.

Using the Analysis and Design Modules 2-12
Using the analysis and design modules
The analysis and design modules follow a similar pattern. By familiarising yourself with a few
concepts, you should find using the PROKON suite relatively simple and intuitive.
Setting the preferred design codes
Use the General preferences command on the Settings menu to select the design codes and
parameters to use. More detail of the procedure is given on page 2-5.
Similar layout
All modules present you with a number of tabbed pages or menus:
The File menu: Standard Windows commands are provided for opening and saving data
files. The commands are similar to those described on page 2-8.
The Input page: All input
data is entered on this page.
In the case of some of the
larger analysis modules, e.g.
the frame analysis modules,
this page will itself contain a
number of tabbed input
pages. Some modules also
allow specialised input
trough a separate Settings
page or button.
The Analysis or Design
page: Selecting this page
typically starts the analysis
and displays the results.
The Calcsheets page: Analysis and design results can be accumulated in a single
calcsheet. You can choose between printing or sending the information to Calcpad.
The Drawings or Bending Schedules page: Most design modules are capable of
generating a detailed drawing or bending schedule of the designed element. Drawings and
bending schedules can be edited and printed using Padds.
The Help menu: Access is provided to on-line Help topics and built-in Examples.
To display a particular page or menu, click it with the mouse. Alternatively use F11 and F12 to
move forward and back between the pages.

Using the Analysis and Design Modules 2-13
Data input
Except when using Padds for graphical input, e.g. for frames, all data is entered in tables. Data
is normally evaluated immediately as entered. If invalid input is detected, a list of errors is
normally displayed.
Entered data is typically shown in Pictures that interact with the Table Editor to automatically
update with every entry in the tables. Pictures can be zoomed and panned for more detail.
Some pictures have visible zoom buttons, others not. However, all pictures can be zoomed by
right-clicking it and using the pop-up menu. Pictures can also be saved as drawings.
The use of the Table Editor is explained in detail on page 2-15 and the manipulation of
Pictures on page 2-25.
Sending analysis results to Calcpad
After a successful analysis or design, you can group the results in a calcsheet. You can then
choose to print or send the information to Calcpad. To send results to Calcpad:
Access the relevant module's Calcsheets page.
Use the Settings function to select the components to include in the calcsheet. You can
optionally select the Data File to have the input data saved as part of the Calcpad project.
Note: In the case of some of the larger modules, e.g. the frame analysis modules, you need
to first view the results and select individual components to be included in the calcsheet.
Click Send to Calcpad to append the results to the active project in Calcpad.
Saving input
You can use the File menu of a module to
save and open input data files. However, if
you enable the Data File option before
sending a calcsheet to Calcpad, you can
later recall the input data by double-clicking
the relevant object in Calcpad. A data file
embedded in Calcpad is saved as part of a
project and does not need to be saved in the
relevant module as well.
If you do save a data file in an analysis or
design module, the file name extension will
automatically be set to the program number
for easy recognition, e.g. '.A03' for Frame
Analysis.

Using the Analysis and Design Modules 2-14
Using the online help
You can access context-sensitive help by pressing F1. Alternatively use the Help menu to
display an overview of the program.

It is easier to update electronic information than printed manuals. Therefore, you may
occasionally find that the on-line help is more up to date that the manual.
Updated help files are published regularly on the PROKON Website. Additional information
not given in either the manual or Help, e.g. answers to frequently asked questions and details
of program revisions, is also available on the PROKON Support Web. Refer to the
introduction of this manual to read more about support service included with your purchase of
PROKON software.

Using the Table Editor 2-15
Using the Table Editor
You can edit text in tables using the standard Windows functions, i.e. as employed by most
spreadsheet applications such as Microsoft Office Excel. The standard Windows functions are
supplemented with a number of special functions that speed up table editing.


Using the Table Editor 2-16
Moving around and editing text
You can move around in tables and edit cells in very much the same way as you do in your
favourite spreadsheet program.
Moving the cursor in a table
Use the arrow keys to move between cells. Press Enter to jump to the left-most cell in the
next row. Pressing Tab moves one cell to the right and Shift+Tab one cell to the left. If you
press Tab at the end of a row, the cursor will jump to the left-most cell in the next row.
Home jumps to the first cell in the row and End to the last. PgUp and PgDn moves one screen
up or down. To jump to the top left or bottom right corner of the table, press Ctrl+Home or
Ctrl+End.
Tip: Click a cell with the mouse to quickly move the cursor to that cell.
Entering and editing text
To enter text into a cell, position the cursor on the cell and start typing. Press Enter or one of
the arrow keys to accept the new text and move to a next cell. Depending on the key pressed,
the cursor will move to a specific cell:
Pressing Enter accepts the entry and moves the cursor to the left-most cell in the next row.
If you press the right, up or down arrow key, the cursor will move one cell right, up
or down.
If you wish to move one cell to the left, use Shift+Tab.
Note: Some cells have special drop-down lists for selecting values. Depending on the
specific application, you may be able to select common values from the list or optionally
type values.
While entering or editing text, you can move left and right using the left and right arrow keys.
To jump to the left-most or right-most positions, press Home or End. To move one word to the
left or right, use Ctrl with the left and right arrows.
To edit text in a cell, move the cursor to the cell and press F2 or double-click it. If you want to
replace the text in the cell rather than change it, simply retype the text without first
pressing F2.

Using the Table Editor 2-17
Deleting text
Press Del or Backspace to clear the current cell's contents. While entering or editing text in a
cell, Del and Backspace will delete one character to the right or left respectively.
Inserting lines
Press Enter to move to the first cell on the next line. To insert a blank line at the cursor,
press Ctrl+I.
Finding and replacing text
You can search for and replace text in a
table by pressing Ctrl+F. This feature can
be especially handy when working with
large tables, e.g. when entering nodes for a
frame analysis.
To repeat the last search without first
opening the dialog box, press F3.

Using the Table Editor 2-18
Working with blocks
You can copy, move or delete cells using the block commands. These actions typically require
two steps:
Marking a cell or block of cells you can choose between using the normal Windows
methods of selecting cells or the extended PROKON functions.
Using a block command to manipulate the block.
Marking blocks
When marking blocks, you can choose between using the standard Windows functions and the
extended PROKON block functions the behaviour of the resulting blocks are different.
Using the standard Windows functions
To select a cell or block of cells using standard Windows commands, use any of the following
procedures:
Click and drag the mouse to select a rectangular block of cells.
Position the cursor on one of the corner cells. Press and hold Shift and then use the arrow
keys to move to the opposite corner.
Note: When marking a block this way, moving the cursor will undo the selection.
Marking persistent blocks
The extended functions allow you to mark persistent blocks, i.e. blocks that remain selected
even if you move the cursor. Persistent blocks are marked as follows:
To select one or more rows, move the cursor to the first row and press Ctrl+L. Then move
to the last row and press Ctrl+L again.
To select one or more columns, move the cursor to the first column and press Ctrl+K and
then move to the last column and press Ctrl+K again.
To mark a rectangular block of cells, position the cursor on the top left cell and then press
Ctrl+B. To end the selection, move to the bottom right cell and press Ctrl+E.
Note: A persistent selection will remain active until unmarked with Ctrl+U. While the cells
are selected, you are free to move the cursor without the block being de-selected.

Using the Table Editor 2-19
Copying, moving or deleting cells
A selected cell or group of cells can be copied, moved or deleted using the standard Windows
functions or the extended PROKON block functions.
Using the Windows clipboard functions
You can use the normal Windows clipboard Cut, Copy and Paste functions:
To copy a cell or block to the clipboard, press Ctrl+C. Alternatively right-click it and
choose Copy.
To cut a block, i.e. remove it from the table and copy it to the clipboard, press Ctrl+X.
Alternatively right-click it and choose Cut.
To paste the clipboard contents into the table at the cursor position, press Ctrl+V.
alternatively right-click and choose Paste. If you are pasting a block of cells, the current
cursor position will be taken as the top left corner of the block.
Examples:
To copy cells in the table, first select the cell or block of cells and Copy the information to
the clipboard. Then position the cursor to the new position and Paste the text.
To move one or more selected cells, Cut them to the clipboard and Paste them at the new
position.
To delete one or more selected cells, select and Cut them. Alternatively press Del to delete
the selected cells.
Copying, moving and deleting cells using persistent blocks
You can use the extended functions to mark persistent blocks and then copy and move text
without using the Windows clipboard.
To copy one or more cells, first mark a persistent block, move to the new position and
then press Ctrl+V.
To move a persistent block, use Ctrl+M.
To delete a persistent block selection, use Ctrl+D.

Using the Table Editor 2-20
Advantages of using persistent blocks
The normal block selection functionality offered by Windows allows you to quickly mark an
area with the mouse or keyboard. However, the selection is cancelled as soon as you move the
cursor. In contrast, persistent blocks offer the following advantages:
You are allowed to move the cursor while defining the selection, without cancelling the
selection. You could, for example, move up or down in the table without undoing the
selection.
You do not need to first Copy or Cut information to the Windows clipboard - while a
persistent block is selected, you can Paste or Move it directly.
You can quickly mark persistent blocks using the keyboard.
Copying text from another program
You may sometimes find it easier to generate tables of values using another application, e.g.
your favourite spreadsheet program. Relevant information can then be copied to a PROKON
table (or from PROKON to the other program) using the Windows clipboard:
Select relevant text and Copy it to the clipboard.
Press Alt-Tab to swap to the destination program or click it on the Windows Task Bar.
Position the cursor and Paste the information from the clipboard.

Using the Table Editor 2-21
Summary of commands
Moving around:
Arrows : Move one cell up, down, left or right.
Enter : Jump to the first cell in the next row.
Tab : Move one cell right.
Shift+Tab : Move one cell left.
Home : Jump to the first cell of the current row.
End : Jump to the last cell of the current row.
Ctrl+Home : Jump to the top left corner of the table.
Ctrl+End : Jump to the bottom left corner of the table.
Del : Delete the cell at the cursor.
Ctrl+Y : Delete the line at the cursor (irrespective of any block selected).
Backspace : Delete the cell at the cursor and open it for editing.
Ctrl+I : Insert a blank line.
Ctrl+F : Find or replace text
Editing cells:
F2 : Edit the cell at the cursor.
Left/right : Move the cursor inside the text.
Ctrl+left/right : Move the cursor left or right one word.
Up/down : Accept the changed text and moves to the adjacent cell.
Enter : Accept the changed text and jumps to the first cell in the next row.
Del : Delete the character to the right.
Backspace : Delete the character to the left.
Marking persistent blocks:
Ctrl+A : Select all cells.
Ctrl+B : Mark the top left corner of a rectangular block.
Ctrl+E : Mark the bottom right corner of a rectangular block.
Ctrl+K : Mark the first or last column of a block.

Using the Table Editor 2-22
Ctrl+L : Mark the first or last line of a block.
Ctrl+U : Unmark the current block.
Clipboard commands
Ctrl+C : Copy the block to the clipboard.
Ctrl+X : Cut the block to the clipboard.
Ctrl+V : Paste the clipboard to the cursor position.
Persistent block commands
Ctrl+V : Copy the persistent block to the cursor position
Ctrl+M : Move the persistent block to the cursor position.
Ctrl+D : Delete the block.

Using the PROKON Calculator 2-23
Using the PROKON Calculator
Use the PROKON calculator for basic calculations. You can copy a result to the Windows
clipboard and then paste it into Calcpad or an input table of a design module.


Using the PROKON Calculator 2-24
Using the Calculator
Use the PROKON calculator for basic calculations. You can copy a result to the Windows
clipboard and then paste it into Calcpad or an input table of a design module.
During installation, the calculator can be configured to automatically load when Windows
starts. If so, the calculator will be visible in the Windows system tray that is typically located
in the bottom right corner of the screen, i.e. next to the clock.
Clicking its icon or pressing Ctrl+1 can display the calculator. To
close the calculator, click Exit or press Esc. On closing, the
calculator will return to its idle status in the system tray.
To close the calculator and remove it from memory, right-click its
icon and choose Close.
Doing calculations
Operation is similar to a conventional hand-held calculator:
Enter an equation using the normal mathematical operators.
To enter a mathematical function, click the relevant button or write out the function.
Simplify complex equations by enclosing portions in brackets.
Press Enter to display the result.
To remove the displayed equation and continue working with the result, press Clear left.
Sending calculation results to other programs
The result of a calculation can be copied to the Windows clipboard for reuse in another
program:
Click Copy or press Alt-C to copy the result to the clipboard and close the calculator.
In the relevant application, e.g. Calcpad or an input table of a design module, use the
Paste command or press Ctrl+V to paste the value.
Tip: When using a Dos module, press Ctrl+Z to display a calculator. Use F10 to send the
result back to the module's input table.

Working with Pictures 2-25
Working with Pictures
The analysis and design modules often have pictures linked to the input tables to make data
entry interactive and more intuitive. Pictures are also often used to present analysis results.


Working with Pictures 2-26
Zooming and panning pictures
You can 'zoom in' to get a close-up view of a picture. Some pictures have Zoom buttons for
this purpose. If a picture does not have such buttons, you can still zoom it by right-clicking the
picture and choosing a command from the pup-up menu.

The following zoom commands are normally available for all pictures:
Window: Indicate a rectangular area to zoom into.
All: Display the whole picture, based on the size defined internally for the
background.
Last: Revert to the last zoom setting.
Extents: Display the whole picture, based on the drawn entities.
In: Zoom in by 50%.
Out: Zoom out by 50%.
Pan: Drag the project in any direction to view an adjoining portion.
Print: Send the picture to the printer.


Saving pictures
In addition to the Zoom button commands, the right-click pop-up menu also allows you to
save the picture in the following file formats:
PAD: Fully editable Padds drawing.
PIC: Prokon picture file.
EMF: Enhanced Windows metafile, readable by many graphics and
presentation packages.
DXF: 2D or 3D DXF drawings for use in other CAD systems.
In some modules, e.g. the frame analysis modules, a special button may is available
for adding a picture to the Calcsheets.



Working with Pictures 2-27
Working with 3D pictures
Because of their nature, some analysis and design modules need to display
3D pictures. The commands available for 3D pictures are:
Window: Indicate a rectangular area to zoom into.
All: Display the visible portion of structure from the current view point.
Last: Revert to the last zoom setting.
Extents: Display the complete structure, moving forward or back if necessary.
In: Zoom in by 50%.
Out: Zoom out by 50%.
Pan: Drag the project in any direction to view an adjoining portion. You can
also click and drag the picture using the middle mouse button.
Print: Print the current view of the structure.
Viewpoint: Display the View Point Control dialog box for defining the view
point and other view characteristics.
View plane: Display the View Plane Control dialog box for defining a view
plane.
Rotate left: Rotate the structure to the left about the Y-axis. The rotation angle
is defined in the View Point Control dialog box.
Rotate right: Rotate the structure to the right about the Y-axis.
Rotate up: Rotate the structure backward.
Rotate down: Rotate the structure forward.
Orbit: Rotate the image freely about the centre of the model. Alternatively, hold
the Shift key, and rotate the image with the picture using the middle mouse
button.
Detailed settings
Some modules allow detailed configuration of pictures. In the frame analysis
modules, for example, you can access the Graphics Options to enable or disable
display of node numbers, global axes etc. Pictures can also be rendered in 3D or
shown as simple line diagrams.



Working with Pictures 2-28
View point control
Use the view Point Control Dialog function to define the viewpoint and other view properties:
View point: Imagine viewing the structure
through a camera lens. The view point is then
defined as the position of the camera. Enter the
view point coordinates or use the Walk function
to move the camera by the distance defined as
the Step size.
View direction: The direction in which the
camera is aimed. The default position is the
centre of the structure. Enter the view direction
or use the Turn function to rotate the camera
through the angle defined as the Turn angle.
View angle: The lens angle. A larger angle will
show more of the structure in a close-up
situation.
Projection: Choose between using an orthogonal or perspective projection. The latter gives
a more realistic view of the structure. However, you may get a distorted picture when
using a large view angle in a close-up situation.
Elevations: For a quick view from the top or one of the sides, choose a positive or negative
X, Y or Z-elevation.
Perpendicular on view-plane: If a view plane is set, you can move the view point to be
perpendicular to it.
Default: Moves the view point to a position that looks down at the centre of the model
with a view direction of equal amount along the positive X, Y and Z-axes (i.e. dX, dY and
dZ all equal to -1.00) and zooms to the model extents.
Tip: The default view angle of 50 works well with perspective projections of structures. If
you cannot see the complete structure, the view point is probably to near to the structure.
Reset the View Point using the Default button or use the Zoom extents function to move
back far enough to view the complete structure.
The View Point Control dialog box can be left open while you work in the program. You can
also use the zoom and pan functions while the dialog box is open.

Working with Pictures 2-29
View plane control
When viewing a complicated 3D structure, you may often find it difficult to identify points in
the structure. Use the View Plane Control function to define only certain planes to be viewed.
View planes can be defined in three ways:
Nodes: Enter or use the mouse to indicate
three nodes that describe a plane. The plane
does not need to vertical or horizontal.
Axis: Define a view plane perpendicular to
the X, Y, or Z-axis. Enter the position along
the indicated axis.
Coordinates: Enter three 3D coordinates to
describe a plane.
Enter a view plane thickness
to define how much of the
structure should be visible.
Click Clear to restore the
settings to displaying the whole
structure. Click Apply to make
the entered view plane take
effect. Click Close to close the
dialog box
The View Plane Control dialog
box can be left open while you
work in the program. You can
also use the zoom and pan
functions and the View Point
Control while the dialog box is
open.
Tip: If your PC's screen resolution permits, you may move the View Point Control and
View Plane Control dialog boxes to one side so as not to clutter the display of the
underlying program.

Working with Pictures 2-30
Saving and recalling views
You can use viewpoints and view planes to display
the whole structure or portions of it in convenient
ways, e.g. a plan view of a floor of a multi-storey
building. You can save each combination of view
point and view plane as a view for later re-use.

Some pictures display the name of the current
view and allow you to select another saved view by
clicking the view name.


















Adding Text and Graphics 2-31
Adding Text and Graphics
The analysis output generated by the various analysis and design modules will provide
normally sufficient detail of your designs. However, you may want to enhance your project
files by adding additional design notes, pictures and even additional calculations.
The procedure to write and edit text and to insert and manipulate pictures in Calcpad is
described in the following text. Equation writing is explained from page 2-37.


Adding Text and Graphics 2-32
Writing and editing text
You can use Calcpad as a simple word processor to write and edit text. You may possibly find
that you can use the exact same or similar editing and formatting commands as in your
favourite word processor.
Typing text
Type text as you would in any other word processor or text editor.
Typing over existing text
Press the Ins key to toggle between overtype and insert modes. In overtype mode, you will
replace existing text as you type, one character at a time.
Replacing selected text
Select the text to be replaced and start typing to replace it.
Inserting symbols or special characters
You can insert Greek symbols and other special characters using the Symbol command on the
Insert menu. You can also insert a character or symbol by typing the character code on the
numeric keypad, e.g. 'Alt-225' inserts the character.
Insert the date and time in a project
You can insert the current date or time in a project using the Date command on the Insert
menu.
Insert a text file
To insert a complete text file, use the Text File command on the Insert menu. To insert only a
portion of a text file instead:
1. Open the text file using the Open Project command on the File menu. Change the Files of
type field to 'All files' and select the file.
2. Select and copy the relevant text using the procedures described on page 2-35.
Deleting text
Use Del and Backspace to delete a character to the left or right. To delete words or paragraphs,
select the text and press Del.

Adding Text and Graphics 2-33
Changing the appearance of text
To change the appearance of text, e.g. underline text or numbers:
1. Select the text you want to change.
2. On the formatting toolbar, select a font or click a style or point size.

The change will be applied to the selected text only or, if you did not select any text, to new
text from the cursor position and further.
You can also use the keyboard shortcuts Ctrl+B, Ctrl+I and Ctrl+U to make text bold, italic
or underlined.
When changing font style of text with mixed style, the style will toggle between normal,
formatted and mixed, e.g. all normal, all bold and mixed normal and bold.
Check spelling
Click the Check Spelling button in the toolbar to check the spelling of text in the document.
The built-in dictionary includes terminology commonly used in structural engineering.
Note: Prior to version 2.5, the spell checker required Microsoft Office to be installed. This
is no longer the case in the current version.
Moving around in a project
You can scroll through a project by using the mouse or shortcut keys.
To scroll through a project by using the mouse:
Scroll up one line: Click the up arrow on the scroll bar.
Scroll down one line: Click the down arrow on the scroll bar.
Scroll up one screen: Click above the scroll box.
Scroll down one screen: Click below the scroll box.
Scroll left: Click the left arrow on the horizontal scroll bar (if displayed).
Scroll right: Click the right arrow on the horizontal scroll bar (if displayed).

Adding Text and Graphics 2-34
After scrolling, click where you want to start typing. To move the cursor using the keyboard:
Move up or down one line: Press the Up or Down arrow.
Move up or down one screen: Press PgUp or PgDn.
Move left or right one word: Press Ctrl+Left or Ctrl+Right.
To jump to the beginning or end of the current line: Press Home or End.
To jump to the first or last lines in the project: Press Ctrl+Home or Ctrl+End.
To move to the reference column on the far right: Press Ctrl+Tab.Using graphics in your
project
Graphics can be used to supplement text and serve to enhance your projects. Inserted graphics
can be moved, copied and resized.
Inserting a graphic
Use the commands on the Insert menu to insert graphics:
To insert a Windows Bitmap or Metafile: Click Picture and select the file.
To insert a Padds drawing: Click Drawing and select the file.
Moving and resizing graphics
To move a graphic:
1. Select the graphic by
clicking it.
2. Drag it to the new position.
To resize a graphic:
1. Select the graphic.
2. Drag the graphic's edge to
change its horizontal or
vertical size.
3. Drag one of the graphic's
corners to proportionally
change its horizontal or
vertical size.

Adding Text and Graphics 2-35
Moving and copying text and graphics
You can move or copy text and graphics within a project, between projects, or between
Calcpad and another program.
Selecting text and graphics to move or copy
You can select text and graphics by using the mouse or shortcut keys. To select text and
graphics using the mouse:
To select any amount of text, drag over the text.
To select a graphic, click it.
To select a whole word, double-click the word.
Using the keyboard, select text by holding down Shift and pressing the same key that moves
the cursor. To extend a selection:
One character to the left or right: Shift+Left or Right arrow.
To the beginning or end of a word: Ctrl+Shift+Left or Right arrow.
To the beginning or end of a line: Shift+Home or End.
One line up or down: Shift+Up or Down arrow.
One screen up or down: Shift+PgUp or PgDn.
To the beginning or end of the project: Ctrl+Shift+Home or End.
To select all the words in a line: Ctrl+L.
To select the entire project: Ctrl+A.
Moving or copying text and graphics
To move or copy text and graphics:
1. Select the text or graphics you want to move or copy.
2. To move the selection, click Cut or press Ctrl+X.
3. To copy the selection, click Copy or enter Ctrl+V.
4. If you want to move or copy the text or graphics to another document, switch to it.
5. Click where you want your text or graphics to appear.
6. Click Paste or press Ctrl+V.

Adding Text and Graphics 2-36
Zooming a text and graphics
You can 'zoom in' to get a close-up view of a project or 'zoom out' to see more of the page at a
reduced size. Use the Zoom buttons or right-click the project for a pop-up menu with zoom
commands:
Window: Indicate a rectangular area to zoom into.
Margin: Display the whole page width between the left and right margins.
Page: Display the whole page.
Last: Revert to the last zoom setting.
In: Zoom in by 50%.
Out: Zoom out by 50%.
Pan: Drag the project in any direction to view an adjoining portion.
Page up: Scroll one page up. Same as pressing PgUp.
Page down: Scroll one page down. Same as pressing PgDn.



Working with Equations 2-37
Working with Equations
You can use the Equation Editor to create your own equations in Calcpad. The Equation
Editor is also used to edit existing equations or save equation objects for re-use in future,
e.g. create a library of equations


Working with Equations 2-38
Inserting and editing equations
To open the Equation Editor for inserting or editing an existing equation:
To insert a new equation: Choose Equation from the Insert menu.
To edit an existing equation: Select and right-click the equation. Then choose Edit from
the pop-up menu.
To create or edit an equation, work through the different pages to create an equation object:
Equations: Use one or more lines to enter equations. When creating a new equation, this
page is displayed first.
Variables: Assign a value to each variable used on the Equations page. When editing an
exiting equation, this page is displayed by default.
Settings: Choose how the equations should be displayed and optionally attach a picture.
Note: When sending a series of equations to Calcpad, the equations are grouped together as
a unit, called an equation object.

Working with Equations 2-39
Entering equations
Enter one or more lines of equations on the Equations page. Equations are written in 'normal
English' and then automatically displayed in the correct mathematical format.

Writing equations
A few simple rules apply when writing equations:
Like when using a simple calculator, use 'normal English' to write an equation the
equation is automatically formatted for you. For example, if you want to enter the equation
y = a x
2
+ b x + c, enter 'y=ax^2+bx+c'.
The mathematical operators that can be used include +, , /, and ^.
Use parenthesis to simplify an equation, e.g. for

d c
b a

enter 'y=(a+b)/(c+d)'.Use
multiple lines for a sequence of equations. Variable values are inherited by equations that
follow. Refer to page 2-44 for more detail on using a series of equations.

Working with Equations 2-40
Defining variables
A variable can be a single letter or several letters and/or numbers, e.g. a, a
2
and a
b
. The
program intelligently takes care of formatting variables with sub-scripting and italic characters.
The following simple rules apply:
Enter numbers using normal or scientific notation. Example, '0.002' and '2E-3' has the
same meaning.
When entering a variable, the second and following characters are used as sub-scripts, e.g.
enter 'abc' to get a
bc
.
Variables are case sensitive, e.g. 'a' and 'A' are seen as two different variables.
A variable cannot start with a number. Using '1' and 'a' separately yields a valid number
and variable respectively, but entering '1a' is not allowed.
Using Greek symbols
Greek symbols are treated exactly like normal letters. To create a Greek symbol, enter a hash
before the equivalent Roman letter, e.g. enter '#S' and '#s' to get and respectively.
The following rules apply:
Greek symbols are case sensitive, e.g. and are seen as two different variables.
You may mix Greek symbols with normal characters.
Note: The Greek symbols and are reserved and cannot be used as variable. Their values
are fixed at 3.141593 etc. You may however use the symbol e as a normal variable.
Entering normal text
Normal text entries, e.g. headings and comments, are distinguished from equations by
enclosing or preceding them in double quotes, e.g. "Comments" or "Comments without a
trailing quote.

Working with Equations 2-41
Using mathematical functions
You can use the built-in mathematical functions as necessary, e.g. 'sqrt(...)' to determine
the square root of an expression. Built-in functions include:

Trigonometry
Normal functions
Arc functions
sin, cos, tan
asin, acos, atan
Logarithmic functions
ln, log
Other functions
Square root
Absolute value
sqrt
abs

Additional functions can be derived using the standard mathematical operators and functions.
A few simple examples include:
Instead of using the built-in square root function, you may determine the square root and
other roots as follows: c b a can be entered as 'a=sqrt(b+c)' or
'a=(b+c)^(1/2)
If a = log(b), then b = 10
a
, which is entered as 'b=10^a'.
Trigonometric functions are inter-dependent, e.g.

tan
1
cot . To enter the equation
a = cot(), type 'a=1/tan(#h)' or 'a=(tan(#h))^(-1)'.

Working with Equations 2-42
Assigning values to variables
Assign values to variables on the Variables page. A list of all variables used on the Equations
page is displayed:
Assigned variables: Variables that are not calculated but require values to be assigned to
them are listed first.
Calculated variables: Variables denoting equation results are listed last. The values for
these items are typically shown as 'EqX:Y', where X is the relevant row number in the
table on the Equations page and Y is the equation result.
To explain the symbols, an image can be displayed alongside the list of variables. Refer to
page 2-42 for more information on using images with equations.


Working with Equations 2-43
Equation settings
The Settings page is used to configure the display properties of an equation object:
Title: You can enter a title for an equation object. When inserting the equation in Calcpad,
the title can optionally be displayed above it.
Image: An image can be loaded and optionally displayed when inserting the equation in
Calcpad. The image is also displayed on the Variables page.
Numeric format: You can choose to display equation results in decimal, scientific or
engineering format.
Font: Select a font, style and height to use for the equation.


Working with Equations 2-44
Advanced techniques
Once you have mastered the basic functions of the Equation Editor, you may want to proceed
to creating more sophisticated equation objects.
Using units of measurement
You may enhance your equations by adding units of measurement. Units are designated by
enclosing them in curly brackets.
The following rules apply:
The unit should be written in curly brackets immediately after the variable.
You may use a mathematical operator to create derivatives of units, e.g. use 'm^2' for m
2
.
You may use either Metric or Imperial units.
Examples:
To determine the circumference of a circle in feet, you may enter 'Circ{ft}=#p*r{ft}'.
The result in Calcpad will be:
To calculate the area of a circle in square meter, you may enter 'A{m^2}=#p*r{m}^2'.
The result will be:

r = 2.5m
= A p r
2
.
= 19.635 m
2

Note: The program does not evaluate the consistancy of units within equations.
Using a series of equations
When entering multiple lines of equations, all assigned and calculated values of variables are
carried over to equations down the list a characteristic referred to as inheritance. This allows
you to break complex equations into smaller pieces, making them a lot easier to write and
verify. It also allows you to use multiple inter-dependent equations in a complex calculation.

Working with Equations 2-45
Conditional branching
You can use the inheritance characteristic of equations to your further advantage. By
combining inheritance with conditional branching, you can create equation objects that can
intelligently adjust for different values of the variables.
To create a conditional branch:
Define the condition using the 'if' statement, e.g. 'if a>b' will do something only if a is
greater than b. For comparison, you may use the operators <, >, =, >= and <=.
In the lines following the 'if' statement, enter one or more equations to be evaluated if the
condition is met. Use the 'end' or 'else' statement to terminate such a series of equations
and continue with the normal flow.
If a condition is not met, an alternative series of equations can be entered after an 'else'
statement. Terminate the series of equations with an 'end'.
In the following example, taken from the Help menu of the Equation Editor, the area of
reinforcement in a rectangular beam is calculated using the formulae in BS 8110 - 1997:

#bb=(100-%RD)/100
if %RD<10 then (first conditional branch)
K'=0.156
else (if condition is not met)
K'=0.402*(#bb-0.4) - 0.18*(#bb-0.4)^2
end (end of first branch)
K=M{kNm}*1e6/(b{mm}*d{mm}^2*fcu{MPa})
if K<=K' then (second conditional branch)
"Compression reinforcement not required because K<=K'"
z=d*(0.5+sqrt(0.25-K/0.9))
x=(d-z)/0.45
As{mm^2}=M*1e6/(0.95*fy{MPa}*z)
else (if condition is not met)
"Compression reinforcement required because K>K'"
z=d*(0.5+sqrt(0.25-K'/0.9))
x=(d-z)/0.45
A's{mm^2}=(K-K')*fcu*b*d^2/(0.95*fy*(d-d'{mm})
As{mm^2}=(K'*fcu*b*d^2)/(0.95*fy*z) + A's (end of second branch)
In the example, the first conditional branch causes K' to determined differently for different
values of the percentage of redistribution, %
RD
. Further, by comparing the values of K and K',
additional compression reinforcement is calculated when necessary.

Working with Equations 2-46
Creating an equation library
You can use the File menu commands to save and recall all
useful equations.
The advantages of saving equation objects in a library will
become obvious once you have created a number of intelligent
equation objects comprising multiple equations and conditional
branching.
You are free to save your equations in any folder on your PC or
on the network. Using a dedicated and well-structured
folder is recommended to ensure easy access to a large library
of equations.
Use the Open command on the File menu to retrieve an equation object from disk. When
working with an existing equation, the Variables page is displayed automatically, i.e. the
program assumes that you want to reuse the equations with new values.
The usability of an equation library can be greatly enhanced by using titles and pictures with
equations, even if you do plan on displaying them when inserting equations in Calcpad.
Equation objects with descriptive titles and explanatory pictures are easier to use, especially in
a multi-user environment. Refer to page 2-42 for information on equation titles and pictures.



Customising the Page Layout 2-47
Customising the Page Layout
By default, projects are displayed on a framed page with the PROKON logo. The top portion of
the page, called the header, also includes a number of pre-defined fields like 'Designed by',
'Date' etc. The page layout and header items are collectively referred to as a template.


Customising the Page Layout 2-48
Selecting another template or creating a new template
You can select one of the other pre-defined templates or create your own using the Page Setup
command on the File menu:
To select a template, click Select template.
To modify an existing template or create a new one, click Edit template.
Click OK to close the Page Setup dialog box.

The following templates are available when you run PROKON for the first time:
Default: The default template with frame and PROKON logo. For a start, you may want to
replace the PROKON logo and contact details with your own.
Frame: No-frills template with a frame only. This template offers a larger workspace.
Nothing: A blank template, in case you prefer printing on blank sheets.

Customising the Page Layout 2-49
Creating your own template
A template is defined using a simple scripting language that has been derived from the Padds
macro language. In essence, the script is a series of two-letter commands similar to the
keyboard shortcuts used in Padds. Several new commands have been introduced to for special
effects like setting margins.
To create a new template, it may be easiest to modify an existing template:
1. Click Edit template to open the template script in the Text Editor.
2. Use the Save As command on the File menu to save the template with a new name.
3. Edit the script as necessary.
4. Choose Save on the File menu to save the script.
5. To preview your new template, press Alt-Tab to swap back to the Page Setup dialog box
or select it from the task bar.
6. Click Select template and open the new template.
7. To make further modifications, swap back to the Text Editor.
Repeat steps 3 to 7 until you are satisfied with the new template.
8. Finally close the Text Editor and the Page Setup dialog box to return to Calcpad.
Script commands
A number of script commands are available to draw lnes, write text and define special items.
All commands use parameters, i.e. values, to define certain entities. Parameters are separated
with spaces or commas.
The template script commands can be categorised as follows:
Global page layout:
XO X
left
and YO Y
bot
: Define the origin, or reference point, from where all entities are
measured, e.g. 'XO 5' and 'YO 7.5' . The position of the origin is measured from the
bottom left corner of the page. In fact, if you do not enter an origin the bottom left corner
of the page will be used. You may repeatedly redefine the origin the last definition is
used for subsequent lines in the script.
MA M
left
,M
bot
,M
right
,M
top
: Set the left, bottom, right and top margins in millimetres, e.g.
'MA 15,15,285,195'. The margins define the workspace in Calcpad and the values are
measured from the origin rather than the edges of the page. The margin command does not
draw any lines.

Customising the Page Layout 2-50
RT colpos : Right column tab stop, measured in millimetres from the origin, e.g.
'RT 170'. The design modules use the right column for code references and other
comments.
Graphics:
BM X
left
,Y
bot
,X
right
,Y
top
,filename : Insert a Bitmap image and stretch it between the
coordinates X
left
,Y
bot
and X
right
,Y
top
, e.g. 'BM 5,261,34.6.5,2779.5,LOGO.BMP'. The
Bitmap is assumed to reside in the same folder as the template file. For the best printing
results, the bitmap should be sized so that it can be placed at true size, e.g. an image of 700
pixels wide by 300 pixels high, placed 29.6mm wide by 12.7mm high should print well at
600 dpi.
Line drawing:
LT thickness: Set the line thickness in millimetres, e.g. 'LT 0.25'.
LL X
1
,Y
1
,X
2
,Y
2
: Draw a line from the coordinate X
1
,Y
1
to X
2
,Y
2
, e.g. 'LL 5,10,5,110'
to draw a vertical line 100mm long.
Text:
TF font,style: Set the font and style, e.g.'TF Times New Roman, Normal'
TS size: Set the text height in points, e.g. 'TS 11'.
TT X
left
,Y
bot
,text: Write text at the coordinate X
left
,Y
bot
, e.g. 'TT 5,10,Project No'.
Header items:
HI X
left
,Y
bot
,X
right
,Y
top
,description: Insert a header item in the rectangle defined by the
coordinates X
left
,Y
bot
and X
right
,Y
top
, e.g. 'HI 150,270,Designed by'. In Calcpad, the
header item is later referenced by its description. See page 2-7 for details on entering
header information.
Other:
Comments can be written after two slashes, e.g. '//comment'.

Customising the Page Layout 2-51
Example
Below is an abstract from the Default template script:
XO 15 // X Origin
YO 15 // Y Origin
BM 1,260, 41,267 PROKON.BMP // Load Bitmap x1,y1,x2,y2
LT 0.3 // Line Thickness mm
LL 0, 0,186, 0 // Line x1,y1,x2,y2
LL 0,248,186,248
LL 0,268,186,268
LL 0, 0, 0,268
. . .
. . .
. . .
LL 166, 0,166,248
TF Arial Italic // Text Font
TS 8 // Text Size Points
TT 156.5,267.8, Sheet // Text x,y,text
TT 42.5,267.8, Job Number
TT 42.5,262.8, Job Title
TT 42.5,257.8, Client
TT 42.5,252.8, Calcs by
TT 90.5,252.8, Checked by
TT 138.5,252.8, Date
TT 3,259 , Software Consultants Pty Ltd
TT 3,255.5, Internet: http://www.prokon.com
TT 3,252 , E-Mail : mail@prokon.com
MA 1, 1, 185, 247 // Margins left, b, r, t
RT 166.5 // Right column tab stop
TS 10 // Text Size Points
HI 165.0,267.2, First Sheet No // Header Item
HI 60.0,267.2, Job Number // x,y,Description
HI 55.0,262.2, Job Title
HI 55.0,257.2, Client
HI 55.0,252.2, Calcs by
HI 106.0,252.2, Checked by
HI 150.0,252.2, Date




Customising the Page Layout 2-52

Configuring the Section Database 2-53
Configuring the Section
Database
The Section Database utility is a base component for all steel member and connection design
modules. The module contains section databases for several countries, comprising standard
steel profiles and common concrete and timber profiles. You can expand the database to
include custom sections.
Use the Section database command on the Tools menu to edit the database or select another
country database.


Configuring the Section Database 2-54
Using the section database
The section database is accessible from all the steel member and connection design modules.
Before using any of these modules, you may wish to first configure the database to your
requirements.
Selecting a database
Depending on the Windows Regional Settings, PROKON will automatically select an
appropriate section database when you run it for the first time. You can load another country's
database as follows:
On the Country menu, choose the country of your choice.
On the File menu, choose Safe as Default to save the selected database as the default
database for all PROKON modules, Sectable.dat
Creating a database for another country
If a section database is not available for your country, you can build your own database. Use
the Edit Countries command on the Country meno for this purpose. The currently loaded
database will be used as the starting point for the new country database. A good starting point
will therefore be to load a similar database (e.g. the UK or USA databases that are used in
many parts of the world) and then making adjustments. The procedure to add new sections is
explained below.
Adding new sections to the database
You can edit any of the sections in the database and add your own. You are free to add other
welded and other non-standard sections.
If a section' shape conforms to the basic definition of one of the standard shapes, you can add it
as a standard section. Non-standard shapes can be added to the 'custom profiles' group.
Adding a standard section
To add a new I-section, for example, press I to access the current list of I-sections. Enter the
section dimensions and then press F2 to have the section properties calculated and added to the
database.
Typical examples include:
I-shaped plate girders can be added with the other standard I-sections.
Older steel structures built with imperial sections can be checked after first adding the
relevant sections to the database.

Configuring the Section Database 2-55
A haunch in a portal can be conservatively modelled as an I-section with an increased
depth.
Tip: The normal text editing commands apply when entering sections. Refer to Chapter 2
for detail on copying, deleting and inserting lines.
Adding a custom (non-standard) section
Sections with non-standard shapes should be entered as 'custom profiles'. These properties can
be calculated manually or using Prosec. When using Prosec to calculate the section properties,
not only the section properties but also the section shape is saved in the database. Such sections
can be used in Frame Analysis, for example, with full 3D rendering.

To calculate a section's properties with Prosec:
In the Custom Profiles table, double-click in the Designation column. Enter a section
designation. Prosec will then open automatically.
Enter the section shape and calculated the bending and torsional properties.
Optionally save your input, and then exit Prosec.

Configuring the Section Database 2-56
On returning to the Section Database, the section properties and shape will be inserted
into the database.
Instructions for using Prosec is given in Chapter 8.
Tip: Some modules, e.g. Steel Member Design for Combined Stress, support certain
section types only. Therefore, it may in some cases be better to simplify a non-standard
section and then add it as a standard shape. That way, the simplified version of the section
will be available to the relevant design modules.



Configuring the Material Database 2-57
Configuring the Material
Database
Use the Material database command on the Tools menu to edit the database. The material
database is a base component for the analysis and design modules. The default database
contains lists properties for common grades of steel, concrete, timber and aluminium available
in various countries in the world. The database also includes stress-strain curves for use in non-
linear analyses in Frame Analysis. You can add new materials to the database using the
Material Database utility that is accessible on the tools menu in Calcpad.


Configuring the Material Database 2-58
Using the Material database
Selecting a country database
The system-wide material database is saved in a file called defaults.mtl in the \Prokon\User
folder. You can open a country database, edit it, or create your own material database:
Opening a country database: Use the open command on the file menu to select a list of
country databases to.
Saving a database. Use the save command on the file menu to store any changes you have
made.
Setting a database as system default: Open the database (if it is not open already), and use
the save as command on the file menu to save it as defaults.mtl.
Adding materials
You can edit existing grades of materials or add new grades as needed. Material grades are
categorised as steel, concrete and aluminium. For other material types, use the other group.
Terminology
The meaning of the symbols used is as follows:
Grade: Name of the material grade, e.g. 350W. The grade will be visible in the Frame
Analysis module when you select from the available items in the material database.
E: Modulus of elasticity (kN/m
2
or psi)
Poisson's ratio: Transverse strain ratio
Density: Unit weight (kN/m
3
or lb/in3)
Expansion coefficient: Thermal expansion coefficient (strain per C )
f
y
: Steel and aluminium yield stress (kN/m
2
or psi)
f
u
: Steel and aluminium ultimate stress (kN/m
2
or psi)
f
cu
: Concrete cube strength
f'
c
: Concrete cylinder strength
Stress-strain designation: Select a stress-strain curve if you wish to model non-linear
material behaviour in Frame Analysis.
Yield criterion: Select a yield criterion if you wish to model non-linear material behaviour
in Frame Analysis. The Von Mises yield criterion is suitable for materials that exhibit
similar behaviour under compression and tension, e.g. steel, and the Drucker-Prager

Configuring the Material Database 2-59
criterion is suitable for materials with pressure dependent behaviour, e.g. concrete and soil
that has negligible tensile resistance.
c: Cohesion (kN/m
2
or psi). Optionally enter this value if using the Drucker-Prager yield
criterion, e.g. when modelling soil.
: Angle of internal friction (). Optionally enter this value if using the Drucker-Prager
yield criterion, e.g. when modelling soil.
Note: By default, all materials in the database have no stress-strain curves or yield criteria
assigned to them. The reason for this is that non-linear analyses (in Frame Analysis) are
usually performed to evaluate geometric non-linearity (i.e. where deflection are large
enough to have an effect on the analysis). To include non-linear (inelastic) material
behaviour, you must associate an appropriate stress-strain curve and yield criterion to each
material concerned.

Configuring the Material Database 2-60
Stress-Strain curves
When performing a non-linear analysis using the Frame Analysis module, you can model non-
linear material behaviour.

Adding a new curve
To add a new curve, enter its designation and press add new curve. Proceed to enter the curve
parameters:
Stress-strain parameters: The values for the modulus of elasticity and strain limits for
positive (compression) and negative (tension) strain are used for the Von Mises and
Drucker-Prager yield criteria.
Stress-strain curve coordinates: Enter two or more pairs of strain and stress value that
define the stress-strain curve.

Configuring the Material Database 2-61
Predefined curves
The database includes a number of stress-strain curves:
Parabolic stress-strain relationship for concrete (based on the design curve in
BS 8110 - 1997) with a small amount of strain hardening up to the maximum allowable
compression strain. For tension, cracking is modelled using a linear stress-strain
relationship up to a maximum stress of 1.0 MPa.
Non-linear stress-strain relationship based on test results for duplex stainless steel 1.4462.
Linear elasto-plastic behaviour for and structural steel. The plastic zone includes a small
amount of strain hardening to allow a nominal stress increase after reaching the yield
point.
Elasto-plastic behaviour for reinforcing steel and prestressing tendons.
Yield criteria
The yield criterion supplements the stress-strain curve in defining a material's behaviour:
The Von Mises yield criterion is suitable for ductile materials with similar compressive
and tensile properties, e.g. steel. If presented in three-dimensional space of principal
stresses, it would be a circular cylinder of infinite length with its axis inclined at equal
angles to the three principal stresses.
The Drucker-Packer yield criterion is suitable for materials that do not exhibit the same
behaviour in tension and compression, e.g. concrete and soil. Its three-dimensional
presentation would be a cone. The Drucker-Prager yield surface is a "smooth version" of
the Mohr-Coulomb yield surface, and therefore it is often expressed in terms of the
cohesion, c, and the angle of internal friction, , that are used to describe the Mohr-
Coulomb yield surface.


Configuring the Material Database 2-62


Structural Analysis using PROKON 3-1
Chapter
3
Structural Analysis
The structural analysis collection includes frame analysis and also some specialised finite
element and beam analysis modules.



Structural Analysis using PROKON 3-2
Quick Reference
Structural Analysis using PROKON 3-3
Frame Analysis 3-5
Plane Stress/Strain Analysis 3-85
Single Span Beam Analysis 3-97
Beam on Elastic Support Analysis 3-105


Structural Analysis using PROKON 3-3
Structural Analysis using
PROKON
The accent of the analysis modules falls on user friendliness, speed and efficiency. The frame
analysis module is ideally suited for the analysis of small to medium sized structures, not to say
that the analyses of large structures are not possible. Frame has a comprehensive array of static
and dynamic analysis modes.
Extensive use is made of interactive graphic representations during both the input and output
phases. The input modules incorporate error checking to help eliminate input errors as they
occur.
Frame analysis
Frame can take account of own weight, temperature changes, prescribed displacements and
elastic supports. Loads are entered as load cases and grouped in load combinations at ultimate
and serviceability limit states.
The following static analysis modes are available:
Linear analysis: Normal elastic frame analysis.
Second order analysis: Models sway behaviour by incorporating P-delta effects. The
solution is obtained by iterative analysis, thereby allowing for options like tension
elements.
Non linear analysis. This takes the second order analysis a bit further. The load is
applied in steps and the deflected structure at the end of each step is used to apply the next
step. Material non linearity is not yet supported.
Buckling analysis: For calculating safety factors for structural instability due to buckling.
Dynamic analysis modes available include:
Modal analysis: Calculation of a frames natural modes of vibration.
Harmonic analysis: For determining a frames response to harmonic loading.
Earthquake analysis: Quasi-dynamic analysis of a frame subjected to ground
acceleration.
Structural Analysis using PROKON 3-4
Finite element analysis
Frame allows you to use finite shell elements and solid elements alongside normal beam
elements. The shell elements enables you to model the combination of plate bending and
membrane action in 3D. To model plate bending in concrete slabs, you may prefer using the
Finite Element Slab Design see Chapter 6 for details.
You can also use the Plane Stress/Strain Analysis module to perform a finite element analysis
of any general plane geometry subjected to plane stress or strain. The module features an
automated element grid generation facility to help speed up the input and analysis processes.
Beam analysis
Modules are available for the analysis of simple beams and beams on elastic supports.
Post-processing of analysis results
Linear and second-order analysis output can be post-processed by the steel member design
modules, Strut and Com, to evaluate and optimise section profiles. The Space Frame Analysis
module can also design finite shell elements as reinforced concrete members.

Frame Analysis 3-5
Frame Analysis
Frame can be used for the analysis of the following types of structures by selecting a domain
on the General input page:
Plane Frames: Analysis of a frames in a vertical (X-Y) plane.
Grillages: Analysis of a structure in a horizontal (X-Z) plane.
Space Frames: Analysis of three-dimensional structures made up of beam and/or shell
elements and design of concrete shells.
Space Trusses: Analysis of three-dimensional trusses where only axial forces are
considered.
Frame analysis results can be post-processed using some of the steel and steel design modules.


Frame Analysis 3-6
Theory and application
The following text explains the sign conventions used and gives a brief background of the
analysis techniques.
Sign conventions
Frame input and output uses a mixture of global axis and local axes values.
Global axes
The global axis system is nearly
exclusively used when entering frame
geometry and loading. Global axes are
also used in the analysis output for
deflections and reactions.
The global axes are defined as follows:
For the sake of this definition, the
X-axis is chosen to the right.
The Y-axis always points vertically
upward.
Using a right-hand rule, the Z-axis
points out of the screen.
Note: Unlike some other 3D programs that put the Z-axis vertical, Frame take the Y-axis as
being vertical.
Beam element local axes
Local axes are used in the output for element forces. You can also apply loads in the direction of
a beam element's local y-axis.
Frame Analysis 3-7
The local axes for beam elements are defined as follows:
The local z-axis and axial force is chosen in the direction from the smaller node number to
the larger node number.
The y-axis is taken in a vertical plane perpendicular to the z-axis. The y and z-axes thus
describe a vertical plane with the y-axis pointing vertically or diagonally upward.
The x-axis is taken perpendicular to the y and z-axes, using a left-hand rule.
One special case exists: In the case of a vertical member, the z-axis is taken parallel to the
global Y-axis. A unique definition of the y-axis is obtained by taking it parallel to the
global X-axis.
Shell element local axes
For shell elements, the local axes are defined as follows:
The local x and y-axes are chosen in the
plane of the shell in such a way that the
x-axis is horizontal and the y-axis lies
perpendicular to and upward from the
x-axis.
Using a right-hand rule the z-axis is taken
perpendicular to the shell element to point
diagonally upward.
Two special cases exist:
Horizontal elements: The local x is
chosen parallel to the global X-axis
and the y-axis parallel to the negative
Z-axis. The z-axis is then taken parallel
to the Y-axis.
Vertical elements: The y-axis is taken vertically upward, i.e. parallel to the global
Y-axis. The x-axis is taken horizontal in the plane of the shell and z-axis is taken
horizontal perpendicular to the shell. The z-axis points towards you if the shell's nodes
are defined in an anti-clockwise direction and away if defined clockwise.

To simplify the analysis output, the orientation of the local shell axes can sometimes be
manipulated by slight rotation of the shell elements. In the case of horizontal slab, for example,
the local x and y-axes (and stresses) are taken parallel to the global X and Z-axes. In the case of
a circular slab, radial and concentric stresses may often be more desirable. By generating the
shell elements at a slight slope towards the centre, they will not be considered as horizontal
anymore. As a result, local y-axes will point (upward) towards the centre and the x-axes taken

Frame Analysis 3-8
perpendicular to that, i.e. radial and concentric respectively. The small inclination will
normally have no significant effect on the analysis.
Note: Rotating elements (for the sake of manipulating the local axes) can induce additional
support conditions in some cases. Such manipulation should thus be performed with
great care.
Beam element forcesThe sign
conventions are as follows:
The axial force, P
z
, is taken in the
z-direction.
The shear forces, V
x
and V
y
, are
given in the x and y-directions
respectively.
Torsional moment, T, is taken about
the z-axis using a right-hand rule.
The moments, M
xx
and M
yy
, are
about the x and y-axes respectively.
Note: In this manual, the global and local axes are written in uppercase and lowercase
respectively.
Shell element stresses
Shell element stresses are given using the local axes:
Bending stresses: The entities M
x
and M
y
are moment per unit width about the local x and
y-axes. M
xy
represents a torsional moment in the local x-y plane. The principal bending
moments per unit width are represented as M
max
and M
min
.
Plane stresses: The stresses in the plane of a shell, S
x
and S
y
, are given in the directions of
the local x- and y-axes. S
xy
represents the shear stress in the plane of the element. Values
are also given for the principal plane stresses, S
max
and S
min
.
Note: To assist you in evaluating shell element stresses, stress contour diagrams show
orientation lines at the centre of each shell element. An orientation line indicates the
direction (not axis) of bending or plane stress. In a concrete shell, the orientation line would
indicate the direction of reinforcement resisting the particular stress.
Frame Analysis 3-9
Shell reinforcement axes
Reinforcement is calculated in the user-defined x' and y'-directions. Refer to page 3-61 for
detail.
Solid element stresses
Shell element stresses are given using the global axes:
Direct stresses, S
x
, Sy and Sz, are given in the directions of the global X-, Y- and Z-axes. S
xy

represents the shear stress in the XY-plane of the element. S
xz
represents the shear stress in the
XZ-plane of the element. S
yz
represents the shear stress in the YZ-plane of the element. Values
are also given for the principal plane stresses, S
1,
S2
,
and S
3
. Von Mises stresses are also
calculated.
Units of measurement
The following units of measurement are supported:

Units Metric Imperial
Distance mm, m ft, inch
Force N, kN lb, kip
Use the Convert Units button on the Settings page to change the units for the current analysis:
Convert Units: Changes the units and converts all numeric data from the old to the new
units of measurement.
Analysis modes
The following types of analysis are possible:
Linear analysis: Basic linear elastic analysis. A linear analysis is normally sufficient for
the static analysis of a frame or truss with negligible sway.
Second order analysis: Choose this mode to include p-delta effects in the analysis. This
option is recommended for structures where sway may have a marked effect on the
member forces, e.g. portal frames. The second order analysis is an iterative procedure. The
total strain energy of the frame is calculated after each iteration. The analysis is deemed to
have converged once the total strain energy of two sequential iterations differs by less than
the specified tolerance. If convergence was not possible, e.g. structural instability due to
buckling of critical members, a message to that effect will be displayed.
Non Linear analysis: Choose this mode where non-linear effects and large deflections
may be expected or where second order analysis might not provide sufficient accuracy.

Frame Analysis 3-10
Loading is applied in a series of steps and an iterative analysis is carried out at each step so
that the forces in the deflected structure at that point balance with the applied loading.
Modal analysis: For calculating the natural modes of vibration. The modal analysis is an
iterative procedure during which several sets of trial vectors are selected and evaluated.
The process takes relatively long to complete and it is therefore recommended that the
structure size be limited to a few hundred nodes. You can specify the number of mode
shapes to be calculated and other dynamic analysis parameters.
Harmonic analysis: Choose harmonic analysis to determine the response of the frame to
harmonic loading. Load amplitudes are entered exactly like static nodal and element loads.
You can enter a load frequency and phase angle for each harmonic load case. The first step
of a harmonic analysis is the calculation of the frame's natural modes of vibration.
Therefore, if preceded by a modal analysis, the results of that analysis are re-used and only
the harmonic response calculated. The harmonic response is taken as the sum of the square
(SSRS) of the maximum modal responses, a method that is considered fundamentally
sound when modal frequencies are well separated. When frequencies of major contributing
modes are very close together, the SSRS method can give poor results.
Earthquake analysis: Use this option to calculate the response of the frame to the
specified a seismic acceleration parameters. Nodal and element loads entered are treated as
static loads. The analysis procedure starts by calculating the frame's natural modes of
vibration. Therefore, if preceded by a modal analysis, the results of the modal analysis are
re-used and only the seismic response calculated.
Buckling analysis: Use this option to determine the buckling load factors and mode shapes
for each load case or combination. Being the critical case, the first buckling mode shape is
normally the only one of interest.
Finite element shells
Frame allows you to use finite shell elements alongside normal beam elements. For this
purpose the program uses four-node quadrilateral and three-node triangular isoparametric shell
elements with plate bending and membrane behaviour.
Element formulation
The bending formulation of the quadrilateral shell element was derived from the Discrete
Kirchoff-Midlin Quadrilateral. The membrane behaviour of the element was improved by
introducing the drilling degree of freedom using an interpolation technique by Alman. The
result is a shell finite element that shows good plate and membrane performance
characteristics.
Accuracy of triangular elements
Both the quadrilateral and triangular elements yield accurate stiffness modelling. However,
stress recovery from the triangular elements is not as accurate as is the case for quadrilateral
Frame Analysis 3-11
elements. This means that deflections calculated using triangular elements are generally quite
accurate, but moments may be less accurate.
Stress smoothing
A reduced integration technique is used to calculate the element stiffness matrices. The stresses
are calculated at the Gaussian integration points and subsequently extrapolated bi-linearly to
the corner point and centre point of each element. Taking the average of all contributing stress
components smooths stresses at common nodes.
Element layout
Consider a typical continuous flat concrete slab supported on columns or walls. To ensure
accurate modelling of curvature, a minimum of about four elements should be used between
bending moment inflection points. This translates to a minimum of about eight elements per
span in both directions.
Using more elements per span often does not yield a significant improvement in analysis
accuracy. In addition, the particular finite element formulation yields its most accurate results
when the element thickness does not greatly exceed its plan dimensions.
For a typical concrete slab with a thickness of about one-tenth or one-fifteenth of the span
length, a reasonable rule of thumb is to make the plan dimensions of the shell elements no
smaller than the thickness of the slab. In other words, use a maximum of about ten to fifteen
elements per span.
Finite element solids
Frame also provides 8-noded hexahedral and 4-noded tetrahedral solid finite elements. The
elements have 3 rotational degrees of freedom per node and are generally more accurate than
more commonly used solid elements that do not have rotational degrees of freedom.
Accuracy of tetrahedral elements
Both the hexahedral and tetrahedral elements yield accurate stiffness modelling. However,
stress recovery from the tetrahedral elements is not as accurate as is the case for hexahedral
elements. This means that deflections calculated using tetrahedral elements are generally quite
accurate, but stresses may be less accurate.
Stress smoothing
A reduced integration technique is used to calculate the element stiffness matrices. The stresses
are calculated at the Gaussian integration points and subsequently extrapolated to the corner
nodes of each element. Taking the average of all contributing stress components smooths
stresses at common nodes.

Frame Analysis 3-12
Element layout
To ensure accurate modelling of curvature, a minimum of about four elements should be used
between bending moment inflection points. This translates to a minimum of about eight
elements per span direction in a continuous slab.
Concrete design
Frame can perform reinforced concrete design for shell elements. The Wood and Armer
equations are used to transform the bending and torsional stresses to effective bending
moments in the user-defined x' and y'-directions.
To allow for the effect of in-plane forces, bending moments M
x
, M
y
and M
xy
are increased to
include the effects of these forces. The moments are increased by conservatively taking the in-
plane forces to act with a lever arm of a quarter of the section depth. The Wood and Armer
equations are then evaluated in same manner as described above.
Codes of practice
The following concrete design codes are supported:
ACI 318 - 1995.
BS 8110 - 1997.
CSA A23.3 - 1993.
Eurocode 2 - 1992.
SABS 0100 - 1992.
Steel member design
Frame analysis results can be opened in the steel member design modules for design. The
available options are:
Steel Member Design for Axial Stress, Strut: Can design steel trusses.
Steel Member Design for Combined Stress, Com: Can design beam members.
Frame Analysis 3-13
Settings
Settings are done on the Settings page:


Analysis type
Linear analysis: Normal linear elastic frame analysis. A linear analysis is normally
sufficient for the static analysis of a frame or truss with negligible sway. The linear
analysis procedure is performed faster than any other type of analysis. If you need to
perform a second order, buckling or dynamic analysis, it will be wise to first verify the
basic integrity of the frame input by performing a linear analysis.
Second order analysis: Models sway behaviour by incorporating P-delta effects. The
solution is obtained by iterative analysis, thereby allowing for options like tension
elements.


Frame Analysis 3-14
Non-linear analysis: This analysis is used when large deflections or non-linear behaviour
are expected. Only geometric non-linearity is supported a this stage. Material non-linearity
will be added in the near future. The solution is obtained by a stepped iterative analysis.
Loads are added in steps. The analysis is iterated to convergence for each step so that the
reactions and forces are in balance with the applied loads after each step. The deflected
structure at the end of each step is then used to apply the next load step and the process is
repeated until the total load has been applied.
Modal analysis: Calculation of a frames natural modes of vibration. The process takes
relatively long to complete and it therefore recommended that the structure size be limited
to a few hundred nodes. You can specify the number of mode shapes to be calculated and
other dynamic analysis parameters.
Harmonic analysis: For determining a frames response to harmonic loading.
Earthquake analysis: Quasi-dynamic analysis of a frame subjected to ground
acceleration.
Buckling analysis: For calculating safety factors for structural instability due to buckling.
You can specify the number of mode shapes to be calculated.
Analysis parameters
Depending on the selected analysis type, you may need to specify additional analysis
parameters:
Concrete design parameters: Concrete and reinforcement properties. Details are given
on page 3-61.
Second order and buckling parameters: Required analysis tolerance and number of
buckling mode shapes. Refer to page 3-62 for detail.
Dynamic parameters: Values influencing modal, seismic and harmonic analysis. A
detailed discussion is given on page 3-64.
Non linear parameters: Values influencing the non-linear analysis. A detailed discussion
is given on page 3-64.
Own weight
The own weight of the frame can be calculated using the entered cross-sectional areas and
member lengths. If you specify a load case, the own weight is calculated and added to the other
loads of that case.
The following are points of importance:
By default, the own weight of the frame is set to not be included in the analysis. Be sure to
select the appropriate load case for own weight or, alternatively, to include the frame's
own weight in the values of the loads entered.
Frame Analysis 3-15
The list of load cases from which you can select is based on the load cases defined on the
Nodal loads, Beam loads, and Shell loads input pages. You may thus prefer to specify the
own weight load case only after completing all other input for the frame. However, you
can also enter the own weight load case at the start of the frame input process in which
case you may ignore the warning message (that the load case does not exist).
Tip: If you wish to use own weight in its own separate load case, you can do so by defining
an empty load case. You can enter a zero load at any node number, for example, and then
select that load case as the one to use for own weight.
The own weight or beam elements are modelled as uniformly distributed loads along the
lengths of the beams. In the case of a vertical beam element, own weight is modelled as two
equal point loads at the ends of the beam, yielding a constant axial force equal to half the own
weight. In the case of shell elements, own weight is modelled as point loads at the corner
nodes. In the case of solids, the weight is added as point loads at the nodes.
Graphics Options
Click on the graphics options button to have the graphics options dialog displayed.
Select whether you want
items like node numbers
and supports to be
displayed.
Choose whether you want
all beam elements or only a
certain type to be displayed.
Display the structure with
full 3D rendering, e.g. to
verify section orientations.
3D rendering is
automatically suppressed
when viewing output.
Choose quick or detailed
rendering. Quick rendering
is faster than the detailed
method, but you may find that some surfaces are drawn incorrectly.
All surfaces are drawn as polygons. You can choose to make the surfaces transparent or have
them filled and outlined.
Tip: The Graphics options and 3D rendering function can also be accessed using the buttons
next to the displayed picture.

Frame Analysis 3-16
Views: You can save the current
viewpoint and view plane. The
current view's name is displayed on
the picture. To re-use a saved view,
click the view name on the picture to
drop down a list of saved views.
The functions described above can also be
used when viewing output. Contour
diagrams, for example, are drawn as
polygons. You can therefore use the
Graphics options setting for polygons to
change their appearance. Views defined
during input are also available when
viewing output and vice versa.



Frame Analysis 3-17
Input
Work through the relevant Input pages to enter the frame geometry and loading:
General input: Select the domain (Plane frame, grillage etc.) The input wizards can also
be selected here. More about these wizards later.
Nodes input: Frame coordinates.
Beams input: Join nodes with beam elements.
Beam sections input: Enter properties or read sections from the database.
Shells input: Define shell elements.
Solids input: Define 4- or 8- noded solid elements
Spring elements input: For special effects, optionally enter spring elements.
Supports input: External supports.
Nodal loads input: Point loads and moments.
Beam element loads input: Uniform distributed, triangular, trapezium and point loads on
beams.
Shell loads input: Apply uniform distributed loads to shells.
Load combinations input: Group dead, live and wind loads in load combinations.
Alternative methods of generating frame analysis input are discussed on page 3-58.
Viewing the structure
You may want to enlarge portions of the picture of the structure or rotate it on the screen.
Several zoom and rotate functions, all of which are described in detail in Chapter 2, are
available to help you using pictures of the structure:
Use the Zoom buttons to zoom into a part of the structure or view it from another angle.
Use the View Point Control to set a new viewpoint or camera position.
Use the View Planes Control to view a slice of the structure.



Frame Analysis 3-18
General input
Wizards
The wizards are suitable for the
rapid generation of complete
input files for some typical
structures. Because the resulting
input data is presented in the
normal way on the input pages,
you are free to edit and append
to the data as necessary.
Input generated this way can
optionally be appended to
existing data you can therefore
repeatedly use the wizards to
generate complicated structures.
Note: The frame analysis modules are not limited to modelling only those frames generated
by the wizards. Any general two or three-dimensional frame can be collectively built up.
The wizards merely serve to simplify input of typical frames.
Adding input data to the Calcsheets
You can append the input tables (as they appear on the screen) to the Calcsheets by clicking
the Add input tables to Calcsheets button.
You can add a picture from any input pages to the Calcsheets by clicking the Add to
Calcsheets button next to the picture in question.
Title
Enter a descriptive name for the frame. It should not be confused with the file name you use
when you save the input data.
Frame Analysis 3-19
Nodes input
Use as many lines as necessary to enter the nodes defining the frame. A unique number must
be assigned to each node. The node number is entered in the No column, followed by the X, Y
and Z-coordinates in the X, Y and Z columns. If you leave X, Y or Z blank, a value of zero is
used.
You are allowed to skip node numbers to simplify the definition of the frame. You may also
leave blank lines in the input to improve readability. If a node number is defined more than
once, the last definition will be used.
Note: Most of the examples given in this section show 3D co-ordinates as would be
applicable if the domain is set to Space Frame or Space Truss. If the domain is set to
Plane Frame or Grillage use the X-Y and X-Z planes respectively.


Frame Analysis 3-20

Error checking
The program checks for nodes lying at the same position. If a potential error is detected, an
Error list button will appear.
Generating additional nodes
When defining a node, you can have additional nodes generated at regular intervals. Example:

The Y-coordinate of node 4 is left blank. Therefore, node 4 is put at the coordinate
(0.805,0,14.614).
The No of is set to '2', meaning that two additional nodes must be generated.
Setting Increment to '7' means that the node numbers are incremented by seven.
Therefore, node 4 is copied to node 11 and node 11 is copied to node 18.
The values in the X-inc, Y-inc and Z-inc columns set the distance between copied nodes.
The coordinates 4 to 18 are horizontally spaced at 1.140 m and 0.472 m along the X and
negative Z-axis respectively. The coordinates of the additional nodes are thus
(1.945,0,14.142) and (3.085,0,13.670).
An alternative method to generate equally spaced nodes is to use the Inc to End option. This
method allows you to define two nodes and then generate a number of nodes in-between:
Use the same procedure as above to define the first node's coordinates.
Set the values of X-inc, Y-inc and Z-inc to the total coordinate difference to the last node
and enable the Inc to End option. The last node's coordinates are then first calculated and
the specified number of intermediate nodes then generated.

Second order generation
Once you have defined one or more nodes in the table, you can copy that relevant lines nodes
by entering a '' character in the No column of the next line. Then enter the number of
additional sets of nodes to be generated in the No of column and the coordinate increments in
the X-inc, Y-inc and Z-inc columns.
Frame Analysis 3-21
Second order generation example:

The following nodes are generated:
No X Y Z
15 0.00 5.12 0.00
16 2.00 5.12 0.10
17 4.00 5.12 0.20
18 0.00 5.62 1.00
19 2.00 5.62 1.10
20 4.00 5.62 1.20
Block generation
A group of nodes can be repeated by entering a 'B' in the No column followed by the first and
last table line numbers in which the nodes were defined. Separate the line numbers with a ''.
Block generation example:

The nodes defined in lines 11 to 26 are copied twice. Node numbers are incremented by thirty for
each copy. The X, Y and Z-coordinate increments are 10 m, zero and zero respectively.
To copy one line only, simply omit the end line number, e.g. 'B10' to copy line 10 only.
Tip: The current line number is displayed in the status bar at the bottom left of the
program's window.
The block generation function may be used recursively. That means that the lines specified
may themselves contain further block generation statements.
Moving nodes
To move a group of nodes to a new location without generating any new nodes, use the block
generation function and set No-of to '1' and Inc to '0'.
Arc generation
A group of nodes can be repeated on an arc by entering an 'A' in the No column, followed by
the start and end line numbers. Enter the centre of the arc in the X, Y and Z columns and use
the X-inc, Y-inc or Z-inc column to specify the angle increment about the X, Y or Z-axis
respectively. If the program domain is set to Plane Frame or Grillage, the angle increment
should be entered in the last column. Rotation will be about the Z and Y-axis respectively.

Frame Analysis 3-22
Example:

All nodes defined in lines 5 to 9 of the table will be repeated eleven times on an imaginary
horizontal arc. The centre point of the arc is located at the coordinate (10,0,1.5). The node
number increment is set to 5, i.e. node number 3 becomes node 8, etc. The rotation angle
between the generated groups of nodes is 30 degrees about the Y-axis, i.e. anti-clockwise using
a right-hand rule.
To copy one line only, simply omit the end line numbers, e.g. 'A12' to copy line 12 only.
Note: The arc generation function may be used recursively.
Rotating nodes
To rotate a group of existing nodes without generating any new nodes, use the arc generation
function and set the No-of to '1' and Increment to '0'.
Deleting nodes
Nodes can be deleted by entering 'Delete' in the Inc to end column. This can be especially
handy if you have generated a large group of nodes and then need to remove some of them
again.
Example:

Nodes 15 and the additional nodes 18 and 21 are deleted.
Graphical input
The following graphical input functions are available on the left hand side of the screen. The
toolbar containing the graphics options buttons can also be dragged and docked on any side of
the picture.
To delete nodes click the Delete
nodes button and then select the
nodes to be deleted on the screen
using the mouse. Click Done when
finished. Clicking Undo will undo
the deletions in reverse order.
To block delete nodes click the
Block delete nodes button. Select a
Frame Analysis 3-23
rectangle on the screen with the mouse. All nodes inside the rectangle will be deleted. Press
Done when finished. Pressing Undo will undo the deletions in reverse order, one by one.
Pressing Undo All will undo all deletions done with this function.
Click the Explode nodes button to
explode the node input. This results in
the list of nodes being written, each
on a separate line without block & arc
generations etc. Once done, it cannot
be reversed.


Click the Join loos structure segments button
to have all duplicate nodes (having the same
co-ordinates) that are not connected by spring
elements, deleted. This will ensure that loose
pieces of the structure become connected. The
function is not reversible.


Click on Delete loose nodes to have all
nodes not connected to elements deleted.
The program will ignore loose nodes in the
analysis, but the input is neater and easier
to interpret if unwanted nodes are
removed. The function is not reversible.
Deleted nodes can however be undeleted if
the bottom of the input table is edited and
the nodes entered as deleted are removed.
Beam elements input
A beam or frame element is defined by entering the node numbers at each end, separated with a
''. For example, '39' is the element linking nodes 3 and 9. The elements themselves are not
numbered.
A series if elements can be input in a string, e.g. '2-6-10-14-18-22-24'. If the node number
increment of a series is constant, you can replace intermediate nodes with two ' ' characters. In
the string above, nodes 2 to 22 have a constant increment of four. Therefore, the string can be
rewritten as '2-6- - 22-24'. The node increment of four is derived from '2-6'.

Frame Analysis 3-24
An element definition must include a section number entered in the Section Name column.
The section name is used to identify the relevant section. The actual section properties for each
section number defined on the Beam Sections input page.

Section orientation in a 3D analysis
In 3D analysis, the local y-z plane of an
element is taken as vertical by default. The
principle can be illustrated by considering an
I-section in its normal orientation. For this
case, the web will always be considered to be
in a vertical plane.
If the element is aligned vertically, i.e. a
column, the web will be in a vertical plane
anyway. For this special case, the local y-axis
is aligned with the global X-axis, i.e. the web
is taken in the global X-Y plane.
Frame Analysis 3-25
An element can be rotated about its axis by entering a beta angle. The beta angle is measured
about the z-axis, taking the default orientation as 0. Instead of entering a beta angle, you may
also enter a reference node the beta angle is then taken in the plane described by the element's
nodes and the reference point. To use a reference point, first define a node with the relevant
coordinate and then enter 'N' followed by the node number in the Beta column
Tip: Enable full 3D rendering in the Graphics options to view the true beam orientation.
Section orientation in a 2D analysis
In the case of a 2D analysis, the local y-z plane of an element is taken in the global X-Y plane.
The principle can be illustrated by considering an I-section in its normal orientation. For this
case, the web will always be considered to be in a vertical plane.
Tip: Enable full 3D rendering in the Graphics options to view the true beam orientation.
A section can be rotated through ninety degrees by selecting the alternative orientation when
reading it from the section database.
Note: In a space truss analysis the section orientation is of no importance. The analysis
results are influenced by the section area and not by it's second moment of inertia.
End fixity
The fixity at each end of an element, i.e. continuous or pinned, must also be defined in the
Fixity columns. Pins are modelled on the element itself and not on the node. External pinned
supports should be defined on the supports input table. External supports are described in the
next section.
The following types of end fixities can be specified:
Fixed: Specify 'F' to provide full rotational continuity. If you leave the field blank, 'F' is
assumed.
Pinned: Use 'P' to for no rotational restraint, i.e. a ball-joint.
Torsional fixity: Use 'T' to provide restraint for rotation about the element axis only. This
option is only available in the Grillage domain and the Space Frame domain.
Entered fixities are applied at an element's lower node number (designated as the 'left' end) and
higher node number (the 'right' end). The order of the node numbers entered in the first column
of the table has no bearing on the application of the fixity codes.
To define a pin only at the two remote ends of a group of elements, enable the Group fix
option by entering a 'Y'. In this case, the normal convention of smaller and larger node
numbers does not apply. Instead, pins are put at the remote ends in the same order that the
nodes have been entered.

Frame Analysis 3-26
Example:

The group of elements from node 42 to 24 is continuous except for the pins used at nodes
42 and 24.
Note: Do not use an internal pin on an element to model an external support that allows free
rotation. Rather allow the beam to be fixed to the node and define a simple support on the
Support input page.
If the Group fix is left blank or 'N' is entered, the normal individual element fixity mode is
assumed.
Tip: Element fixity can be displayed graphically on the screen. For this, edit the Graphics
options to disable the Elements Continuous option.
When using pins, especially in the Space Frame domain, you should take care to ensure
overall stability of the frame. Consider two elements on a straight line with pins at all three
relevant nodes, for example. The centre node will be unrestrained for rotation about the
element axis, resulting in instability during the analysis.
Note: When performing a second order analysis, you can use tension elements to model
bracing, for example. For this, special settings need be made on the Beam Sections input
page. Refer to page 3-31 for detail.
Tapered beams
A beam can be made to taper between by entering two or three section names, separated with
commas:
Use two sections, e.g. 'Rafter,Haunch' or '1,2', to make the program vary the section
properties linearly along the length of the beam element. The first and second sections are
taken at the lower and higher node numbers respectively.
For a more accurate non-linear variation, enter three section names, e.g.
'Rafter,Middle,Haunch'. The first, second and third sections are taken at the at the lower
node number, the centre of the element and at higher node number respectively.
The procedure the enter haunches is described on page 3-31.
Frame Analysis 3-27
Rigid links
You can use rigid links to rigidly offset sub-structures, e.g. slabs with downstand beams. To
define a rigid link, enter 'R' in the Section Name column.
Rigid links are modelled as very stiff beams. The stiffness of a rigid link is determined by
multiplying the maximum area and bending stiffness of the other beams with a factor, typically
one thousand. The rigid multiplication factors can be adjusted using the Advanced option on
the Beam sections input page. Refer to page 3-32 for detail.
Rigid link example:

Rigid links are defined between nodes 12 and 24, 14 and 26 and 16 and 26.
Generating additional elements
You can generate additional elements with the same section and fixity code values using the
No of extra and Node No Inc columns. Example:

The elements between nodes 251 and 266 are copied ten times with the node numbers
decrementing by five with each copy.
Block generation
A group of elements can be repeated by entering a 'B' in the No column. Then enter the first
and last table line numbers in which the elements were defined, separated with a ''.
Block generation example:

All elements defined in lines 11 to 26 will be copied twice with a node number increment of
thirty. The copied elements will use the same section number and fixity codes as the original
elements.
To copy one line only, simply omit the end line number, e.g. 'B11' to copy line 11 only.
Tip: The current line number is displayed in the status bar at the bottom left of the
program's window.

Frame Analysis 3-28
The block generation function may be used recursively. The group of lines referenced may thus
contain block generation statements.
Tip: When entering a complicated structure it may help to leave a few blank lines between
groups of elements. Not only will it improve readability, but it will also allow you to insert
additional nodes at a later stage without upsetting block and arc generations.
Deleting elements
Beam elements can be deleted by entering a special section name 'Delete'. This can be
especially handy if you have generated a large group of elements at regular increments and
need to remove some of them again.
Example:

Elements 25-27-29 and 35-37-39 are deleted.
Note: The display of selected beam element groups can be activated or suppressed by
editing the Graphics options.
Error checking
The program checks for duplicate elements and elements with zero length. It also checks that a
section number is assigned to each element. If an error is detected, an Error list button will be
displayed.
Graphical input
The following graphical input functions are available on the left hand side of the screen. The
toolbar containing the graphics options buttons can also be dragged and docked on any side of
the picture.
To add beams click the Add beams
button. Enter the section name, angle
and fixities for the beams. By clicking
two successive nodes, a beam will be
inserted between them. If follow on is
checked, the last node of the previous
beam is taken as the first node of the
next beam. If Link end nodes only is
checked, only one beam is placed
between the last two nodes entered. If
not, all nodes between the last two nodes
are also added into the beam string. The
Frame Analysis 3-29
nodes must lie within a certain tolerance from the straight line between the end nodes to be
included. This tolerance can be entered in the Tolerance (%) field. If e.g. 1% is entered, any
node closer than 1% of the distance between the end nodes from the line joining them is
included. Pressing Undo will delete the beams in reverse order, in which they were entered,
one by one.
To delete beams click the Delete
beams button and then select the
beams to be deleted on the screen using
the mouse. Click Done when finished.
Clicking Undo will undo the deletions
in reverse order.
To block delete beams click the Block
delete beam elements button. Select a
rectangle on the screen with the mouse. All
beams inside the rectangle will be deleted.
Press Done when finished. Pressing
Undo will undo the deletions in reverse
order one by one beam. Pressing Undo All will undo all deletions done with this function.
Click the Change beam properties
button to change beam properties. Enter
the desired properties for the beam(s) on
the dialog. One can also use the Get
properties button to do this. Click the
button and then click on a beam. The
beams properties will then be
transferred to the dialog. Clicking on
beams will now change their properties
to those specified on the dialog. The
Undo button will undo the changes in
reverse order.
Click the Explode beams button to
explode the beam input. This results in the
list of beams being written, each on a
separate line without block generations etc.
Once done, it cannot be reversed.


On the beams input page one can also delete nodes and groups of nodes in the same way as on
the nodes input page. Refer to page 3-22 for details

Frame Analysis 3-30
Beam sections input
Section properties should be assigned to all section names used on the Beam elements input
page. The following properties are required for all sections:
Cross sectional area, A.
Second moment of area about the local x-axis, I
x
(not required for Space Truss analysis).
Second moment of area about the local y-axis, I
y
(Space Frame domain only).
Torsional moment of inertia, J (Grillage and Space Frame domain only).

Each section should also have an associated material selected. If no section or material
properties are entered, the values applicable to the previous line in the table are used.
Frame Analysis 3-31
Reading sections from the database
Use the Section database function to display and select sections from database. You can add
your own sections, e.g. plate girders, to the database using the procedures described in
Chapter 2.
Entering haunches
Haunches are entered by appending the haunch depth to the section designation. To add a
haunch of 180 mm to a '305x102x66' BS taper flange I-section, enter '305x102x66 (0.280h)'.
The overall depth is then taken to be 305 mm + 280 mm = 585 mm.
Tip: You can verify your definition of haunches by enabling 3D rendering. For more detail,
refer to page 3-17.
Tension members
When performing a second order analysis, you can designate members to have tension stiffness
only, e.g. slender bracing members. To make a member be ignored during the analysis when it
would act in compression:
1. Enter the member's section properties in the usual manner.
2. Edit the value for the cross sectional area and change its sign to negative.
Note: The program uses the absolute value of the cross sectional area. The negative sign
entered merely enables the tension-only behaviour for beams of the given section group.
Own weight
If a material's definition includes a density value, the own weight of a member is calculated
automatically and added to the load case specified on the Settings page.
Selecting materials
Each section should have an associated
material.
To add one or more materials to a frame
analysis data file, click Materials. Open
the relevant material type screen and
select the materials that are required for
the current frame input.
After adding the selected materials to
the input, you can select them by
clicking the Material column to drop
down a list.

Frame Analysis 3-32

Adding materials to the global database
The procedure to permanently add more materials to the database is described in Chapter 2.
Advanced section options
Clicking the Advanced button allows
you to configure the behaviour of rigid
links. A rigid link is modelled as a very
stiff beam of which the area, second
moment of inertia and modulus of
elasticity are taken as the maximum
corresponding properties all other
beams multiplied with the specified
factors.

Refer to page 3-26 for detail on
defining rigid links.

Graphical input
The following graphical input functions are available on the left hand side of the screen. The
toolbar containing the graphics options buttons can also be dragged and docked on any side of
the picture.
Click the Change beam properties
button to change beam properties. Enter
the desired properties for the beam(s) on
the dialog. One can also use the Get
properties button to do this. Click the
button and then click on a beam. The
beams properties will then be
transferred to the dialog. Clicking on
beams will now change their properties
to those specified on the dialog. The
Undo button will undo the changes in
reverse order.
Frame Analysis 3-33
Shell elements input
You can use finite shell elements alongside beam elements, except in the Space truss domain.
Shell elements can be optionally designed as reinforced concrete members.
Elements are defined by referring to corner nodes, four in the case of quadrilaterals and three
for triangles. You should enter the node numbers in sequence around the perimeter, either
clockwise or anti-clockwise, in the Node 1 to Node 4 columns. Leave Node 4 blank to define a
triangular element.
Note: Quadrilateral elements generally yield more accurate analysis results than triangular
elements. Refer to page 3-10 for more detail.

An element definition must include a thickness and material type. Refer to page 3-31 for more
detail on using materials.

Frame Analysis 3-34
Own weight
If a material's definition includes a density value, the own weight of a member is calculated
automatically and added to the load case specified on the Settings page.
Tip: When entering a complicated slab, it may help to leave a few blank lines between
groups of elements. Not only will it improve readability, but it will also allow you to insert
additional elements at a later stage without upsetting block and arc generations.
Error checking
The program checks for duplicate elements and nodes not connected to elements. It also checks
that a group number is assigned to each element. If an error is detected, an Error list button
will be displayed.
Generating additional elements
You can generate additional elements with the same group number using the Number of Extra
and Node no Inc columns.
Block generation
You can use the block generation to copy shells you defined earlier in the table. A group of
shells can be repeated by entering a 'B' in the Node 1 column followed by the first and last
table line numbers in which the nodes were defined. Separate the line numbers with a ''.
To copy a single line only, simply omit the end line number, e.g. 'B11' to copy line 11 only.
Tip: The current line number is displayed in the status bar at the bottom left of the
program's window.
The block generation function may be used recursively. The group of lines referenced may thus
contain block generation statements.
Deleting elements
Shell elements can be deleted by entering 'Delete' in the Material column. This can be useful if
you have generated a large group of elements and need to remove some of them again.
Example:

The element 15-16-26-25 and the generated element 18-19-29-28 are deleted.
Frame Analysis 3-35
Graphical input
The following graphical input functions are available on the left hand side of the screen. The
toolbar containing the graphics options buttons can also be dragged and docked on any side of
the picture.
To add shells click the Add
shell elements button. Enter the
material, thickness and shell
type (triangular or quadrilateral).
The easiest way to enter shells is
to define a plane in which they
lie. Click 3 nodes to indicate the
plane. The three node numbers
can also be typed directly into
the dialog. Also enter the
thickness of the plane. Only the
nodes lying in the plane and half
of the thickness on either side
are now displayed. If one now
moves the mouse across the
picture, possible shells are
shown in purple. Click the
mouse to have each shell entered
into the input table. If you do not want to use a plane in this way, click Dont use plane.
Pressing Undo will delete the shells in the reverse order in which they were entered, one by
one.
To delete shells click the Delete
shells button and then select the
shells to be deleted on the screen
using the mouse. Click Done
when finished. Clicking Undo
will undo the deletions in reverse
order.
To block delete shells click the Block
delete shell elements button. Select a
rectangle on the screen with the
mouse. All shells inside the rectangle
will be deleted. Press Done when
finished. Pressing Undo will undo the deletions in reverse order one by one. Pressing Undo
All will undo all deletions done with this function.



Frame Analysis 3-36
Click the Change shell
element properties button to
change shell properties. Enter
the desired properties for the
shell(s) on the dialog. One
can also use the Get
properties button to do this.
Click the button and then
click on a shell. The shells
properties will then be transferred to the dialog. Clicking on shells will now change their
properties to those specified on the dialog. The Undo button will undo the changes in reverse
order.
Click the Explode shells button to
explode the shell input. This results
in the list of shells being written,
each on a separate line without block
generations etc. Once done, it cannot
be reversed.


On the shells input page one can also delete nodes and groups of nodes in the same way as on
the nodes input page. Refer to page 3-22 for details

Solid elements input
You can use solid elements alongside beam and shell elements, if the domain is set as Space
frame.
Elements are defined by referring to corner nodes, eight in the case of hexahedrons and four for
tetrahedrons. You should enter the node numbers in sequence around the perimeter, either
clockwise or anti-clockwise, in the Node 1 to Node 8 columns. First define the back face
going either clockwise or anti-clockwise in the node 1 to node 4 columns. Next define the
front face starting with node 5 above the node defined as node 1 and moving around in the
same direction as nodes 1 to 4. For tetrahedrons the four nodes can be entered in any order in
columns 1 to 4.
Note: Hexahedral elements generally yield very accurate analysis results. The tetrahedrons
should only be used as filler elements where it is not possible to use hexahedrons.
Frame Analysis 3-37

An element definition must include a material type. Refer to page 3-31 for more detail on
using materials.
Own weight
If a material's definition includes a density value, the own weight of a member is calculated
automatically and added to the load case specified on the Settings page.
Tip: When entering a complicated model, it may help to leave a few blank lines between
groups of elements. Not only will it improve readability, but it will also allow you to insert
additional elements at a later stage without upsetting block and arc generations.
Error checking
The program checks for duplicate elements and nodes not connected to elements. It also checks
that a group number is assigned to each element. If an error is detected, an Error list button
will be displayed.

Frame Analysis 3-38
Generating additional elements
You can generate additional elements with the same group number using the Number of Extra
and Node no Inc columns.
Block generation
You can use the block generation to copy shells you defined earlier in the table. A group of
solids can be repeated by entering a 'B' in the Node 1 column followed by the first and last
table line numbers in which the nodes were defined. Separate the line numbers with a ''.
To copy a single line only, simply omit the end line number, e.g. 'B11' to copy line 11 only.
Tip: The current line number is displayed in the status bar at the bottom left of the
program's window.
The block generation function may be used recursively. The group of lines referenced may thus
contain block generation statements.
Deleting elements
Solid elements can be deleted by entering 'Delete' in the Material column. This can be useful if
you have generated a large group of elements and need to remove some of them again.
Example:


The element 201-202-152-151-226-227-177-176 and the generated element 251-252-201-201-
276-277-227-226 are deleted.
Frame Analysis 3-39
Graphical input
The following graphical input functions are available on the left hand side of the screen. The
toolbar containing the graphics options buttons can also be dragged and docked on any side of
the picture.
To add solids click the Add
solids elements button. Enter the
material and solid type
(tetrahedral, wedges or
hexahedra). At the time of
writing only hexahedra were
available for this function. The
easiest way to enter solids is to
define a plane in which they lie.
Click the set up plane button to
do this. Click three nodes to
indicate the plane. The three
node numbers can also be typed
directly into the dialog. Also
enter the thickness of the plane.
Only the nodes lying in the plane
and half of the thickness on
either side are now displayed. If
one now moves the mouse across
the picture, possible solids are shown in purple. Click the mouse to have each solid entered into
the input table. If you do not want to use a plane in this way anymore, click Clear Plane.
Pressing Undo will delete the solids in the reverse order in which they were entered, one by
one.
To delete solids click the Delete
solid elements button and then select
the solids to be deleted on the screen
using the mouse. Click Done when
finished. Clicking Undo will undo
the deletions in reverse order.
To block delete solids click the
Block delete solid elements
button. Select a rectangle on the
screen with the mouse. All solids
inside the rectangle will be deleted.
Press Done when finished.
Pressing Undo will undo the deletions in reverse order one by one. Pressing Undo All will
undo all deletions done with this function.

Frame Analysis 3-40
Click the Change solid element properties button to change solid element properties. Enter
the desired material for the
solid(s) on the dialog. One can
also use the Get properties
button to do this. Click the button
and then click on a solid. The
solids material property will then
be transferred to the dialog.
Clicking on solids will now change their material to that specified on the dialog. The Undo
button will undo the changes in reverse order.
Click the Explode solids
button to explode the solids
input. This results in the list of
solids being written, each on a
separate line without block
generations etc. Once done, it
cannot be reversed.

On the solids input page one can also delete nodes and groups of nodes in the same way as on
the nodes input page. Refer to page 3-22 for details
Spring elements input
You can use spring elements to provide elastic links between sub-structures, e.g. to model
elastomeric bearings between a slab and supporting walls. In theory, two nodes connected with
a spring element should have the same coordinates. The program will warn if this is not the
case and still allow you to continue.
Enter linear spring constants in the Kx, Ky and Kz columns and rotational spring constants in
the Rx, Ry and Rz columns.
The orientation of a spring element is defined by entering a bearing between any two nodes
that do not necessarily need to be connected to the same or other spring elements as well. The
directions of the axes are defined as followed:
A spring element's x-axis is taken in the direction of the orientating nodes.
The y-axis defined in the same way as for a normal beam element, i.e. perpendicular to
spring element in a vertical plane.
The z-axis is taken perpendicular to the x and y-axes using aright-hand rule.
Spring element example:

Frame Analysis 3-41
Spring elements are defined between nodes 16 and 116, 17 and 117 up to 19 and 119. The
spring elements are aligned parallel to the imaginary line joining nodes 3 and 4.
Tip: Spring elements can also be made "rigid" to force two nodes to have the same
translation and/or rotation. In the above example, a very large value for K
x
would
cause nodes 16 and 116 to have identical displacements in the direction described by
nodes 3 and 4.
Graphical input
The following graphical input functions are available on the left hand side of the screen. The
toolbar containing the graphics options buttons can also be dragged and docked on any side of
the picture.
To add springs click the Add spring
elements button. Enter the spring
stiffnesses and orientation nodes on
the dialog.. Now click the mouse on
nodes to have springs entered into
the input table. Pressing Undo will
delete the springs in the reverse
order in which they were entered,
one by one.







To delete springs click the Delete
spring elements button and then
select the springs to be deleted on the
screen using the mouse. Click Done
when finished. Clicking Undo will
undo the deletions in reverse order.
To block delete springs click the
Block delete spring elements
button. Select a rectangle on the
screen with the mouse. All springs
inside the rectangle will be deleted.

Frame Analysis 3-42
Press the Done button when finished. Pressing Undo will undo the deletions in reverse
order, one by one. Pressing Undo All will undo all deletions done with this function.
Click the Change spring element
properties button to change
spring element properties. Enter
the desired spring stiffnesses and
orientation on the dialog. One can
also use the Get properties
button to do this. Click the button
and then click on a spring. The
springs properties will then be
transferred to the dialog. Clicking
on springs will now change their
properties to those specified on
the dialog. The Undo button will
undo the changes in reverse order.



Click the Explode springs
button to explode the spring
input. This results in the list of
springs being written, each on
a separate line without block
generations etc. Once done, it
cannot be reversed.

On the springs input page one can also delete nodes and groups of nodes in the same way as on
the nodes input page. Refer to page 3-22 for details
Supports input
Frames require external supports to ensure global stability. Supports can be entered to prevent
any of the six degrees of freedom at a node, i.e. translation in the X Y and Z-directions and
rotation about the X, Y and Z-axes. You can also define elastic supports, e.g. an elastic soil
support, and prescribed displacements, e.g. foundation settlement.
Enter the node number to be supported in the Node No column. In the next column a
combination of the letters 'X', 'Y' and 'Z' can be entered to indicate the direction of fixity. Use
capitals and lowercase to define restraint of translation and rotation respectively, e.g. 'XYZy'
means fixed against movement in the X, Y and Z-direction and rotation about the Y-axis.
Frame Analysis 3-43
Note: The use of lowercase for rotational restraints should not be confused with the
convention of using lowercase for local element axes.

Tip: To enter a simple support with no moment restraint, one would typically enter a 'XYZ'
or 'Y'. Avoid using a pin on an element to model an external hinge.
If you want to repeat the supports defined on the previous line of the table, you need only enter
the node number, i.e. you may leave the Fixity column blank. If the XYZxyz column is left
blank, the supports applicable to the previous line will be used automatically.
Prescribed displacements and elastic supports
Use the X, Y, Z, Rx, Ry and Rz columns to enter prescribed displacements and rotations in
the direction of and about the X, Y and Z-axes. Being a global support condition, the effect of
the prescribed displacement is not considered to be a separate load case. Instead, the effect

Frame Analysis 3-44
of prescribed displacements is added once only to the analysis results of each load case and
load combination.
Elastic supports, or springs, are defined by entering spring constants in the X, Y, Z, x, y and z
columns. The spring constant is defined as the force or moment that will cause a unit displace-
ment or rotation in the relevant direction. Enter an 'S' in the P/S column to indicate that an
entered value is a spring constant rather than a prescribed displacement. If you leave the P/S
column blank, the entered values are taken as prescribed displacements.
Gap supports
Gap support are supports that work in one direction only and allow free movement in the
opposite direction, e.g. allow uplift. The sign of the gap support corresponds to the global axis
direction, e.g. a [+] input in the Y-direction provides support in the positive Y-direction
(upward reaction) and none in the negative Y-directions (i.e. uplift is allowed).
Note: The display of supports can be activated or suppressed by editing the Graphics
options.
Error Checking
The program does a basic check on the structural stability of the frame. If a potential error is
detected, an Error list button will appear.
Note: You cannot define an elastic support and a prescribed displacement at the same node
because it will be a contradiction of principles.
Generating additional supports
Additional supports and prescribed displacements can be generated using the Number of extra
and Node number inc columns. The procedure is similar to that described on page 3-20 for
generating additional nodes.
Graphical input
The following graphical input functions are available on the left hand side of the screen. The
toolbar containing the graphics options buttons can also be dragged and docked on any side of
the picture.
Frame Analysis 3-45
To add supports click the Add
supports button. Enter the fixities,
prescribed displacements, spring
constants and fixity type on the
dialog. Now click the mouse on
nodes to have supports entered into
the input table. Pressing Undo will
delete the supports in the reverse
order in which they were entered,
one by one.







To delete supports click the Delete
supports button and then select the
supports to be deleted on the screen
using the mouse. Click Done when
finished. Clicking Undo will undo
the deletions in reverse order.
To block delete supports click the
Block delete supports button.
Select a rectangle on the screen
with the mouse. All supports inside
the rectangle will be deleted. Press
the Done button when finished.
Pressing Undo will undo the deletions in reverse order, one by one. Pressing Undo All will
undo all deletions done with this function.

Frame Analysis 3-46
Click the Change support
properties button to change
support properties. Enter the
desired support fixities, type,
prescribed displacements and
spring constants on the dialog.
One can also use the Get
properties button to do this.
Click the button and then click
on a support. The supports
properties will then be
transferred to the dialog.
Clicking on supports will now
change their properties to
those specified on the dialog.
The Undo button will undo
the changes in reverse order.

Click the Explode supports button
to explode the support input. This
results in the list of supports being
written, each on a separate line
without block generations etc. Once
done, it cannot be reversed.


On the supports input page one can also delete nodes and groups of nodes in the same way as
on the nodes input page. Refer to page 3-22 for details
Nodal loads input
Loads on beam elements are categorised as nodal loads, i.e. loads at node points, and element
loads, i.e. loads between nodes. Uniform distributed loads can be applied to shell elements.
All loads are organised in load cases, e.g. 'DL' for own weight, 'ADL' for additional dead loads,
'LL' for live load, etc. Load cases apply equally to the various load input screens, meaning that
you can build up a load case using different types of loads.
To define a load case, type a descriptive name for each load case in the Load Case column.
Use up to six characters to describe each load case. If the load case name is not entered, the
load case applicable to the previous line in the table is used.
Frame Analysis 3-47
The load case at the cursor position is displayed graphically. Press Enter or Display to update
the picture.
A nodal load can, as its name implies, only be applied at a node. If a point load is required on
an element, use the Beam loads input table instead.
Sign conventions
Nodal loads are applied parallel to the global axes an explanation of the sign conventions are
given on page 3-6.

Tip: For a typical steel or timber frame or roof truss, it may be easiest to define a node at
each purlin position. Roof loads transferred via the purlins can then be entered as
nodal loads.
Error checking
The program checks that specified nodes have indeed been defined in the Nodes input table. If
an error is detected, an Error list button will appear.

Frame Analysis 3-48
Generating additional nodal loads
Additional nodal loads can be generated using the Number of extra and Node number inc
columns respectively.
Block generation of nodal loads
You can use the block function to copy blocks of nodal loads. The procedure is similar to that
for generating additional nodes see page 3-21 for more detail.
Graphical input
The following graphical input functions are available on the left hand side of the screen. The
toolbar containing the graphics options buttons can also be dragged and docked on any side of
the picture.
To add nodal loads click the Add nodal loads button.
Enter the forces, moments and the load case on the
dialog. Now click the mouse on nodes to have nodal
loads entered into the input table. Pressing Undo will
delete the nodal loads in the reverse order in which
they were entered, one by one.















Frame Analysis 3-49
To block add nodal loads click the Block add nodal
loads button. Enter the forces, moments and the load
case on the dialog. Select a rectangle on the screen
with the mouse. All nodes inside the rectangle will
have a nodal load added. Pressing Undo will delete
the nodal loads in the reverse order in which they were
entered, one by one.






To delete nodal loads click the Delete nodal
loads button and then select the nodal loads to be
deleted on the screen using the mouse. The load
case for which loads are to be deleted should also
be entered on the dialog. Click Done when
finished. Clicking Undo will undo the deletions
in reverse order.

To block delete nodal loads click the Block
delete nodal loads button. Select a rectangle on
the screen with the mouse. All nodal loads inside
the rectangle will be deleted. Press the Done
button when finished. Pressing Undo will undo
the deletions in reverse order, one by one.

Click the Explode nodal loads
button to explode the nodal loads
input. This results in the list of
nodal loads being written, each on
a separate line without block
generations etc. Once done, it
cannot be reversed.

Frame Analysis 3-50
Beam element loads input
Distributed loads and point loads on beam elements are all referred to as element loads. The
Nodal loads input page provides the easiest way of applying point loads and moments at
nodes.
Use up to six characters to enter a descriptive name for each load case in the Load Case
column. Then enter the element string of nodes in the Beam element definition column.
Entering the beam element definition follows the same convention used as for the Elements
input table see page 3-23 for detail.

Sign conventions
Depending on the selected load direction, beam loads are applied parallel to the global axes or
parallel to the local y-axis the definitions of the global and local axes are given on page 3-6
and 3-6 respectively.
Frame Analysis 3-51
The load direction is entered in the Direction column. Enter a global direction 'X', 'Y' or 'Z'.
Element loads are applied to the relevant projected length of the elements. Therefore, if a 'Y'
load is entered for a vertical element, for example, the resulting load will therefore be zero.
You can also load a beam element parallel to its local y-axis by setting the load direction
to 'L' refer to page 3-6 for an explanation of the local axis convention used.
Types of beam loads
The following loads can be entered:
A point load's magnitude is entered in the P column and its position from the smaller node
number in the a column.
For a distributed load, entered in the load intensity at the smaller and larger node numbers
in the W-begin and W-end columns respectively. If the load is constant over the length of
the element, W-end may be left blank.
To define a temperature load, enter the temperature difference in the dT column. A
temperature change is used with the temperature expansion coefficient of the relevant
material used.
Note: Positive vertical loads act upward and negative loads act downward.
Error checking
The program checks that element definitions match previously defined elements. If an error is
detected, an Error list button will appear.
Generating additional element loads
The No of extra and Node number Inc columns can also be used to generate additional
element loads.
Block generation of beam loads
You can use the block function to copy blocks of beam loads. The procedure is similar to that
used to generating additional beam elements see page 3-27 for detail.
Graphical input
The following graphical input functions are available on the left hand side of the screen. The
toolbar containing the graphics options buttons can also be dragged and docked on any side of
the picture.
To add beam loads click the Add beam loads
button. Enter the loads, direction and
temperature change on the dialog. The load
case also needs to be entered. Now click the

Frame Analysis 3-52
mouse on beams to have beam loads entered into the input table. Pressing Undo will delete
the beam loads in the reverse order in which they were entered, one by one.
To block add beam loads click the Block add
beam loads button. Enter the loads, direction
and temperature change on the dialog. The
load case also needs to be entered. Select a
rectangle on the screen with the mouse. All
beams inside the rectangle will have a beam
load added. Pressing Undo will delete the
beam loads in the reverse order in which they
were entered, one by one.




To delete beam loads click the Delete
beam loads button and then select the
beam loads to be deleted on the screen
using the mouse. The load case for
which loads are to be deleted should
also be entered on the dialog. Click
Done when finished. Clicking
Undo will undo the deletions in
reverse order.
To block delete beam loads click the
Block delete beam loads button.
Select a rectangle on the screen with
the mouse. All beam loads inside the
rectangle will be deleted. Press the
Done button when finished. Pressing
Undo will undo the deletions in
reverse order, one by one.

Click the Explode beam loads
button to explode the beam loads
input. This results in the list of
beam loads being written, each on
a separate line without block
generations etc. Once done, it
cannot be reversed.
Frame Analysis 3-53

Shell loads
Distributed loads can be applied on shell elements. Enter a load case description in the Load
case column followed by the relevant element numbers in the Shell numbers column. The
program automatically assigns numbers to all shell elements in the sequence they are defined
on the Shells input page.
A series of elements can be entered by separating the first and last element numbers by a ' '
character, e.g. '16' to define elements 1 up to 6.
Tip: If the shell element numbers are not visible in the picture, edit the graphics options to
enable detailed rendering and disable the full 3D view. Refer to page 3-17 for detail on
changing the graphics options.
Sign conventions
Shell loads are applied parallel to the element's local z-axes an explanation of the local axes
of shell elements are given on page 3-6.
Types of shell loads
The following shell loads can be entered:
For a distributed load, entered in the load intensity in the UDL column.
To define a temperature load, enter the temperature difference in the dT column. A
temperature change is used with the temperature expansion coefficient of the relevant
material used.
Note: Positive vertical loads act upward and negative loads act downward.

Frame Analysis 3-54


Error checking
The program checks that the entered element numbers are valid. If an error is detected, an
Error list button will appear.
Generating additional element loads
The No of extra and Node number Inc columns can also be used to generate additional shell
loads.
Block generation of shell loads
You can use the block function to copy blocks of beam loads. The procedure is similar to that
used to generating additional shell elements see page 3-34 for detail.
Frame Analysis 3-55


Graphical input
The following graphical input functions are available on the left hand side of the screen. The
toolbar containing the graphics options buttons can also be dragged and docked on any side of
the picture.
To add shell loads click the Add shell loads
button. Enter the UDL, direction and
temperature change on the dialog. The load
case also needs to be entered. Now click the
mouse on shells to have shell loads entered
into the input table. Pressing Undo will
delete the shell loads in the reverse order in
which they were entered, one by one.




To block add shell loads click the Block add
shell loads button. Enter the UDL, direction
and temperature change on the dialog. The
load case also needs to be entered. Select a
rectangle on the screen with the mouse. All
shells inside the rectangle will have a shell
load added. Pressing Undo will delete the
shell loads in the reverse order in which they
were entered, one by one.


To delete shell loads click the Delete shell
loads button and then select the shell loads to
be deleted on the screen using the mouse. The
load case for which loads are to be deleted
should also be entered on the dialog. Click
Done when finished. Clicking Undo will
undo the deletions in reverse order.


Frame Analysis 3-56



To block delete shell loads click the Block
delete shell loads button. Select a rectangle on
the screen with the mouse. All shell loads inside
the rectangle will be deleted. Press the Done
button when finished. Pressing Undo will
undo the deletions in reverse order, one by one.


Click the Explode shell loads
button to explode the shell loads
input. This results in the list of
shell loads being written, each on
a separate line without block
generations etc. Once done, it
cannot be reversed.


Frame Analysis 3-57
Load combinations input

You can model practical scenarios by grouping load cases together in load combinations. Enter
the load combination name in the Load comb column; followed by the load case name and
relevant load factors.
If the Load comb column is left blank, the load combination is taken to be the same as for the
previous line of the table. The load cases to consider in a load combination are entered one per
line in the Load case column. Enter the relevant ultimate and serviceability limit state load
factors in the ULS factor and SLS factor columns.
Tip: You may leave one or more blank lines between load combination definitions to
improve readability.
The ultimate and serviceability limit states are used as follows:
Deflections are calculated using the entered SLS loads. A set of reactions is also calculated
at SLS for the purposes of evaluating support stability and bearing pressures.

Frame Analysis 3-58
Element forces and a second set of reactions are determined using the entered ULS forces.
Tip: If you plan to use a working stress method to design the frame members, e.g. steel
design according to SABS 0162 - 1984, you may use the same load factors at ULS and SLS.
Error checking
The program only checks that valid load cases are specified. It has no knowledge of the design
code that will be used in the member design and therefore does not check the validity of the
entered load factors.
Alternative frame input methods
Alternative means of frame input are available:
Input Wizards: Modules are available for the rapid generation of input for typical frame
structures.
External Graphical input: Structures can be drawn in Padds or another CAD system and
converted to frame analysis input.
Input Wizards
A number of typical frames can be input by entering a number of parameters. The Input
Wizards do most of the data input. See page 3-18 for more detail on the Input wizards.
Note: The frame analysis modules are not limited to modelling only those frames generated
by the input wizards modules. Instead, the input wizards merely serve to simplify input of
some typical frames.
External Graphical input
In some situations, it may be easier to define a frame's geometry graphically. With Padds you
can draw a frame and then generate a frame analysis input file.
Using Padds for frame input
To use Padds to define a frame's geometry:
1. Use Padds to draw the frame. Alternatively, import a drawing from another CAD system.
2. The frame should be drawn to scale using millimetres as unit. Identify different beam
sections by using different pen numbers.
3. Use the Generate input command on the Macro to display the drawing conversion
options. Choose the target frame analysis module and press OK to start the conversion
procedure.
Frame Analysis 3-59
The file is saved in the working folder as a last file, e.g. 'Lastsf.a03' for Frame
Analysis.
4. Close Padds.
Tip: To see a graphical input example, open '..\prokon\data\demo\inputgen.pad' in Padds.
Importing drawings
You can also use your favourite CAD system to save a frame's geometry in a 2D or 3D
Dxf/Dwg format drawing and then use the Import -> Dxf/Dwg files command on the File
menu to convert it to frame input.

The same basic rules apply as given above:
The drawing should be to scale.
You should use millimetre units.
Different pen numbers should be used for different beam sections.

Frame Analysis 3-60
When importing 3D .Dxf & .Dwg drawings, you can optionally interchange the Z- and Y-axes.
This option is given to correctly import a drawing where the Z-axis is taken as vertical, into
Frame Analysis where the Y-axis is vertical.
Typical problems experienced include the following:
Polylines may not be recognised correctly. Break or explode polylines into single lines
before saving the .Dxf file.
Blocks may not import correctly and may need to be broken or exploded into individual
entities.
Using AutoCAD, lines colours set 'by layer' translates to the default pen number. Rather
set colours using pen numbers to ensure correct section numbering.
If you experience problems importing a DXF file saved using a brand new version of your
CAD system, it may help saving the file as an older DXF file version, e.g. version 12.
CIMsteel
The Space Frame Analysis module can import complete frame models, including geometrical
and loading data, defined in the CIMsteel (Computer Integrated Manufacturing for
Constructional Steelwork) integration standard. Modelling packages that can create CIMsteel
files include Intergraph Frameworks and Microstation Structural Triforma. Note that at the
time of writing this feature had not been fully developed.
Frame Analysis 3-61
Settings
The Settings page allows you to set the parameters relevant to the analysis method.
Analysis type
Select the type of analysis to be performed. Refer to page 3-13 for a description of the various
analysis modes.
Concrete design parameters input
It is generally impractical to design reinforcement to resist torsional moments in slabs.
Reinforcement is usually fixed in two directions approximately, but not necessarily,
perpendicular to each other. This justifies the use of transformed moments to calculate
reinforcement.
Frame uses the Wood and Armer theory to convert calculated bending and torsional moments
to transformed bending moments. More detail is given on page 3-12. Please note that these
parameters only apply to shell elements and not to beams or solids.

The required concrete design parameters are:
Enter the concrete and reinforcement material characteristics, f
cu
and f
y
.

Frame Analysis 3-62
Define the orientation for the 'main' and 'secondary' reinforcement, i.e. the x' and y' -axis.
Looking from the top, the x'-axis is measured anti-clockwise from the local x-axis to the
reinforcement x'-axis. The y'-axis is in turn measured anti-clockwise from the local x'-axis.
The direction of the local x-axis of a shell element is explained on page 3-6.
Define the reinforcement levels in the slab by entering the concrete cover values for the
top and bottom reinforcement in both directions.
Optionally incorporate membrane behaviour by including the effect of in-plane stresses.
Reinforcement contours can be displayed on the Reinforcement tab under the View Output
age. Values are calculated for reinforcement at the top and bottom of shell elements. In this
context, top and bottom are defined as follows:
The top of a shell element is taken on the side towards which its local z-axis points.
For a non-vertical element, the top side is the visible side when looking down on the
element.
For a vertical element, the top side is the visible side if the nodes (as entered on the Shell
elements input page) defining the element are orientated anti-clockwise.
Second order parameters input
If you want to perform a second order analysis of the frame, you need to set the relevant
analysis parameters:
Second order analysis tolerance: The second
order analysis is an iterative procedure. The
analysis is deemed to have converged once the
total strain energies of two sequential iterations
differ by less than the specified tolerance

Buckling parameters input
When performing a buckling analysis:
Number of buckling mode shapes: Set the
number of buckling mode shapes to be
calculated when determining the load factor
for buckling for each load case or
combination. The first mode shape is often
critical since it represents the most likely buckling failure mechanism. For practical
reasons, only the first mode shape would normally be of interest. However, the accuracy of
the analysis improves with the number of mode shapes analysed. It is therefore suggested
that you allow at least four mode shapes to be calculated. The program supports a
Frame Analysis 3-63
maximum number of forty mode shapes. Note that internally the program actually
calculates quite a few more mode shapes than specified to improve the accuracy of the
output for the modes that are specified. Because of this, the model should not contain too
few nodes. If no convergence is obtained, split the members into smaller portions by
adding extra nodes.
Non-linear analysis parameters input
Number of load steps:
Each load case is applied to the structure in a
number of steps. The accuracy increases with
the number of steps entered. Ten steps should
be adequate for most problems.
One must be aware that for each step, the
structure is completely analysed a number of
times for each load case to obtain convergence
for that step. The analysis time can therefore become very long if a high number of steps are
specified on a large structure with many load cases. It is suggested that one use say 3-5 steps
initially, to ensure that the solution progresses properly, before increasing the number of steps
for a final analysis.














Frame Analysis 3-64
Dynamic analysis parameters input
Edit the dynamic analysis parameters if you will be performing a modal, harmonic or
earthquake analysis. Some parameters should be entered in all cases while others are specific
to harmonic or earthquake analysis. The graphic below shows all the possible input fields,
although some of them might not be visible, depending on the type of dynamic analysis
selected.
Number of mode shapes
Enter the number of natural modes of vibration to be calculated. You can use the following
guidelines when deciding on the number of mode shapes to be calculated:
The number of mode shapes should preferably not exceed the number of degrees of
freedom in the structure divided by twelve.
In a harmonic analysis, use enough mode shapes so that the highest natural frequency is at
least 50% higher than the applied loading frequency.
For an earthquake analysis, the first three or four mode shapes are normally sufficient to
obtain the probable maximum combined effects.
Frame Analysis 3-65
Do not use too few nodes. If convergence is not obtained when calculating the natural
frequencies, add more nodes and split the elements. See also the first point above.
Add axial force effects to stiffness
Compression forces in a frame's members reduce the effective stiffness of the frame. The
frequencies of vibration are therefore reduced with corresponding changes in the mode shapes.
If the option is enabled, the effect of axial force is incorporated as follows:
A static analysis is first performed with the mass of the structure, i.e. own weight and the
Y-components of the specified load cases, being the only load case.
The resulting axial forces are then incorporated when calculating the modified geometric
stiffness matrix of the structure. The geometric stiffness matrix is subsequently used to
modify the global stiffness matrix to account for the axial force effects.
Include torsional modelling
This applies to beam elements. If included, the torsional modes of the beams will also be
included.
Include load cases as mass
A frame's frequencies of vibration and mode shapes depend on its inertia or mass distribution
in relation to its stiffness distribution. Any loads on the structure will therefore influence the
natural frequencies and therefore its response to dynamic loadings. The user must select the
loads to be included as mass in the right hand side list. Only the Y-components (vertical) of the
loads are added as mass.
The program uses the following components for compiling the mass matrix:
The own weight of the frame, calculated using the density values entered in the Section
properties input table.
The loads cases entered by the user.
Note: In a harmonic or seismic analysis, all dead and live load that move with the structure
during its dynamic response will influence the dynamic response of the structure. Such loads
should be considered as masses for the purpose of determining the mode shapes.
Own weight and distributed vertical loads are added using the consistent mass matrix
formulation. Point loads are added as lumped masses at the relevant nodes.
Note: In a seismic analysis all loads not selected as masses will be excluded from the
analysis.

Frame Analysis 3-66
Average damping ratio
The dynamic response of a frame will include some viscous effects. The average damping ratio
depends on the type and condition of the structure. Typical values, taken from TMH7 - Part 2,
are tabled below:

Stress level Type and condition of structure
Damping
ratio

Welded steel. Prestressed concrete, well
reinforced concrete (slight cracking)
2%
Working stress no
more than about
half of yield stress
Reinforced concrete with considerable
cracking
3% to 5%

Bolted and riveted steel 5% to 7%

Welded steel, prestressed concrete under
full pre-stress (slight cracking)
5%
Working stress
near yield point
Prestressed concrete in cracked state 7%

Reinforced concrete 7% to 10%
Bolted and/or riveted steel 10% to 15%

Frame Analysis 3-67
Design ground acceleration (seismic analysis only)
For an earthquake analysis, specify the maximum ground accelerations. TMH7 - Part 2 gives
the following typical values according to a modified Mercalli classification:

Modified Mercalli
intensity at epicentre
Design ground
acceleration
ii iii 0.003 g
iv v 0.01 g
Vi 0.03 g
vii viii 0.1 g
Ix 0.3 g
x xi 1.0 g

Note: Refer to local seismic data for relevant acceleration data.
TMH 7 - Part 2, when considering the influence of seismic disturbances, gives the following
guidelines:
Symmetrical structures: The influence of seismic disturbances should be considered along
both principal axes of symmetry.
Non-symmetrical structures: It would normally be sufficient to consider the seismic effects
along any two arbitrarily chosen orthogonal axes.
For structures, symmetrical and non-symmetrical, the seismic effects along two orthogonal
axes may normally be considered independently of each other.
Design load factor (seismic analysis only)
Seismic action is normally not considered in combination with other secondary loads. For this
reason, the following approach is used:
The vertical components of selected load cases are included as masses when determining
the mode shapes. Refer to page 3-65 for detail.
All other effects of all load cases and combinations are ignored.
The dynamic response of the structure to the applied ground accelerations is amplified
with the specified design load factor.

Frame Analysis 3-68
The design load factor for forces and moments should be chosen in accordance with the
relevant loading code. At ultimate limit state, an average factor between 1.3 and 1.5 is
normally applied.
Spectrum reduction factor for vertical direction (seismic analysis only)
The relevant resonance frequencies of a structure in the vertical direction are generally quite
different from those in the horizontal direction. If it is deemed necessary to consider the effects
of vertical seismic motions, the average vertical design spectrum can often be reduced.
For typical bridge structures, TMH7 - Part 2 allows the average vertical design spectrum to be
taken as two-thirds the average horizontal seismic response spectrum.
Ductility (seismic analysis only)
The ductility of a structure is a function of the type and arrangement of the elements resisting
lateral forces. A unity value corresponds to perfect elastic behaviour and a value greater than
unity elastic-plastic behaviour.
Typical ductility values, taken from TMH7 - Part 2, are given below.

Type or arrangement of resisting elements
Structural
ductility factor
Un-braced structural steel structures with elements
adequately designed to resist the total lateral forces in
bending
4
Structures with braced flexural vertical members of
structural steel
Slender reinforced columns carrying superstructure of
braced structural steel, reinforced concrete or prestressed
concrete designed to resist the total lateral force
3
Vertical elements of shear wall proportions with
superstructure in monolithic reinforced or prestressed
concrete designed to resist the total lateral force
2

If you enter a value greater than one, the elastic response spectrum will be adjusted to obtain an
appropriate inelastic response spectrum. The program allows you to adjust the design response
spectrum as required.
Frame Analysis 3-69
Foundation soil type (seismic analysis only)
Additional factors not covered above can be accounted for by adjusting this load factor.
TMH7 - Part2, for example, gives an additional factor relating to the type of founding material.

Description of founding material
Foundation
factor f
Rock, dense and very dense coarse-grained soils, very
stiff and hard fine-grained soils
Compact coarse-grained soils, and firm and stiff
fine-grained soils from 0 to 15 m deep
1.0
Compact coarse-grained soils, firm and stiff fine grained
soils with a depth greater than 15 m
Very loose and loose coarse-grained soils and very soft
and soft fine-grained soils from 0 to 15 m deep
1.2
Very loose and loose coarse-grained soils and very soft
and soft fine-grained soils with depths greater than 15 m
1.5

Acceleration response spectrum (seismic analysis only)
Acceleration response spectra are empirically derived definitions for typical responses of
structures to a range of ground accelerations. Choose an applicable response spectrum:
SABS 0160 - 1989.
TMH7 - Part2.
UBC 1194.
Alternatively, define a custom response spectrum by entering the ground acceleration for
damping ratios of 0.5%, 3%, 5% and 10% for nine different periods. Any period values can be
entered, including those for the acceleration/velocity and velocity/displacement bound regions
dividing points.
If the ductility value greater than unity is specified, the elastic response spectrum is adjusted to
obtain an inelastic response spectrum. The elastic spectrum, for any given damping ratio, is
modified along the displacement bound region by multiplying it with a factor 1/. Along the
acceleration bound region the elastic spectrum is multiplied by a factor 1/(2)
.
.

Frame Analysis 3-70
Analysis
To analyse your model, open the analysis page and press start analysis. You can abort an
analysis in progress by pressing abort analysis, or clear the last analysis results by pressing
reset. Once the analysis has completed, you can view the results by opening the view output
page.
Analysis options
You can set the following options prior to analysis:
Load combinations only: Select this option to analyse only load combinations. If you do
not select this option, the individual load cases will also be analysed. Having the results
available for load cases will help you verify the accuracy of you analysis or understand the
behaviour of your model under those load cases, but it can slow down the analysis process
in some cases, e.g. non-linear analysis of large models.
Store output with input: With this option selected, the analysis results are saved with
your Frame Analysis input file. If you open the input file again at a later date, your
analysis results will be available immediately, allowing you to continue without needed to
run the analysis again. This feature is particularly useful when dealing with complex cases
that require a long analysis time.
Output file: If you choose to not store your output with your input, the program will store
your analysis results in a separate text file. You can enter the name for the output file;
historically Frame Analysis used the output file SF.OUT.
Save before analysing: If enabled, this option will automatically save your input file
before commencing the analysis. If something would go wrong during the analysis, you
will not lose your work.
Frame Analysis 3-71

The analysis progress is displayed to help you judge the time remaining to complete the
analysis.
After a successful analysis, the deflected shape is displayed for the first load case or load
combination or, in the case of modal or buckling analysis, the first mode shape.
Error checking during analysis
During the input phase, the frame geometry and loading data is checked for errors. Not all
reported errors are necessarily serious. To define duplicate elements between two nodes, for
example, could be an accidental error on your side. However, the program can deal with a
situation like this and will allow the analysis procedure to continue.
Other input errors could be serious enough to prevent an analysis from being completed
successfully. Nodes with no elements, for example, have no restraints and will cause numeric
instability during the analysis.
The first step of any analysis is the final verification of the input data. In the case of critical
errors still present, a warning message will be displayed. If you then choose to not proceed
with the analysis, you will be taken to the input table with the error. However, choosing to
proceed and ignore the warning will have an unpredictable result.

Frame Analysis 3-72
Fixing errors that occurred during the analysis
Even if all input data seems valid, numeric errors may still occur during an analysis. For
example, if you entered incorrect section properties, such as a very small E-value, the mistake
may go by unnoticed. However, the analysis will then yield an invalid value in the stiffness
matrix or extremely large deflections. The same applies to the stability of the frame. Although
the frame may appear stable, some combinations of internal hinges may result in some nodes
being unstable.
If an error was detected during the analysis, a warning will be displayed. The cause of the error
should become clear when studying the output file:
The text at the end of the output file normally gives the reason for the error.
If the output file seems complete, the problem will require more careful attention. Scan all
output tables for excessively large or small values.
Second order and buckling analysis problems
The following points should be kept in mind when trouble-shooting a second order analysis:
During a second-order analysis, an element is removed from the frame as soon as its axial
force exceeds its Euler buckling load. If one or more elements have been removed from
the frame in this way, structural stability cannot necessarily be guaranteed any more. The
removal of a single element may cause a chain reaction of elements failing. If the
remaining members do not constitute a stable structure, the structure will fail. All member
forces in the output file will then be shown as ''.
A second order analysis fails in instability can be verified using a buckling analysis. You
can examine the buckling mode shapes to easily locate problem areas in the structure that
may require stiffening.
Slender non-structural elements often buckle before major structural members, distorting
analysis results. Such elements should preferably be excluded from the model.
If the linear and second order analysis results show negligible differences, the structure is
likely not sensitive to p-delta effects for the given loading. This is often true for truss-type
frames.
Tip: Perform a buckling analysis to get an indication of the general stability of the frame
under the entered loads. A frame with a buckling load factor less than unity normally
experiences the same local or global stability problems during a second order analysis.
Verifying analysis accuracy and integrity
Your analysis output will only be as good as your input. Even if the program does not display
an error or warning message, you should verify the accuracy of the analysis. Always use your
engineering judgement to do a few basic checks on your analysis:
Frame Analysis 3-73
View the deflection diagrams for each load case and satisfy yourself that their shapes and
magnitudes seem realistic. In the case of a dynamic analysis, check the shapes and
frequencies of the primary modes of vibration.
View the output file and compare the calculated total own weight with your estimates.
Inspect the equilibrium check to verify that each load case's applied loads and reactions
matches your hand calculations. If the program warns about an equilibrium problem, there
may be a stability problem in your model. In such cases, consider performing a buckling or
non-linear analysis to identify problem points in your model, e.g. members buckling in
compressions.
If the results of second order or non-linear analysis do not differ much from the results of a
linear analysis, the structure is likely not sensitive to p-delta effects or large deflections for
the given loading. This is typically true for truss-type frames and floor systems (grillages).
Accuracy of a shell finite element analysis
The mesh stress error indicator output gives an indication of the accuracy of a shell finite
element analysis. The program calculates the maximum estimated error by taking the
difference in the smoothed and raw stresses anywhere in the model. The program displays the
error level across the model as contours, with the 100% level indicating the maximum
estimated error level. If the estimated maximum error is 20%, for example, then the 50%
contour would suggest an estimated error of 10% (the smoothed stresses differs by 10% from
the raw stresses) at the point considered.
Large estimated errors often spell problems, but do not necessarily mean that the stress values
all across a model are inaccurate or wrong. It does, however, helps you identify zones where
refinement of the finite element mesh may improve the analysis accuracy. Keep the following
factors in mind:
Error distribution: Peaks in estimated errors only in certain parts of the model suggests that
the basic mesh layout is sound. Refinement of the mesh may be needed in the zones where
the estimated errors are large.
Error location: Small stress differences in critical portions of the model may be significant.
Likewise, if you are interested in the stresses in a certain part of the model, large stress
difference in remote portions may have not significant effect in the part considered.
Stress smoothing: By smoothing stress, you can improve accuracy in some cases (by
balancing out errors). However, you should not use stress smoothing to try hide real
problems in your model.
In most cases you can be improved the accuracy of the analysis by optimising the finite
element mesh, e.g. using smaller elements is zones of stress concentration. When making this
decision, you should consider both the local and global characteristics of your model.

Frame Analysis 3-74
Design Links
Once the analysis is complete, Frame can link up with other Prokon modules for further post-
processing and design. This is done on the Design links tab:

Selecting a design link
The following links are available:
Steel connections: Select this option on the left hand side of the screen. Now click on any
node in the structure. A dialog with possible connections will appear as shown above. The
program will look at the types of members meeting at the node. These members must be
steel members selected from the Prokon database. There should also be at least two
members meeting at the node. If for example, there are no hollow sections at the node, the
Hollow section connection option will remain greyed. For the Apex connection the
members must be I- or H-sections. Check the type of connection that you want. Sometimes
there is more than one possible connection of the chosen type at the node. The desired
connection can be chosen from the drop-down(s) to the right of the connection type
Frame Analysis 3-75
chosen. Pressing OK will convert the output data and transfer it to the relevant
connection design module.
Concrete columns: Select rectangular or circular column on the left hand side of the
screen. Now select a member on the screen with the mouse. The data will be transferred
from Frame and the relevant column design module will be opened.
Concrete base: Select Concrete base on the left hand side of the screen. Now select a
support node on the screen with the mouse. The data will be transferred from Frame and
the base design module will be opened. Note that only support nodes can be selected.
Member design modules: Separate buttons are provided to call up Member design for
axial stress, Member design for combined stress and Timber member design. Each of
these modules will open with the current structure and output, ready for further processing.
Important note regarding load combinations: If the analysis was a linear analysis, the
load combinations are broken up using the load factors entered in Frame. In the case of a
second-order analysis, the results of a combination are not necessarily equal to the sum of
the load cases times their load factors, due to the secondary effects taken into account. The
program will calculate appropriate load factors, which will be similar to the ones entered,
but adjusted so that the sum of load case forces times load factors gives the final forces
calculated by Frame.






Frame Analysis 3-76
Viewing output
The analysis results can be viewed graphically or in tabular format. Output data, including
graphics and tabled values, can be selectively appended to the Calcsheets using the Add to
Calcsheets function on each output page.
Viewing output graphics
Diagrams can be displayed for deflection, member forces and stress and shell reinforcement of
any load case:
Deflections: Deflections are generally small in relation to dimensions of the structure. To
improve the visibility of the deflection diagram, you can enter a screen magnification
factor. You can optionally display the deflected shape without the original geometry.
Mode shapes: In the case of a dynamic or buckling analysis, you can display the mode
shapes one-by-one. Use the Animate function to bring a mode shape to life. If you tick the
record animation box, the animation is stored as an animated .gif file as shown below.

Frame Analysis 3-77
Note: Mode shapes should not be confused with deflections. Mode shapes represent the
natural dynamic characteristics of a structure. Values are normalised with the maximum
"displacement" given as one thousand.
Reactions: The reactions forces and moments at all supported nodes are displayed. The
arrowheads points in the direction of each reaction.
Beam element forces:

Axial forces: The force is shown as expanded red and blue lines. Compression forces
are shown in red and tension forces in blue. The distance of a line from the element
centre line is in proportion to the size of the axial force.
Moments: Bending moments about the local x and y-axes. A plot factor can also be
entered to enlarge or reduce the bending moment diagram on the frame.
Shear: Shear force diagrams are drawn for the local y and x-directions. A beam
element's shear force diagram is constructed by viewing it with its local z-axis
pointing to the right. Since the direction of the z-axis depends on the node numbers,
irregular numbering of nodes can result in apparent irregular signs used in the shear

Frame Analysis 3-78
force diagrams. Refer to page 3-7 for detail on the sign conventions used for beam
element forces.
Torsion: The torsional moment about the z-axis, i.e. element axis.
Beam element force envelopes:
Envelopes:
Enter a series
of elements
and select the
load case and
combinations
to include in
the envelopes.
Envelopes are
drawn using
the values as
tabulated
from the output file. Positive moments, for example, are drawn below the line and
negative above. Because members of different orientations can be included in the
same envelope, no simple distinction is made between tension and compression faces
of members.















Frame Analysis 3-79

In-plane stresses in shells:

Stresses in x, y and xy directions: Display contours of the membrane stresses in the
local x and y-directions and the shear stresses. Refer to page 3-6 for detail on the local
axis convention for shell elements.
Maximum and minimum stresses: These correspond to the largest tensile and
compression stresses respectively. Positive values indicate compression and negative
values tension.
Von Mises stresses: The Von Mises stresses give a graphical indication of a yield
criterion, i.e. a general indication of the combined effect of all stresses. The
Von Mises stresses takes into account in-plane stresses as well as bending stresses and
is presented for both the top and bottom faces of the shell elements..




Frame Analysis 3-80

Bending moments and shear forces in shells:

The x, y and xy bending moments: The bending moments about the local x and y-
axes and the torsional moment. The direction (not axis) of bending is shown as a small
line on each shell element.
Maximum and minimum bending moments: The principal bending moments.
The x, y and maximum shear forces: The shear forces are in local x and y-axes.
The maximum shear stress is also given and is obtained by dividing the maximum
shear force by the thickness of the element.





Frame Analysis 3-81
Reinforcement in shells:

Contours of the required reinforcement in the top and bottom faces in the x' and y' -
directions are given. The corresponding Wood & Armer moments from which the
reinforcement was calculated is also given. The reinforcement direction is shown as a
small line on each shell. Refer to page 3-61 for the definition of the reinforcement
directions.
Tip: If the lines indicating the direction of bending or of the reinforcement is not clearly
visible, enable detailed rendering under the graphics options. Refer to page 3-17 for
instructions.

Tip: Shell element stress contours are drawn on the deflected shape of the structure. Careful
choice of the deflection magnification factor can enhance contour diagrams.

Frame Analysis 3-82
Stresses in solids:

The stresses presented are the direct stresses in the X, Y and Z directions, the shear stresses in
the XY, XZ and YZ planes, the 3 principal stresses 1,2 and 3 as well as the maximum shear
stress and the von Mises stress. For solids all the stresses are plotted in the global co-ordinates.









Frame Analysis 3-83
Viewing output tables

Open the Output file page for a tabular display of the frame analysis output file. You can filter
the information sent to the calcsheets by enabling or disabling the relevant sections.
The Find heading function allows you to quickly locate any main section of the output file.
If you right click on the output, various editing functions are available. For example, you can
search for any string by pressing Ctrl and F.

Frame Analysis 3-84
Calcsheets
Frame analysis output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad. To
include a particular component of the output in the calcsheets, view the relevant output
information and then click Add to Calcsheets.

Recalling a data file
The Data File is automatically included in the calcsheet sent to Calcpad. You can later recall
the frame by double-clicking the relevant object in Calcpad. A data file embedded in Calcpad
is saved as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the frame analysis
module as well.
Plane Stress/Strain Analysis 3-85
Plane Stress/Strain Analysis
The Plane Stress/Strain Analysis module can be used to perform a finite element analysis of a
membrane of any general geometry subjected to plane stress or strain. An automated element
grid generation facility helps speeding up the input and analysis processes.


Plane Stress/Strain Analysis 3-86
Theory and application
The following text gives an overview of the finite element analysis theory and its application.
Scope
The program analyses membrane structures of any general shape, including openings. The
cases of plane stress and plane strain are both supported. Element grids are automatically
generated with a customisable grid size.
Plane strain and plane stress
The conditions of plane stress and plane strain are two similar two-dimensional states of
stress and are subsequently often confused. However, their definitions set them apart as two
very distinct conditions.
When forces are applied to a thin two-dimensional plate in its own plane, the state of stress and
deformation in the plate is called plane stress. A typical example would be a shear wall that,
due to it being a thin plate, will experience mainly in-plane stresses. No restraint is provided
for out-of-plane deformation.
On the other hand, a prismatic solid subjected to a constant loading normal to its axis can be
analysed as an infinite length of two-dimensional slices of unit thickness experiencing plane
strain. A dam wall, for example, would typically be subjected to hydrostatic and soil pressures
normal to its surface. A slice is taken from the wall will be restrained from deforming out-of-
plane.
Finite element modelling
The program uses eight-noded quadrilateral and six-noded triangular isoparametric finite
elements formulated for plane stress and plane strain.
A mesh of isoparametric quadrilateral or triangular is automatically generated and optimised
during analysis. You can specify the grid spacing in the X and Y-directions as part of the
analysis parameters. A finer grid will often improve accuracy. However, the time taken to
perform an analysis is a function of the number of finite elements the finer the grid, the
longer the analysis time.
Plane Stress/Strain Analysis 3-87
Sign conventions
When entering coordinates and forces, the following sign convention is used:
Positive Y-coordinates and vertical forces are taken upward, i.e. parallel to the Y-axis.
Positive X-coordinates and horizontal forces are taken to the right, i.e. parallel to the
X-axis.
In the analysis results, deflections are measured along the Y-axis. A positive deflection
therefore denotes an upward movement.

Plane Stress/Strain Analysis 3-88
Input
Use the four input tables, i.e. Nodes, Supports, Material properties and Loads, to define the
structure's geometry and loading.
Nodes input
A structure is defined by entering one or more shapes. A shape may comprise straight lines and
arcs. When more than one shape is entered, the shapes will accumulate and form one structure.
Often, a complicated section is easier defined using more than one shape.
Note: Shapes must be entered in an anti-clockwise order.
An explanation of the node input table is given below:
The Mat. No. column is used for categorise the data that follows in the next columns:
1 to 9 : The start of a new polygon with the specified material property. An absolute
reference coordinate must be entered in the X and Y columns. If you leave X or
Y blank, a value of zero is used.
0 : Start of an opening. An absolute reference coordinate must be entered in the X
and Y columns.
R : If you enter an 'R' or leave the Mat. No. column blank, a line is drawn using
relative coordinates, i.e. measured from the previous coordinate.
A : Enter an 'A' in the Mat. No. column blank to make the coordinate absolute.
The X and Y columns are used for entering coordinates:
X : Absolute or relative X coordinate. Values are taken positive to the right and
negative to the left.
Y : Absolute or relative Y coordinate. Values are taken positive upward and
negative downward.
Use the Bulge column to define an arc of a specified radius. Consider an imaginary line
joining the previous coordinate and the coordinate entered in the X and Y columns. A
bulge greater than zero then defines an arc to the right of the line. Similarly, a negative
bulge draws an arc to the left of the line. If no bulge is specified, a zero value is used, i.e. a
straight line.
You do need to close the polygon defining a shape the starting coordinate is automatically
used as the ending coordinate. If two polygons intersect, the geometry of the last polygon takes
preference and the previous polygon is clipped. A hole in a structure can, for example, be
entered on top of previously entered shapes.
Plane Stress/Strain Analysis 3-89
Nodes are automatically numbered as they are input. You can later use the node numbers to
position supports and loads.

Supports input
You can define point supports, distributed support and prescribed displacements anywhere
along the edges of the structure. Supports are entered as follows:
Nodes : Enter a single node number for a point support or a range of nodes for a
distributed support, e.g. '2' for node 2 only and '2-5' for the zone described by
the straight line joining nodes 2 and 5.
XY support : Enter 'X' and/or 'Y' for horizontal and/or vertical support.
Displ. : Specify the value of any horizontal or vertical prescribed displacement in the
relevant column (m).
Note: Point supports invariably result in localised stress concentrations, with the effect
increasing for smaller element grids. It is therefore recommended to avoid point supports
and rather distribute each support over as large a width as possible.

Plane Stress/Strain Analysis 3-90
Material properties
The following material properties must be input for every material property code used in the
Code column of the Nodes input table:
t : Thickness (m).
E : Modulus of elasticity (kN/m
3
). If left blank, the value for the preceding
material type is used. Typical values are tabled below.
Poisson : Poisson ratio. If left blank, the value for entered in the previous row is used.
Typical values are tabled below.
Dens : Density on (kN/m
3
). Typical values are tabled below.

Material
E modulus
(kPa)
Poison's
ratio
Density
(kN/m
3
)
Masonry 10E6 0.20 20 - 25
Concrete
(normal strength)
25E6 to 35E6 0.20 24
Aluminium 70E6 0.16 27
Structural steel 205E6 0.30 78

Loads input
Point loads and distributed loads can be defined anywhere along the edges of the structure. Use
as many lines as necessary to define the loads.
Loads are entered as follows:
Nodes : Enter a single node number for a point load or a range of nodes for a
distributed load, e.g. '2' for node 2 only and '2-5' for the zone described by the
straight line joining nodes 2 and 5.
X : The load direction can be either 'X' or 'Y' for horizontal or vertical respectively.
Wleft : Distributed load intensity at the smaller node number (kN/m).
Wright : Distributed load intensity at the larger node number (kN/m).
Plane Stress/Strain Analysis 3-91
a : Distance from first node to beginning of distributed load (m). A value of zero
is used if field is left blank.
b : Length in m, of distributed load. The load is taken up to the ending node if this
field is left blank.
Note: Positive forces are taken to work upward and to the right.

Plane Stress/Strain Analysis 3-92
Analysis
On completing the input, go to
the Analyse page to analyse the
structure. Following a successful
analysis, use the View page the
display the analysis results.
The following text describes the
analysis options that are
available and gives information
on finding and fixing analysis
problems.




Analysis options
During the analysis, the program generates a rectangular grid of nodes in which rectangular
and, where necessary, triangular finite elements are placed. The grid spacing can be set
independently in the horizontal and vertical directions.
Choose Settings to set the grid spacing and other analysis options:
Finite element size: Horizontal and vertical grid spacings (m).
Type of analysis: Enter 'E' for plane stress or 'A' for plane strain.
Angle increment: The program models arcs as straight
lines at the specified angle increment. Although a
smaller angle would yield a smoother modelling of an
arc, the resulting increase in modes will mean that more
elements will be used. Generally, an angle increment
between 5 and 15 would yield good results.
Plane Stress/Strain Analysis 3-93
Analysis results
The analysis results can be viewed and printed in tabular or graphical format:
Elastic deflections.
Maximum principal stresses, i.e. the largest tensile stresses. Positive values indicate
tension and negative values
compression.
Minimum principal stresses,
i.e. the largest possible
compression stresses.
Negative values indicate
compression.
The Von Mises yield
condition if often used to
determine whether a
material is behaving
elastically under combined
stress. According to the
Von Mises theory, the total
elastic energy comprises
volumetric changes and
shearing distortions. By
considering only the
shearing distortion at yield
in simple tension in relation
to that under combined
stress, the yield criterion can
be established. The
Von Mises theory assumes a
ductile isotropic material.
Principal stress vectors, with
compression stresses in red
and tension stresses in blue.
You can also inspect the
results in tabular format by
displaying the output file,
named PS.OUT

Plane Stress/Strain Analysis 3-94
Fixing errors that occurred during the analysis
Some common problems during plane stress and plain strain analyses are:
If the program is unable to analyse the structure, there may be errors in the input. A
common mistake is the definition of shapes in a clockwise direction the program expects
anti-clockwise input.
Stress concentrations will be present at positions of point loads and point supports. Such
concentrations are further exaggerated when using finer element grids. In practice, loads
and supports rarely act at points, but rather on small areas. It is likewise recommended to
spread all point loads and supports over small lengths.
Plane Stress/Strain Analysis 3-95
Calcsheets
The finite element analysis output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to
Calcpad. Various settings can be made with regards to the inclusion of design results and
pictures.

Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
Recalling a data file
If you enable the Data File option before sending a calcsheet to Calcpad, you can later recall
its design by double-clicking the relevant object in Calcpad. A data file embedded in Calcpad
is saved as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the analysis module as
well.

Plane Stress/Strain Analysis 3-96



Single Span Beam Analysis 3-97
Single Span Beam Analysis
The Single Span Beam Analysis module can be used to quickly analyse a beam. The beam
can be a single span beam or a single span taken from a continuous beam with the appropriate
end conditions. The analysis results of steels beams can be post-processed with the steel
member design module for combined stress, Com.



Single Span Beam Analysis 3-98
Sign conventions
When entering forces and moments, the following sign convention is used:
Positive vertical forces act downward, i.e. parallel to the negative Y-axis.
Positive moments work anti-clockwise.
In the analysis results, the following applies:
Deflections are measured along the Y-axis. A
positive deflection indicates uplift and negative
deflection a downward movement.
Shear forces are measured along the Y-axis. A
positive shear force at the left edge of the beam,
for example, represents an upward vertical
reaction.
Moments are drawn on the tension face of the
beam.


Single Span Beam Analysis 3-99
Input
The beam definition has two main input components:
Geometry and material properties.
Loads.
Beam input
The following values must be entered:
Length : The overall length of the beam (m).
M Left : The applied moment at the left-hand end (kNm). If you leave the field blank, a
zero moment is used, e.g. the beam is simply supported. You can also fix an
end by entering an 'F' or make it a free cantilever end with a 'C'.
M Right : The applied moment at the right-hand end (kNm).


Single Span Beam Analysis 3-100
I : The second moment of inertia of beam (m
4
).
E : Young's modulus of the beam (kPa). A value of 205x10
6
kPa, i.e. steel, is used
if this field is left blank. Typical values are:

Material E modulus (kPa)
Timber 5E6 to 15E6
Concrete
(normal strength)
25E6 to 35E6
Aluminium 70E6
Structural steel 205E6

Section input
The moment of inertia of a standard steel section can be selected from the section database.
You can also define your own sections or remove sections from the database.
Own weight
On selecting a steel section form the database, the own weight is automatically entered as a
uniform distributed load.
Loads input
Use as many lines as needed to enter any general loading on the beam in the Loads input table:
W Left : Distributed load intensity (kN/m) applied at the left-hand starting position of
the load. If you do not enter a value, the program will use a value of zero.
W Right : Distributed load intensity (kN/m) applied on the right-hand ending position of
the load. If you leave this field blank, the value is made equal to Wleft, i.e. a
uniformly distributed load is assumed.
P : Point load (kN).
M : Moment (kNm).

Single Span Beam Analysis 3-101
a : The start position of the distributed load, position of the point load or position
of the moment (m). The distance is measured from the left-hand edge of the
beam. If you leave this field blank, a value of zero is used, i.e. the load is taken
to start at the left-hand edge of the beam.
b : The end extent of the distributed load, measured from the start position of the
load (m). Leave this field blank if you want the load to extend up to the right-
hand edge of the beam.
Note: Positive forces and moments are taken to work downward and taken anti-clockwise
respectively.

Single Span Beam Analysis 3-102
Analysis
Press Analyse to display the analysis results:
Elastic short-term deflections.
Bending moment diagram.
Shear force diagram.


Single Span Beam Analysis 3-103
Calcsheet
The beam analysis results can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad.
Various settings can be made with regards to the inclusion of design results and pictures.

Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
Recalling a data file
If you enable the Data File option before sending a calcsheet to Calcpad, you can later recall
the beam analysis by double-clicking the relevant object in Calcpad. A data file embedded in
Calcpad is saved as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the beam
analysis module as well.

Single Span Beam Analysis 3-104



Beam on Elastic Support Analysis 3-105
Beam on Elastic Support
Analysis
The Beam on Elastic Support Analysis module can be used to quickly analyse a beam or slab
on an elastic foundation. The beam cross-section may vary along its length and the elastic
foundation can include gaps and rigid supports.


Beam on Elastic Support Analysis 3-106
Theory and application
The following text gives a background into the analysis technique used.
Sign conventions and units of measurement
When entering forces and moments, the following sign convention is used:
Positive vertical forces act downward, i.e. parallel to the negative Y-axis.
Positive moments work anti-clockwise.
In the analysis results, the following applies:
Deflections are measured along the Y-axis. A positive deflection indicates uplift and
negative deflection a downward movement.
Bearing pressure is also measured along the Y-axis. A positive bearing pressure denotes an
upward reaction.
Shear forces are measured along the Y-axis. A positive shear force at the left edge of the
beam, for example, represents an upward vertical reaction.
Moments are drawn on the tension face of the beam.
Analysis procedure
The program performs a linear analysis in which the beam is modelled as a two-dimensional
frame on a series of least fifty closely spaced springs. Rigid supports are put at the specified
positions and gaps in the elastic support where the supporting width is set to zero. Nodes are
taken at close intervals along the length of the beam. A node is also introduced at every support
and load position.
If negative soil pressures are not allowed, i.e. uplift is allowed, springs with negative reactions
are removed and the analysis repeated. Likewise, previously removed springs are restored if
downward deflections are calculated at the points concerned. The analysis procedure is
repeated until the iteration converges to a stable solution.
A beam is considered unstable, i.e. to overturn under the applied load, if the analysis yields less
than two springs with compressive forces.

Beam on Elastic Support Analysis 3-107
Input
The beam definition has several input components:
Geometry and material properties.
Supports input
Loads.
Beam input
The beam is defined as one or more segments, each with its own properties. The following
values must be entered:
Lsec : The length of a beam segment with a specified stiffness and support width (m).
You may enter more than one segment to define a beam varying section or an
elastic medium of varying stiffness. Each additional beam segment entered is
added to the right-hand side of beam.
Isec : The stiffness of the beam segment, express as the second moment of inertia of
the relevant cross section (m). The value of Young's modulus, applicable to the
whole beam, is entered under the analysis settings.
Bsec : The support width of the beam segment (m). This beam width is multiplied by
the foundation modulus of the soil, Km, to obtain the support stiffness per unit
length of the beam. Enter a zero value for no foundation stiffness, i.e. a gap in
the elastic medium.
Supports input
Use the Support input columns to enter rigid supports in the elastic medium:
Position : A rigid support position, measured from the left-hand side (m).
Support : You can set the support type to vertical and/or rotational:

Support Description
Y
Vertical support, e.g. a solid rock intrusion
in the elastic medium
R
Rotational support, e.g. a rigid column
above built into the beam
YR
Vertical and rotational support, e.g. a rigid
pile below that is built into the beam.


Beam on Elastic Support Analysis 3-108
Loads input
Use as many lines as needed to enter any general loading on the beam in the Loads input table:
W Left : Distributed load intensity (kN/m) applied at the left-hand starting position of
the load. If you do not enter a value, the program will use a value of zero.
W Right : Distributed load intensity (kN/m) applied on the right-hand ending position of
the load. If you leave this field blank, the value is made equal to Wleft, i.e. a
uniformly distributed load is assumed.
P : Point load (kN).
M : Moment (kNm).
a : The start position of the distributed load, position of the point load or position
of the moment (m). The distance is measured from the left-hand edge of the
beam. If you leave this field blank, a value of zero is used, i.e. the load is taken
to start at the left-hand edge of the beam.
b : The end position of the distributed load, measured from the start position of the
load (m). Leave this field blank if you want the load to extend up to the right-
hand edge of the beam.
Note: Positive forces and moments are taken to work downward and taken anti-clockwise
respectively.
Analysis settings
Press Settings to edit the material constants and other parameters to be used in the analysis:
E modulus: Young's modulus for the beam (kPa). Values for typical building materials are
tabled below:

Material E modulus (kPa)
Timber 5E6 to 15E6
Concrete
(normal strength)
25E6 to 35E6
Aluminium 70E6
Structural steel 205E6


Beam on Elastic Support Analysis 3-109
K modulus: Foundation modulus or modulus of subgrade reaction (kN/m
3
). Typical
empirical values derived suggested by Bowles

are given below:



Soil type K modulus (kN/m
3
)
Loose sand
Medium dense sand
Dense sand
Clayey medium dense sand
Silty medium dense sand
Clayey soil:
q
a
200 kPa
200 kPa q
a
800 kPa
q
a
> 800 kPa
4 800 to 16 000
9 600 to 80 000
64 000 to 128 000
32 000 to 80 000
24 000 to 48 000

12 000 to 24 000
24 000 to 48 000
> 48 000

The foundation modulus, K, is a conceptual relationship between the soil pressure and
deflection of the beam. Because the beam stiffness is usually ten or more times as great as
the soil stiffness as defined by K, the bending moments in the beam and calculated soil
pressures are normally not very sensitive to the value used for K. Recognizing this,
Bowles suggests that the value of K can be approximated from the serviceability limit state
bearing capacity, q
a
, as being 40 q
a
(kN/m
3
) or 12 q
a
(k/ft
3
).
Allow negative pressure: Enter 'Y' to enable full
adhesion between beam and elastic medium. Enter
'N' to allow uplift, i.e. zero adhesion between beam
and elastic medium.
Note: The foundation modulus, Km, is multiplied with the support width to obtain the
support stiffness per unit length of the beam. Enter a zero value for no foundation stiffness,
i.e. a gap in the elastic medium.

'Foundation Analysis and Design, Fifth Edition', by Joseph E. Bowles, published by


McGraw Hill

Beam on Elastic Support Analysis 3-110
Example
The sketch shows an 800 mm wide by 300 mm deep beam is modelled on an elastic
foundation:
The first fourteen meters of its length is supported on very stiff clay. The foundation
modulus is set to 40 000 kN/m
3
.
The beam crosses a rock intrusion ten meters from the left that provides vertical support.

The beam then spans four meters over a ditch, i.e. no support. This is modelled by entering
a zero section width.
On the other side support is provided on a strip of hard clay, two meter wide. The hard
clay is modelled by increasing the support width to 1.2 m. The resulting effective
foundation modulus is then given by
1.2
/
0.8
x 40 000 = 60 000 kN/m
3
.
The beam is loaded with a long trapezoidal distributed load, twelve meters long, a point
load and a moment at its right-hand end.

Beam on Elastic Support Analysis 3-111
Analysis
Press Analyse to display the analysis results:
Bearing pressure.
Bending moment.
Shear force diagram.


Beam on Elastic Support Analysis 3-112
Calcsheet
The beam analysis results can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad.
Various settings can be made with regards to the inclusion of design results and pictures.

Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
Recalling a data file
If you enable the Data File option before sending a calcsheet to Calcpad, you can later recall
the beam analysis by double-clicking the relevant object in Calcpad. A data file embedded in
Calcpad is saved as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the beam
analysis module as well.


Steel Member Design

4-1
Chapter
4
Steel Member Design
The steel member design modules can be used for elastic and plastic design of structural steel
members. Several modules act as post-processors for the frame analysis modules, facilitating
integrated frame analysis and design.

Steel Member Design 4-2
Quick Reference
Steel Member Design using PROKON 4-3
Steel Member Design for Axial or Combined Stress 4-5
Plastic Frame Design 4-33
Crane Gantry Girder Design 4-65
Plate Girder Design 4-77

Steel Member Design using PROKON 4-3
Steel Member Design using
PROKON
A variety of steel member design modules are included in the PROKON suite. These are
considered useful tools when designing members using either elastic or plastic methods.
Elastic member design
When designing struts and ties, you can post-process frame analysis results using the member
design module for axial stress, Strut. Similarly, the member design module for combined
stress, Combine, can be used to design members subjected to both axial force and moment, or
beam-columns.
Plastic frame design
The Plastic Frame Design module can be used to design steel frames using plastic design
methods. The same module can also optimise sections for better economy.
Note: This module is no longer developed or supported, and was removed from the program
toolbar in PROKON version 2.4. However, for the sake of users that purchased this module
in the past, it is still access via the Program menu. To evaluate non-linear behaviour of
frames, the recommended procedure is to use the Frame Analysis module and perform a
non-linear analysis.
Girder design
Specialised modules are available for designing crane gantry girders and plate girders.
Steel Member Design using PROKON 4-4
Steel Member Design for Axial or Combined Stress 4-5
Steel Member Design for
Axial or Combined Stress
The steel member design modules are suitable for the following design tasks:
Use Strut for checking and optimising steel members subjected to axial stress only,
e.g. truss members.
Combine is used for checking and optimising steel members subjected to a combination of
axial and uniaxial or biaxial bending stresses, e.g. beams and columns in frames.
The steel member design modules primarily act as post-processors for the frame analysis
modules. Both modules also have an interactive mode for the quick design or checking of
individual members without needing to perform a frame analysis.

Steel Member Design for Axial or Combined Stress 4-6
Theory and application
A brief background is given below regarding the application of the design codes.
Design scope
The steel member design modules can design hot-rolled sections subjected to axial stress or a
combination of axial and bending stresses.
Strut can be used to design any hot-rolled section for axial stress. Because the design
procedure is relatively simple, design results are presented in tabular format. This feature
makes the program especially useful when designing of a large number of struts and ties.
Combine can design hot-rolled double symmetric sections and channels subjected to axial
and bending stress. Non-symmetric sections like angles are not supported. More design
checks need to be performed for each member requiring more detailed output.
Strut and Combine use a similar design approach. Although there may seem to be a degree of
overlapping in their design features, the two modules rather complement each other with
specialised individual design functions. You will typically use them to design the different
components of the same structure, e.g. design a roof truss in Strut and its supporting columns
in Combine.
Note: Support for cold-formed sections is not provided. However, hot-rolled hollow circular
and rectangular sections may be designed with the programs if such sections are deemed to
have relatively thick walls with a resulting low risk of local buckling.
Tapered sections
The current versions of Strut nor Combine cannot design tapered sections, e.g. haunches in
portal frames. When evaluating members with varying sections, the section type at the first
node is used over the whole length of the member.
Design codes
The program designs axially loaded steel members according to the following design codes:
AISC - 1989 ASD (Strut only).
AISC - 1993 LRFD.
AS4100 - 1998.
BS 5950 - 1990.
BS 5950 - 2000.
CAN/CSA-S16.1-94.
Steel Member Design for Axial or Combined Stress 4-7
CSA S16-01 - 2001.
Eurocode 3 - 1992 (Strut only).
GBJ 17-88 (Strut only).
IS:800-1984 (Strut only).
IS:800-2007 (Combine only).
SABS 0162 - 1984 (allowable stress design).
SABS 0162 - 1993 (limit state design).
SABS 0162-2 - 1993 (Combine only).
SANS 10162 - 2005
Units of measurement
The steel design modules support the following units of
measurement:
Metric.
Imperial (Strut only).
The preferred unit of measurement can be selected using the Units
command on the File menu.


Symbols
Where possible, the same symbols are used as in the design codes:
A
ne
/A
g
: Effective area factor with which the gross sectional area must be multiplied to
obtain the effective sectional area, reduced for fasteners holes. The factor
applies to elements subjected to tensile axial stress only.
K
e
: Factor with which the member length is multiplied to obtain the effective
length for lateral torsional buckling (Combine only).
K
v
: Factor with which the member length is multiplied to obtain the effective
length for buckling about the v-v (weakest) axis of the member (Strut only).
K
x
: Factor with which the member length is multiplied to obtain the effective
length for buckling about the x-x axis of the member.
Steel Member Design for Axial or Combined Stress 4-8
K
y
: Factor with which the member length must be multiplied to obtain the effective
length for buckling about the local y-y axis of the member.
AISC:
F : Applied axial force (kN or kip).
F
y
: Specified minimum yield strength of steel (MPa or ksi).
F
u
: Specified minimum tensile strength of steel (MPa or ksi).
L
/
r
: Slenderness ratio.
P
u
: Ultimate axial stress (MPa or ksi).
P
n
: Allowable axial stress based on the slenderness ratio (MPa or ksi).
S
c
: Actual axial stress in member (MPa or ksi).
BS 5950:
F : Applied axial force (kN or kip).
L
/
r
: Slenderness ratio.
M : Applied moment (kNm or kipft).
M
a
: Maximum buckling moment in presence of axial load (kNm or kipft).
M
b
: Lateral torsional buckling resistance moment (kNm or kipft).
M
c
: Moment resistance in the absence of axial force (kNm or kipft).
m : Equivalent uniform moment factor.
n : Slenderness correction factor.
P
c
: Allowable axial stress based on the slenderness ratio (MPa or ksi).
P
y
: Design strength of steel (MPa or ksi).
S
c
: Actual axial stress in member (MPa or ksi).
Z : Elastic modulus (mm

or in).
CSA S16.1:
C
e
: Euler buckling strength (kN or kip).
C
r
: Factored compression resistance (kN or kip).
C
u
: Ultimate compression force (kN or kip).
L
/
r
: Slenderness ratio.
F
u
: Ultimate strength of steel (MPa or ksi).
F
y
: Design yield strength of steel (MPa or ksi).
Steel Member Design for Axial or Combined Stress 4-9
M
cr
: Elastic buckling moment (kNm or kipft).
M
r
: Factored moment resistance (kNm or kipft).
M
u
: Ultimate bending moment (kNm or kipft).
T
r
: Factored tensile resistance (kN or kip).
T
u
: Ultimate tensile force (kN or kip).
U
1
: Capacity factor to account for moment gradient and second-order effects.
Z
pl
: Plastic modulus (mm

or in).

1
: Equivalent uniform bending moment factor.

2
: Moment gradient factor giving increased moment resistance of laterally
unsupported members.
Eurocode 3 - 1992 (Strut only):
F : Applied axial force (kN or kip).
f
y
: Design yield strength of steel (MPa or ksi).
L
/
i
: Slenderness ratio.
P
c
: Allowable axial stress based on the slenderness ratio (MPa or ksi).
S
c
: Actual axial stress in member (MPa or ksi).
SABS 0162 - 1984:
f '
cr
: 0.6 times the Euler buckling stress (MPa or ksi).
f
y
: Design yield strength of steel (MPa or ksi).
L
/
r
: Slenderness ratio.
f
y
: Design yield strength of steel (MPa or ksi).
P
c
: Allowable axial stress based on the slenderness ratio (MPa or ksi).
P
mc
: Allowable compressive bending stress (MPa or ksi).
P
mt
: Allowable tensile bending stress (MPa or ksi).
S
c
: Actual axial stress in member (MPa or ksi).
S
t
: Average axial tensile stress (MPa or ksi).
S
mc
: Maximum compressive bending stress (MPa or ksi).
S
mt
: Maximum tensile bending stress (MPa or ksi).
: Coefficient allowing for varying bending moment.
Steel Member Design for Axial or Combined Stress 4-10
SABS 0162 - 1993 and SANS 10162:
C
e
: Euler buckling strength (kN or kip).
C
r
: Factored compression resistance (kN or kip).
C
u
: Ultimate compression force (kN or kip).
L
/
r
: Slenderness ratio.
f
u
: Ultimate strength of steel (MPa or ksi).
f
y
: Design yield strength of steel (MPa or ksi).
M
cr
: Elastic buckling moment (kNm or kipft).
M
r
: Factored moment resistance (kNm or kipft).
M
u
: Ultimate bending moment (kNm or kipft).
T
r
: Factored tensile resistance (kN or kip).
T
u
: Ultimate tensile force (kN or kip).
U
1
: Capacity factor to account for moment gradient and second-order effects.
Z
pl
: Plastic modulus (mm

or in).

1
: Equivalent uniform bending moment factor.

2
: Moment gradient factor giving increased moment resistance of laterally
unsupported members.
Steel Member Design for Axial or Combined Stress 4-11
Sign conventions
Member design is done in the local element axes. Bending about the x-x axis generally
corresponds to strong axis bending and bending about the y-y axis to weak axis bending. For
non-symmetric sections like angles, the x-x and y-y axes are horizontal and vertical with the
v-v axis representing the weakest axis.
Tip: The exact orientation of the v-v axis of a mono-symmetric section can be determined
using the Section Properties Calculation module, Prosec.
Axial force and moment
The local axes system and force directions are defined as follows:
Axial force: The local z-axis and axial force is
chosen in the direction from the smaller node
number to the larger node number. A positive axial
force indicates compression and a negative force
tension.
Bending: Moments about the x and y-axes represent
bending about the section's strong and weak axes
respectively. Positive moments are taken
anticlockwise in all diagrams.
P-delta effects
Design codes generally allow stability effects to be taken into account in buckling checks by
reducing design capacities or amplifying design moments or axial forces. Trusses are normally
not sensitive to sway. However, in any structure, if you judge P-delta effects to be an important
part of the analysis, you should perform a second order frame analysis.
Second order analyses
The desirability of a second order analysis is echoed in the various design codes:
AISC LRFD: Section C1 states that an analysis of second order effects is required for
frames. This is done by second order elastic analysis or first order analysis with
amplification factors B
1
and B
2
.
BS 5950: Accounts for stability effects by amplification of design moments by suggesting
a 'more exact approach' in clause 4.8.3.3.2.
CSA S16.1: Desirability is expressed in clause 8.6.1.
Eurocode 3: See clause 5.2.1.2.
Steel Member Design for Axial or Combined Stress 4-12
SABS 0162 - 1984: Encourages second order analysis of frames with sway by limiting the
coefficient for variable bending moment, , to no less than 0.85 in the absence of second
order analysis.
SABS 0162 - 1993 and SANS 10162: Same as CSA S16.1.
The programs do not make automatic adjustments to take account of stability effects. If
deemed necessary, you should conduct a second order analysis using the Plane Frame
Analysis or Space Frame Analysis modules.
When post-processing a second order frame analysis, Combine also performs a second order
analysis for each member. This generally results in more economic design of sections.
Design parameters
Different design parameters can be set for each group of elements designed:
Effective area factor
When an element is subjected to a tensile axial force, allowance should be made for the reduction
in sectional area due to fastener holes.
The various design codes follow similar approaches for calculating the effective area factor, for
example:
AISC LRFD: Guidance is given in section B3.
BS 5950: See clauses 3.3 and 3.4.
CSA S16.1: When calculating the allowable tensile force, allowance is made for reduction
of the effective net area for shear lag (clause 12.3). The effective area is thus effectively a
function of the yield strength and ultimate strength of the steel (clause 13.2).
Eurocode 3: See clause 5.4.2.2.
SABS 0162 - 1984: See clauses 5.3 and 9.2.
SABS 0162 - 1993 and SANS 10162: The same clauses apply as for CSA S16.1 - M89.
Effective length factors for struts and ties
The effective length factors depend on the degree of restraint to be expected at each end of
compression members. Examples of guidelines are given in the codes:
AISC: See section E1.
BS 5950: Refer to clause 4.7.2 and Appendix D.
CSA S16.1: See clause 9.3 and Annex C.
Eurocode 3: See clause 5.8.2.
Steel Member Design for Axial or Combined Stress 4-13
SABS 0162 - 1984: See clause 8.2.1 and Appendix E.
SABS 0162 - 1993 and SANS 10162: The same clauses apply as for CSA S16.1.
Considering a plane truss, the effective length L
x
relates to in-plane buckling. For struts where
rotational fixity is provided by the connection, e.g. two or more fasteners or a welded connection,
a value between 0.70 and 0.85 is usually appropriate. Where rotation at the joints are possible,
e.g. single bolted connection, a value of 1.0 would normally be applicable.
The effective length L
y
relates to buckling out of the vertical plane. This phenomenon can often
govern the design of the top and bottom chords of a truss that can buckle in a snakelike 'S'
pattern, giving an effective length equal to unrestrained length. Lateral restraints are normally
provided to reduce this effective length. For example, with braced purlins connected to the top
flange of the truss, the effective length could be taken equal to the purlin spacing.
The effective length L
v
relates to buckling about the v-v axis, i.e. the weakest axis, and requires
special attention. Because movement about the v-v axis requires movement about both the x-x
and y-y axes, L
v
is usually set equal to the least of L
x
and L
y
.
Effective length factors for beam-columns
The codes give similar guidelines, for example:
AISC: See section E1.
BS 5950: Refer to clause 4.3.5 guidance on factors to use for members in bending. Refer
to clause 4.7.2 and Appendix D for members in compression.
CSA S16.1: Refer to clauses 9.1 to 9.4 and Annexes B and C.
Eurocode 3: See clause 5.8.2.
SABS 0162 - 1984: See clause 7.2.2 for flexural members. Refer to clause 8.2.1 and
Appendix E for compression members.
SABS 0162 - 1993 and SANS 10162: Same as for CSA S16.1.
Note: CSA S16.1, SABS 0162 and SANS 10162 clause 9.3.2 allows the effective length
factor for compression members to be reduced to 1.0 if a second-order frame analysis has
been performed. A second order analysis will therefore normally yield a more economic
design.
Consider a typical portal frame subjected to dead and live load. The effective length L
x
relates
to buckling in the plane of the portal, i.e. about the strong axis of each member. The length L
y

relates to out-of plane buckling, i.e. weak axis buckling. This value is typically set equal to the
distance between restraining purlins and sheeting rails.
Steel Member Design for Axial or Combined Stress 4-14

The effective length L
e
relates to lateral torsional buckling of a members compression flange
about its weak axis. The length depends on the distance between restraints of the compression
flange. For rafters with purlins restraining the top flange, L
e
can therefore be set equal to L
y
in
zones of sagging moment. However, if the rafter is relatively deep and no special precautions
are taken, the purlins could possibly have no effective restraint on the bottom flange.
Therefore, where the bottom flange is in compression, i.e. zones of hogging moment, longer
effective lengths for lateral torsional buckling will apply.
Note: The current versions of Strut and Combine cannot design tapered sections. The use
of haunches in the sketch is merely for the sake of explaining the effective lengths. See
page 4-6 for more detail.
Slenderness limits
The different codes specify similar slenderness ratios for members in compression, typically 200.
For tension members, a maximum slenderness ratio of 300 is generally used. When launching
Strut or Combine, the slenderness limits given by the selected design code will be used by
default.
You are free to alter the maximum slenderness ratio for each individual load case or combination
if required. For example, in the case where uplift due to wind is dominant, the maximum
slenderness ratio may possibly be increased, e.g. SABS 0162 - 1984 clause 8.4 and
BS 5950 -1990 clause 4.7.3.2 allows a slenderness ratio of 250.
Steel Member Design for Axial or Combined Stress 4-15
Member design techniques
The programs have two basic modes of operation:
Read and post-process the frame analysis results.
Alternatively, you can do an independent interactive design of one or more members.
Uses and limitations of the member design modules
Strut considers only axial forces during the design any prevailing bending moments are
ignored. This means that you should use the program for the design of trusses and truss-type
sub-structures of frames only, i.e. where members experience predominantly axial forces.
Use Combine when working with members that have significant bending moments. This
program can however not design non-symmetrical sections like angles. Such members are
typically used for constructing trusses or bracing frames and often have negligible bending
moments, making Strut the appropriate design tool.
Reading and post-processing frame analysis results
Given the nature of the different frame analysis modules, selective compatibility exists between
the various frame analysis and the steel member design modules:
Strut designs members for axial stress only and can therefore read the results of Plane
Frame Analysis, Space Frame Analysis and Space Truss Analysis. The Grillage
Analysis and Single Span Beam Analysis modules are used to analyse beams and are
therefore excluded.
Combine designs members for combined axial and bending stress can therefore read the
results of Plane Frame Analysis, Grillage Analysis, Space Frame Analysis and Single
Span Beam Analysis. The Space Truss Analysis is used to analyse trusses with axial
forces only and is therefore supported by Strut instead.
Design steps
Working through the input and design pages, the frame design procedure can be broken up into
the following steps:
The Input page: Defining design tasks by choosing a design approach, selecting members
to be designed, setting the design parameters and selecting load cases and slenderness
limits. The concept of tasks is described in detail on page 4-17.
The Members page (Combine only): Define internal nodes and enter effective lengths.
Refer to page 4-27 for detail.
The Design page (Combine only): Evaluating the design results. See page 4-29 for detail.
The Calcsheet page: Accumulate design results. See page 4-31 for detail.
Steel Member Design for Axial or Combined Stress 4-16
Re-analysis of the frame
Having evaluated the various member sizes, you may find it necessary to return to the original
frame analysis and make some changes to section sizes. Before exiting the member design
module, first save the task list using the Save command on the File menu. After re-analysing
the frame, you can return to the member design module and recall the task list to have the
modified structure re-checked without delay.
Note: For a task list to be re-used with a modified frame, a reasonable degree of
compatibility is required. Tasks that reference specific laterally supported nodes, for
example, will require modification if relevant node numbers have changed.
Interactive design of members
As an alternative to the above procedure, individual members can be designed without needing
to perform a frame analysis. To enable the interactive design mode:
In Strut, select the Interactive page.
In Combine, select 'Interactive input of data' on the Input page.
Design steps
Working through the input and design pages, the interactive design procedure can be broken up
into the following steps:
The Interactive page (Strut) or Input page (Combine): Choose a design approach, set the
design parameters and enter the element loads. In Strut, results are displayed interactively
on the same page. Refer to page 4-23 for a detailed explanation.
The Design page (Combine): Evaluate the design results. More detail is given on
page 4-29.
The Calcsheet page: Accumulate design results to print or send to Calcpad. See page 4-31
for detail.
Steel Member Design for Axial or Combined Stress 4-17
Tasks input
On entering Strut or Combine, it defaults to reading the last compatible frame analysis for
post-processing. You can then choose to:
Read and post-process the frame analysis results: Define one or more design tasks by
grouping members with relevant design parameters.
Interactive design: Ignore the frame analysis and interactively input and design members.
The pages that follow describe the use of the programs for reading and post-processing frame
analysis results. Information regarding interactive design is given on page 4-23.
Choosing the data input and design mode
In Combine, the appearance of the Input page determined by your selection of the mode of
operation:
If you choose to read and post-process the results of the frame analysis modules, you will
use the Input page to define design tasks.
However, if you opt for interactive design of members, the Input page displays a table for
entering member geometry and loading.
The appearance and behaviour of Strut is slightly different:
The Input page is used to manage design tasks for post-processing frame analysis output.
The Interactive page is used for entering data pertaining to interactive design of members.
Reading frame analysis output files
You can select another frame output file or view the current file:
Read data from: Use this option to load the output of a different frame module than the
one displayed. Click the box and select the relevant file from the list or enter a file name.
View output: To display the current frame analysis output file.
Defining design tasks
Central to the process of post-processing frame analysis results, are design tasks. By grouping
selective members with their relevant design parameters into one or more design tasks, you
should find it easy to manage the vast amount of frame analysis data generated for larger
frames.
Steel Member Design for Axial or Combined Stress 4-18
The design of a frame should be simplified by breaking it into one or more manageable tasks.
Each task then defines a group of members to be designed together with the relevant design
parameters to be used.
Once you have defined one or more design tasks, the Calcsheet page (Strut) or Design page
(Combine) is enabled viewing that page automatically performs all design tasks.
After having carefully defined a number of tasks, you can save the task list to disk for later
re-use. This means that you can return to the relevant frame analysis module, make some
changes to the structure, re-analyse it and then repeat the previous design tasks by simply
reloading the task list.
Defining tasks
To define design tasks, you have to select or enter the following information:
1. Select a design approach.
2. If you choose to select the lightest section, then also choose a profile to use.
3. Select the members to be designed.
4. Enter the design parameters.
5. Select the load cases to be considered.
To save a task, enter a Task title and click Add task. Once added to the task list, a task will be
automatically performed when you go to the Calcsheet page. Define as many tasks as
necessary to design the frame in the required detail.
Steel Member Design for Axial or Combined Stress 4-19

Modifying design tasks
To modify an exiting task:
1. Click Task title to display a list of defined tasks.
2. Select the task you want to modify.
3. Make the necessary changes to the selected members, design parameters etc.
4. Click Update task to save the changes.
Deleting tasks
To remove a task from the list, first select the task and then click Delete task. To save the
complete task list to disk, use the Save commands on the File menu.
Note: In Combine, saving the task list with File | Save also saves the intermediate nodes
and effective lengths entered in the Members page.
Steel Member Design for Axial or Combined Stress 4-20
Selecting a design code
The current selected design code is displayed in the status bar. To
select a different design code, use the Code of Practice command on
the File menu or click the design code on the status bar.
Choosing a design approach
Depending on what you would like to achieve, e.g. preliminary sizing
or final design checks, you can choose between the following design
approaches:
Select lightest sections: Elements are optimised for economy
using mass as the criterion. Specify the type of section to be
used, e.g. equal leg angles, using Profile (F5). If you are unsure
about the section sizes to use or want to do some preliminary
sizing, this is the probably best approach to follow.
Evaluate current sections: The sections specified in the
original frame analysis are checked. This approach is best suited
for final design checks.
Note: The section type selected under Profile (F5) is used when the design approach is set
to 'Select lightest section'. However, the selected section type has no bearing on the design
when the approach is set to 'Evaluate current sections'.
Selecting members for design in Strut
Use the Element groups (F6) function to select one or more element groups from the list or by
clicking members in the picture. Lateral supports are assumed at all nodes. If certain nodes are
not laterally supported, you can indicate them as follows:
Use the Laterally unsupported (F7) function to indicate those nodes that are supported
all other nodes are then assumed to by unsupported. The program uses the shortest path
between the specified nodes to identify the relevant elements. Leave a blank line to end a
series of supported nodes or use the New group function to start a new series of laterally
supported nodes. You can manually enter node numbers or click them on the picture.
Steel Member Design for Axial or Combined Stress 4-21
The following apply to the calculation of effective lengths when you indicate laterally
unsupported members:
L
y
is based on the cumulative length between the specified supported nodes.
L
x
and L
v
remain a function of the individual element lengths between adjacent nodes.
Tip: To keep the design of a large truss manageable, consider using more tasks and
specifying fewer nodes at a time.
Selecting members for design in Combine
Use the Element groups (F6) function to select one or more element groups from the list or by
clicking members in the picture. A lateral supports is assumed at each node. If certain internal
nodes are not laterally supported, you can indicate them on the Members page. For more detail,
refer to page 4-27.
Setting the design parameters
Use the Design parameters (F8) function to enter appropriate design parameters and material
properties. You can select a different set of design parameters with each task.
Note: In Combine, effective length factors are entered on the Members page. Refer to page
4-28 for details on entering effective lengths in Combine.
Selecting load cases and limiting slenderness ratios
When loading the last frame analysis results, the program automatically displays a list of all
load cases and combinations that can be designed and also the default slenderness limits for
struts and ties.
In the Maximum L/r ratios (F9) table, you can exclude any load case or combination from the
current design task by clicking its right-most column. A cross next to a load case means that
the particular load case will be included.
Tip: In the frame analysis modules you can also select to analyse load combinations only.
The analysis output will then be more compact due to the omission of individual load case
results.
You are free to modify the slenderness limit for each individual load case or combination as
required. In the case where uplift due to wind is dominant, for example, you may be able to set
a higher slenderness limit. The code requirements regarding slenderness limits are discussed on
page 4-14.
Steel Member Design for Axial or Combined Stress 4-22
Controlling design output
The amount of information that will be added to the
Calcsheet page can be controlled using the Settings
function on the Input page:
In Strut, you can select whether all members
should be added to the Calcsheet or only a
number of most critical members.
In Combine, you can choose between showing
detailed calculation with or without diagrams or
a summary of results.

Steel Member Design for Axial or Combined Stress 4-23
Interactive input
The interactive design mode offers an alternative method of designing members. Instead of
performing a frame analysis and then and post-processing the results, you can enter member
length and forces and design them interactively.
To enable the interactive design mode:
In Strut, select the Interactive page.
In Combine, select 'Interactive input of data' on the Input page.
The pages that follow describe the use of the programs for interactive member design. The
procedure to reading and post-processing frame analysis results is explained on page 4-15
Selecting a design code
The current selected design code is displayed in the status bar. To
select a different design code, use the Code of Practice command on
the File menu or click the design code on the status bar.
Choosing a design approach
Depending on what you would like to achieve, e.g. preliminary sizing
or final design checks, you can choose between the following design
approaches:
Select lightest sections: Using mass as the criterion, the most
economical section size will be determined for each member.
The type of section that will be selected will be as specified
above. Specify the type of section to be used, e.g. equal leg
angles, using Profile (F5). This approach is very useful for if
one is unsure about the section sizes to use or if one wants to do
some preliminary sizing.
Evaluate current sections: This approach allows you to specify a section size for each
member. Use the Profile (F5) function to select a section.
Setting the design parameters
In Combine, use the Effective lengths (F6) function to enter effective length factors. Use
Design parameters (F8) to enter appropriate design parameters. All members designed in a
particular interactive session use the same set of design parameters.
Steel Member Design for Axial or Combined Stress 4-24
Specifying slenderness limits
Use the Maximum L/r ratios (F9) function to enter appropriate maximum allowable
slenderness ratios for compression and tension.
Entering member lengths and forces in Strut
Use as many lines as necessary to enter member lengths and axial forces:
L: Length of the member (m or ft).
F: Axial force (compression positive) (kN or kip).
Designation: Profile or section chosen using Profile (F5). With 'select lightest section'
enabled, you only need to choose the type of profile. With 'Evaluating current section'
selected, you should select a section for evaluation.

Note: All entered forces and moments are ULS design values. For allowable stress design
with SABS 0162 - 1984, you should enter working loads.
Steel Member Design for Axial or Combined Stress 4-25
Entering member lengths and forces in Combine
One or more lines of information can be entered for each member. The program automatically
accumulates multiple lines of loads for the same member. The following input data is required:
Name: A descriptive name for each member.
L: Length of the member (m or ft).
F: Axial force with compression being positive (kN or kip).
X/Y: Axis of bending relating to the values that follow next. Use as many lines as
necessary to define the loading on the member about the x-x and y-y axes.

M1: Moment applied at the left end (anti-clockwise positive) about the X or Y axis (kNm
or kipft).
M2: Moment at the right end (anti-clockwise positive) (kNm or kipft).
W1: Distributed load at the left end. The load works over the whole length of the member
load and varies linearly between the left and right ends (downward positive) (kN/m or
kip/ft).
Steel Member Design for Axial or Combined Stress 4-26
W2: Value of distributed load on right side (kN/m or kip/ft).
P: Point load applied on the member (downward positive) (kN or kip).
A: Position of the point load, measured from the left end (m or ft).
Note: All entered forces and moments are ULS design values. For allowable stress design
with SABS 0162 - 1984, you should enter working loads.
The profile of the members to evaluate is chosen using the Profile (F5) function. On opening
the Design page, the lightest section will be chosen for each member. Lighter or heavier
sections of the same profile can then be browsed as required.
Viewing design results
Similar design criteria are applied in Strut and Combine. The presentation of the design
results are however done quite differently. Refer to page 4-29 for detail.

Steel Member Design for Axial or Combined Stress 4-27
Beam-column member definition
In Combine, internal nodes and effective lengths are defined on the Members page. The data
entered on the Members page is applicable to all design tasks defined on the Input page. To
use different effective lengths for different design tasks lateral support group tasks with
identical effective lengths and save them in separate files.
Defining internal nodes
An internal node is defined as a node in-between the end nodes of a member. When you add
internal nodes, the program joins relevant members to allow for easy input of effective lengths
Adding an internal node
You can add internal as follows:
Enter internal node numbers in the table or click them with the mouse.
Use the Auto Select function to let the program detect all internal nodes.
Removing an internal node
You can remove an internal node by deleting it form the list or by clicking it again in the
picture.
Consolidation of members
With the addition of each internal node, the relevant node is 'removed' by joining the two
adjacent members into a single member. The table of members is continuously updated to
show the new member layout.
The program uses the following guidelines to decide which members to join at an internal
node:
For the automatic selection of internal nodes, adjoining members must have the same
section.
Only members with an included angle greater than 100 (where 180 corresponds to a
perfectly straight member) are joined.
Where members of different sections intersect, the larger section defines the main member
that should be joined.
Where two or more members intersect, the internal node is taken to belong to one of the
intersecting members only. The chosen member will be the straightest member or, if the
same, the first in the table of members.
Steel Member Design for Axial or Combined Stress 4-28
Entering effective lengths
Enter effective length factors as follows:
Apply the same value of K
x
, K
y
or K
e
to all members by clicking the Kx, Ky en Ke
buttons in the table heading.
Enter the effective length factors for individual elements.

Note: The list of internal nodes and effective length factors are automatically saved when
you save the task list. See page 4-17 for detail.

Tip: You can quickly find a member in the
table by pressing Ctrl+F. Enter the member
name by referring to one or both of its end
node numbers.
Steel Member Design for Axial or Combined Stress 4-29
Design results
In Strut the design results are shown on the Calcsheet page. In Combine, select the Design page
to perform all design tasks and display the design results. All specified load cases and
combinations are considered for each member designed. Unless a very large number of elements
and load cases are involved, the design procedure will normally be completed almost
instantaneously.
By default, the results for the design task active on the Input page are displayed. The results of
any other design task can be displayed by selecting the task from the list (see description below).
If an interactive member design was performed, the displayed results will be for the interactive
design task instead.
The design criteria
The following criteria are used in the design:
The interaction formulae given by the relevant design code are used to evaluate the effect
of axial stress or combined effect of axial stress and bending stress. In calculating the
allowable stresses, the program takes account of the member slenderness and effective
tension area.
The slenderness ratio checked against the specified maximum allowable slenderness ratio
for compression and tension.
Note: Strut designs members for axial stress only and ignores any bending stresses.
Viewing design results in Strut
The design results are given in tabular format with 'OK' and 'FAIL' remarks to indicate success or
failure. The mass of each group of elements is summarised below the relevant table. The results
of each new design are appended to the bottom of the existing output.
Viewing results in Combine
The complete interaction formulae are displayed for the critical load case of the first member of
the first design task. Individual calculations have 'OK' and 'FAIL' remarks to indicate success or
failure.
To view the results of another task, member, section or load case:
Use the Up and Down buttons to move up or down the list of available options. Tasks and
load cases are listed in the order of definition. Sections are ordered by mass. Alternatively
click the item, i.e. sections, and use the Up and Down arrow keys.
Alternatively click the relevant input box and select an item from the list that drops down.
Steel Member Design for Axial or Combined Stress 4-30
Click the Detailed Equations button to view step-by-step design calculations for the current
member.

Adding results to the Calcsheet page
In Strut, the design results are automatically displayed on the Calcsheet page.
In Combine, the following options are available when adding design results to the Calcsheet
page:
Member to Calcsheet: Add the current displayed member only.
Task to Calcsheet: Add the design results of all members in the current task, including
those members not currently displayed.
All tasks to Calcsheet: Add all members of all tasks.
Note: The level of detail of the information added to the Calcsheet can be set using the
Settings function on the Input page. Refer to page 4-22 for detail.
Steel Member Design for Axial or Combined Stress 4-31
Calcsheet
The design results of all tasks are grouped on the Calcsheet page for sending to Calcpad or
immediate printing.

Use the Output settings function on the Calcsheets page and Settings function on the Input
page for the following:
Embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
Clear the Calcsheet page.
Recalling a data file
If you enable the Data File option before sending a calcsheet to Calcpad, you can later recall
the design by double-clicking the relevant object in Calcpad. A data file embedded in Calcpad
is saved as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the member design
module as well.
Steel Member Design for Axial or Combined Stress 4-32
Plastic Frame Design 4-33
Plastic Frame Design
The Plastic Frame Design module can perform a linear elasto-plastic analysis of any general
two-dimensional framed structure. The program can be used in the following plastic design
modes:
The plastic collapse mechanism and load factors can be determined for a series of load
combinations.
The frames plastic behaviour can be optimised to achieve more economical sections.
Elastic design of a steel frames can be done using the Plane frame Analysis or Space Frame
Analysis modules in conjunction with the steel member design modules axial and combined
stress, Strut and Combine. See Chapter 4 for detail.
Note: This module is no longer developed or supported, and was removed from the program
toolbar in PROKON version 2.4. However, for the sake of users that purchased this module
in the past, it is still access via the Program menu. To evaluate non-linear behaviour of
frames, the recommended procedure is to use the Frame Analysis module and perform a
non-linear analysis. See Chapter 3 for more information.

Plastic Frame Design 4-34
Theory and application
The following text explains the sign conventions used and gives a brief background of the
analysis techniques.
Design scope
The use of plastic design methods is normally limited to the design of continuous beams and
single storey frames with rigid joints, e.g. portal frames. It may also be acceptable to use plastic
methods for designing some braced multi-storey planar frames.
Determining plastic mechanisms
The program performs an elasto-plastic analysis of plane frames. A rational analysis approach
is followed to obtain a true collapse mechanism for each load case or combination:
1. A linear elastic analysis is performed to determine the position of the first plastic hinge.
2. The bending moment at that position is then limited to the relevant plastic moment while
the position of the next hinge is calculated.
3. The procedure is repeated to obtain more plastic hinges.
4. If the formation of further plastic hinges results in the bending moment at one of the
existing hinges to decrease, that hinge is removed and elastic behaviour re-instated at that
position.
5. The procedure is repeated until a collapse mechanism forms.
Analysis modes
Depending on the analysis module used, the following types of analysis can be performed:
Linear analysis: Basic linear elastic analysis. A linear analysis procedure is typically
performed markedly faster than a plastic analysis. It therefore is recommended that you
verify the basic integrity of the frame input by performing a linear analysis prior to
attempting a plastic analysis.
Plastic analysis: Choose between evaluating the adequacy of the frame as entered or
optimising the section sizes. When optimising, the program will search for a more
economic configuration of sections. The plastic modulus, Z
pl
, is used as the criterion for
section economy.
Two design modes are available during plastic analysis:
No optimisation: Evaluate the frame with sections as entered and calculate the adequacy
against collapse for each load combination.
Plastic Frame Design 4-35
Optimise sections: Optimise the frame's plastic behaviour by determining more
economical sections.
Design codes
The program uses general plastic theory. Working within their scope, the program can be
considered to support the all the limit state design codes supported by Strut and Combine. See
page 4-6 for a list of design codes.
Note: SABS 0162 - 1984 use an allowable stress design method for elastic design. For
plastic design, however, it adopts an ultimate limit state design method.
Sign conventions
Frame input and output uses a mixture of global axis and local axes values.
Global axes
The global axis system is nearly
exclusively used when entering frame
geometry and loading. Global axes are
also used in the analysis output for
deflections and reactions.
The global axes are defined as follows:
The X-axis is chosen to the right.
The Y-axis points vertically upward.
A positive vertical load thus works
up and a negative load down.
Using a right-hand rule, the Z-axis
points out of the screen.


Local axes
Local axes are used in the output for element forces. You can also apply loads in the direction of
a beam element's local y-axis. The local axis system is defined as follows for beam elements:
The local z-axis and axial force is chosen in the direction from the smaller node number to
the larger node number.
Plastic Frame Design 4-36
The x-axis is taken parallel to the global Z-axis, i.e. pointing towards you. A rotation about
the x-axis is thus always anti-clockwise.
The y-axis is taken perpendicular to the x and z-axes, using a right-hand rule.
Beam element forces
The element forces are given in the local
element axis system. The following
conventions apply to beam elements:
The axial force, P
z
, is taken in the
z-direction.
The shear force, V
y
, is taken in the
y-direction.
The moment, M
xx
, is taken about the
x-axis, i.e. anti-clockwise.

Note: In this manual the global and local axes are written in uppercase and lowercase
respectively.
Units of measurement
The following units of measurement are supported:

Units Metric Imperial
Distance mm, m ft, inch
Force
N, kN
lb, kip
Use the Units commands on the Options menu to change the units for the current analysis:
Set Units: Changes the units of measurement without altering the input data.
Convert Units: Changes the units and converts all numeric data from the old to the new
units of measurement.
Plastic Frame Design 4-37
Input
Work through the relevant Input pages to enter the frame geometry and loading:
General input: Select the analysis type and special analysis parameters.
Nodes input: Frame coordinates.
Beams input: Join nodes with beam elements.
Beam sections input: Enter properties or read sections from the database.
Spring elements input: For special effects, optionally enter spring elements.
Supports input: External supports.
Nodal loads input: Point loads and moments.
Beam element loads input: Uniform distributed, triangular and trapezium loads on beams.
Load combinations input: Group dead, live and wind loads in load combinations.
Alternative methods of generating frame analysis input are discussed on page Error!
Bookmark not defined..
Viewing the frame
You may want to enlarge portions of the picture of the structure or rotate it on the screen.
Several functions, all of which are described in detail in Chapter 2, are available to help you
using pictures of the frame:
Use the Zoom buttons to zoom into a part of the structure or view it from another angle.
Use the View Point Control to set a new view point or camera position.
The Options menu makes the following additional functions available:
Graphics:
Select whether you want items like node numbers and supports to be displayed.
Choose whether you want all beam elements or only a certain type to be displayed.
Plastic Frame Design 4-38
Display the structure with full 3D
rendering, e.g. to verify section
orientations. 3D rendering is
automatically suppressed when
viewing output.
Choose quick or detailed
rendering. Quick rendering is
faster than the detailed method,
but you may find that some
surfaces are drawn incorrectly.
All surfaces are drawn as
polygons. You can choose to make the
surfaces transparent or have them filled
and outlined.
Tip: The Graphics options and 3D rendering
function can also be accessed using the buttons
next to the displayed picture.
Views: You can save the current view point
and view plane. The current view's name is
displayed on the picture. To re-use a saved
view, click the view name on the picture to
drop down a list of saved views.
The functions described
above can also be used
when viewing output.
Contour diagrams, for
example, are drawn as
polygons. You can
therefore use the Graphics
options setting for
polygons to change their
appearance. Views defined
during input are also
available when viewing
output and vice versa.
Plastic Frame Design 4-39
Saving and printing pictures
Any picture can be saved or printed using the relevant buttons next the picture. Pictures on the
Input and Output pages can also be added to the Calcsheets.
Tip: You can zoom into a picture and print, save or add the picture to the Calcsheets.

General input
The General input page handles several important analysis parameters.
Analysis type
Choose between performing a simple linear elastic analysis or a plastic analysis. Refer to page
4-34 for an explanation of the analysis modes.
Plastic design parameters
You need to set the following analysis parameters when performing a plastic analysis:
Plastic analysis tolerance: The plastic analysis is an iterative procedure. The analysis is
deemed to have converged once the total strain energies of two sequential iterations differ
by less than the specified tolerance.
Maximum number of iterations: The analysis procedure calculates as many hinges as
necessary to form a plastic mechanism. You can terminate the analysis at an earlier stage.
A complex analysis that takes a very long time to converge can also be forced terminate
earlier. To force the analysis to end before the formation of the final collapse mechanism,
you can limit the maximum number of iterations to be performed.
Own weight
The own weight of the frame can be calculated using the entered cross-sectional areas and
member lengths. If you specify a load case, the own weight is calculated and added to the other
loads of that case.
The following are points of importance:
By default the own weight of the frame is set to not be included in the analysis. Be sure to
select the appropriate load case for own weight or, alternatively, to include the frame's
own weight in the values of the loads entered.
The list of load cases from which you can select is based on the load cases defined on the
Nodal loads and Beam loads input pages. You may thus prefer to specify the own weight
load case only after completing all other input for the frame. However, you can also enter
Plastic Frame Design 4-40
the own weight load case at the start of the frame input process in which case you may
ignore the warning message (that the load case does not exist).
Tip: If you wish to use own weight in its own separate load case, you can do so by defining
an empty load case. You can enter a zero load at any node number, for example, and then
select that load case as the one to use for own weight.
Parametrics
The parametric plastic frame
input modules are suitable for the
rapid generation of complete
input files for some typical
structures. Because the resulting
input data is presented in the
normal way on the input pages,
you are free to edit and append to
the data as necessary.
Input generated this way can
optionally be appended to
existing data you can therefore
repeatedly use the parametric
input modules to generate
complicated structures.
Note: Plasdes is not limited to analysing only those frames generated by the parametric
modules. The program can treat any general two-dimensional frame. The parametric
modules merely serve to simplify input of typical frames.
Adding input data to the Calcsheets
You can append the input tables (as they appear on the screen) to the Calcsheets by clicking
the Add input tables to Calcsheets button.
You can add a picture from any input pages to the Calcsheets by clicking the Add to
Calcsheets button next to the picture in question.
Title
A descriptive name for the frame. It should not be confused with the file name you use when
you save the input data.
Plastic Frame Design 4-41
Nodes input
Use as many lines as necessary to enter the nodes defining the frame. A unique number must
be assigned to each node. The node number is entered in the No column, followed by the X and
Y-coordinates in the X and Y columns. If you leave X or Y blank, a value of zero is used.

You are allowed to skip node numbers to simplify the definition of the frame. You may also
leave blank lines in the input to improve readability. If a node number is defined more than
once, the last definition will be used.
Error checking
The program checks for nodes lying at the same coordinate. If a potential error is detected, an
Error list button will appear.
Plastic Frame Design 4-42
Generating additional nodes
When defining a node, you can have additional nodes generated at regular intervals. Example:

The Y-coordinate of node 4 is left blank. Therefore, node 4 is put at the coordinate
(0.805,0).
The No of is set to '2', meaning that two additional nodes are generated.
Setting Increment to '7' means that the node numbers are incremented by seven.
Therefore, node 4 is copied to node 11 and node 11 is copied to node 18.
The values in the X-inc and Y-inc columns set the distance between copied nodes. The
coordinates 4 to 18 are horizontally spaced at 1.140 m to the right at 0.472 m downward,
i.e. along the X and negative Y-axis respectively. The coordinates of the additional nodes
are thus (1.945,-0.472) and (3.085,-0.944).
An alternative method to generate equally spaced nodes is to use the Inc to End option. This
method allows you to define two nodes and then generate a number of nodes in-between:
Use the same procedure as above to define the first node's coordinates.
Set the values of X-inc, Y-inc and Z-inc to the total coordinate difference to the last node
and enable the Inc to End option. The last node's coordinates are then first calculated and
the specified number of intermediate nodes then generated.

Second order generation
Once you have defined one or more nodes in the table, you can copy that relevant lines nodes
by entering a '' character in the No column of the next line. Then enter the number of
additional sets of nodes to be generated in the No of column and the coordinate increments in
the X-inc and Y-inc columns.
Second order generation example:

Plastic Frame Design 4-43
The following nodes are generated:
No X Y
15 0.00 5.12
16 2.00 5.12
17 4.00 5.12
20 0.00 5.62
21 2.00 5.62
22 4.00 5.62
Block generation
A group of nodes can be repeated by entering a 'B' in the No column followed by the first and
last table line numbers in which the nodes were defined. Separate the line numbers with a ''.
Block generation example:

The nodes defined in lines 11 to 26 are copied twice. Node numbers are incremented by thirty for
each copy. The X and Y-coordinate increments are 10 m and zero respectively.
To copy one line only, simply omit the end line number, e.g. 'B10' to copy line 10 only.
Tip: The current line number is displayed in the status bar at the bottom left of the
program's window.
The block generation function may be used recursively. That means that the lines specified
may themselves contain further block generation statements.
Moving nodes
To move a group of nodes to a new location without generating any new nodes, use the block
generation function and set No-of to '1' and Inc to '0'.
Arc generation
A group of nodes can be repeated on an arc by entering an 'A' in the No column, followed by
the start and end line numbers. Enter the centre of the arc in the X and Y columns and use the
X-inc column to specify the angle increment about the Z-axis.
Example:

All nodes defined in lines 5 to 9 of the table will be repeated eleven times on an imaginary
horizontal arc. The centre point of the arc is located at the coordinate (10.0,1.5). The node
Plastic Frame Design 4-44
number increment is set to 5, i.e. node number 3 becomes node 8, etc. The rotation angle
between the generated groups of nodes is 30 degrees about the Z-axis, i.e. anti-clockwise on
the screen using a right-hand rule.
To copy one line only, simply omit the end line numbers, e.g. 'A12' to copy line 12 only.
Note: The arc generation function may be used recursively.
Rotating nodes
To rotate a group of existing nodes without generating any new nodes, use the arc generation
function and set the No-of to '1' and Increment to '0'.
Mirror
Nodes of a plane frame or grillage can be mirrored horizontally or vertically by entering an 'M'
in the No column, followed by the start and end line numbers.
Mirror example:

All nodes defined in lines 5 to 9 are mirrored about a vertical (horizontal for a grillage) line
through X=10 m. Node numbers are incremented with 5. By specifying a Y or Z-value instead
of an X-value, nodes can be mirrored about a horizontal line passing through the specified Y or
Z-value.
Deleting nodes
Nodes can be deleted by entering 'Delete' in the Inc to end column. This can be especially
handy if you have generated a large group of nodes and then need to remove some of them
again.
Example:

Nodes 15 and the additional nodes 18 and 21 are deleted.
Plastic Frame Design 4-45
Beam elements input
A beam or frame element is defined by entering the node numbers at each end, separated
with a ''. For example, '39' is the element linking nodes 3 and 9. The elements themselves are
not numbered.
A series if elements can be input in a string, e.g. '2-6-10-14-18-22-24'. If the node number
increment of a series is constant, you can replace intermediate nodes with two ' ' characters. In
the string above, nodes 2 to 22 has a constant increment of four. Therefore, the string can be
rewritten as '2-6- - 22-24'. The node increment of four is derived from '2-6'.
An element definition must include a section number entered in the Section Name column.
The section name is used to identify the relevant section. The actual section properties for each
section number defined on the Beam Sections input page.

Plastic Frame Design 4-46
Section orientation
The local y-z plane of an element is taken
in the global X-Y plane. The principle
can be illustrated by considering an I-
section in its normal orientation. For this
case, the web will always be considered
to be in a vertical plane.
A section can be rotated through ninety
degrees by selecting the alternative
orientation when reading it from the
section database.

Tip: Enable full 3D rendering in the Graphics options to view the true beam orientation.
End fixity
The fixity at each end of an element, i.e. continuous or pinned, must also be defined in the
Fixity columns. Pins are modelled on the element itself and not on the node. External pinned
supports should be defined on the Supports input table. External supports are described in the
next section.
The following types of end fixities can be specified:
Fixed: Specify 'F' to provide full rotational continuity. If you leave the field blank, 'F' is
assumed.
Pinned: Use 'P' to for no rotational restraint, i.e. a pin.
Note: To retain compatibility with the Dos version, you may also use '0' or'1' instead of 'F'
and 'P' respectively.
Entered fixities are applied at an element's lower node number (designated as the 'left' end) and
higher node number (the 'right' end). The order of the node numbers entered in the first column
of the table has no bearing on the application of the fixity codes.
To define a pin only at the two remote ends of a group of elements, enable the Group fix
option by entering a 'Y'. In this case the normal convention of smaller and larger node numbers
does not apply. Instead, pins are put at the remote ends in the same order that the nodes have
been entered.
Plastic Frame Design 4-47
Example:

The group of elements from node 42 to 24 is continuous except for the pins used at nodes
42 and 24.
If the Group fix is left blank or 'N' is entered, the normal individual element fixity mode is
assumed.
Tip: Element fixity can be displayed graphically on the screen. For this, edit the Graphics
options to disable the Elements Continuous option.
When using pins, you should take care to ensure overall stability of the frame. Consider two
elements on a straight line with pins at all three relevant nodes, for example. The centre node
will be unrestrained for rotation about the element axis, resulting in instability during
the analysis.
Note: Do not use an internal pin on an element to model an external support that allows free
rotation. Rather allow the beam to be fixed to the node and define a simple support on the
Support input page.
Tapered beams
The current version of Plasdes does not support tapered sections.
Rigid links
You can use rigid links to rigidly fix sub-structures to each other. To define a rigid link, enter
'R' in the Section Name column.
Rigid links are modelled as very stiff beams. The stiffness of a rigid link is determined by
multiplying the maximum stiffnesses of the other beams with a factor, typically one thousand.
Rigid link example:

Rigid links are defined between nodes 12 and 24, 14 and 26 and 16 and 26.
Plastic Frame Design 4-48
Generating additional elements
You can generate additional elements with the same section and fixity code values using the
No of extra and Node No Inc columns. Example:

The elements between nodes 251 and 266 are copied ten times with the node numbers
decrementing by five with each copy.
Block generation
A group of elements can be repeated by entering a 'B' in the No column. Then enter the first
and last table line numbers in which the elements were defined, separated with a ''.
Block generation example:

All elements defined in lines 11 to 26 will be copied twice with a node number increment of
thirty. The copied elements will use the same section number and fixity codes as the original
elements.
To copy one line only, simply omit the end line number, e.g. 'B11' to copy line 11 only.
Tip: The current line number is displayed in the status bar at the bottom left of the
program's window.
The block generation function may be used recursively. The group of lines referenced may thus
contain block generation statements.
Tip: When entering a complicated structure it may help to leave a few blank lines between
groups of elements. Not only will it improve readability, but it will also allow you to insert
additional nodes at a later stage without upsetting block and arc generations.
Deleting beams
Beam elements can be deleted by entering a special section name 'Delete'. This can be
especially handy if you have generated a large group of elements at regular increments and
need to remove some of them again.
Plastic Frame Design 4-49
Example:

Elements 25-27-29 and 35-37-39 are deleted.
Note: The display of selected beam element groups can be activated or suppressed by
editing the Graphic options.
Error checking
The program checks for duplicate elements and elements with zero length. It also checks that a
section number is assigned to each element. If an error is detected, an Error list button will be
displayed.
Beam sections input
Section properties should be assigned to all section names used on the Beam elements input
page. The following properties are required for all sections:
Cross sectional area, A.
Second moment of area about the local x-axis, I
xx
.
Plastic modulus about the local x-axis, Z
xx
.
Each section should also have an associated material selected. If no section or material
properties are entered, the values applicable to the previous line in the table are used.
Reading sections from the database
Use the Section database function to display and select sections from database. You can add
your own sections, e.g. plate girders, to the database using the procedures described in
Chapter 2.
Entering haunches
Haunched sections are entered by appending the haunch depth to the section designation. To
add a haunch of 280 mm to a '305x102x66' BS taper flange I-section, enter '305x102x66
(0.280h)'. The overall depth is then taken to be 305 mm + 280 mm = 585 mm.
Tip: You can verify your definition of haunches by enabling 3D rendering. Refer to page
for 4-15 more detail.

Plastic Frame Design 4-50

Note: Although haunched sections can be entered, Plasdes does not support analysis of
members with tapered sections. A tapered haunch in a typical portal frame, for example,
should be modelled by entering one or more members that approximate the stiffness of the
actual haunch.
Own weight
If a material's definition includes a density value, the own weight of a member is calculated
automatically and added to the load case specified on the General input page.
Plastic Frame Design 4-51
Selecting materials
Each section should have an associated material. To add one or more materials to a frame
analysis data file, click Materials. Open the relevant material type screen and select the
materials that are required for the current frame input.
After adding the selected materials to the input, you can select them by clicking the Material
column to drop down a list.
Adding materials to the global database
The procedure to permanently add more materials to the database is described in Chapter 2.
Spring elements input
You can use spring elements to provide elastic links between sub-structures. In theory, two
nodes connected with a spring element should have the same coordinates. The program will
warn if this is not the case and still allow you to continue.
Note: By default the Spring elements input page is not visible. This behaviour can be
changed using the Advanced command on the Options menu.
Enter linear spring constants in the Kx, Ky and Kz columns and rotational spring constants in
the Rx, Ry and Rz columns.
The orientation of a spring element is defined by entering a bearing between any two nodes
that do not necessarily need to be connected to the same or other spring elements as well. The
directions of the axes are defined as followed:
A spring element's x-axis is taken in the direction of the orientating nodes.
The y-axis defined in the same way as for a normal beam element, i.e. perpendicular to
spring element in a vertical plane.
The z-axis is taken perpendicular to the x and y-axes using aright-hand rule.
Spring element example:

Spring elements are defined between nodes 16 and 116, 17 and 117 up to 19 and 119. The
spring elements are aligned parallel to the imaginary line joining nodes 3 and 4.
Plastic Frame Design 4-52
Tip: Spring elements can also be made "rigid" so as to force two nodes to have the same
translation and/or rotation. In the above example, a very large value for K
x
would
cause nodes 16 and 116 to have identical displacements in the direction described by
nodes 3 and 4.
Supports input
Frames require external supports to ensure global stability. Supports can be entered to prevent
any of the three degrees of freedom at a node, i.e. translation in the X and Y-directions and
rotation about the Z-axes. You can also define elastic supports, e.g. an elastic soil support, and
prescribed displacements, e.g. foundation settlement.

Enter the node number to be supported in the Node No column. In the next column a
combination of the letters 'X', 'Y' and 'z' can be entered to indicate the direction of fixity. Use
capitals and lowercase to define restraint of translation and rotation respectively, e.g. 'XYz'
means fixed against movement in the X and Y-direction and rotation about the Z-axis.
Note: The use of lowercase for rotational restraints should not be confused with the
convention of using lowercase for local element axes.
Plastic Frame Design 4-53
Tip: To enter a simple support with no moment restraint, you should enter 'XY' or 'Y'.
If you want to repeat the supports defined on the previous line of the table, you need only enter
the node number, i.e. you may leave the Fixity column blank. If the XYZxyz column is left
blank, the supports applicable to the previous line will be used automatically.
Prescribed displacements and elastic supports
Use the X, Y and Rz columns to enter prescribed displacements and rotations in the direction
of the X or Y-axis or about the Z-axis. Being a global support condition, the effect of the
prescribed displacement is not considered to be a separate load case. Instead, the effect of
prescribed displacements is added once only to the analysis results of each load case and load
combination.
Elastic supports, or springs, are defined by entering spring constants in the X, Y and z columns.
The spring constant is defined as the force or moment that will cause a unit displacement or
rotation in the relevant direction. Enter an 'S' in the P/S column to indicate that an entered
value is a spring constant rather than a prescribed displacement. If you leave the P/S column
blank, the entered values are taken as prescribed displacements.
Note: The display of supports can be activated or suppressed by editing the Graphic
options.
Error Checking
The program does a basic check on the structural stability of the frame. If a potential error is
detected, an Error list button will appear.
Note: You cannot define an elastic support and a prescribed displacement at the same node
because it will be a contradiction of principles.
Generating additional supports
Additional supports and prescribed displacements can be generated using the Number of extra
and Node number inc columns. The procedure is similar to that described on page 4-42 for
generating additional nodes.
Plastic Frame Design 4-54
Nodal loads input
Loads on beam elements are categorised as nodal loads, i.e. loads at node points, and element
loads, i.e. loads between nodes. Uniform distributed loads can be applied to shell elements.
All loads are organised in load cases, e.g. 'DL' for own weight, 'ADL' for additional dead loads,
'LL' for live load, etc. Load cases apply equally to the various load input screens, meaning that
you can build up a load case using different types of loads.
To define a load case, type a descriptive name for each load case in the Load Case column.
Use up to six characters to describe each load case. If the load case name is not entered, the
load case applicable to the previous line in the table is used.
The load case at the cursor position is displayed graphically. Press Enter or Display to update
the picture.
A nodal load can, as its name implies, only be applied at a node. If a point load is required on
an element, use the Beam loads input table instead.

Sign conventions
Plastic Frame Design 4-55
Nodal loads are applied parallel to the global axes an explanation of the sign conventions are
given on page 4-35.
Tip: For a typical steel frame or roof truss, it may be easiest to define a node at each purlin
position. Roof loads transferred via the purlins can then be entered as nodal loads.
Error checking
The program checks that specified nodes have indeed been defined in the Nodes input table. If
an error is detected, an Error list button will appear.
Generating additional nodal loads
Additional nodal loads can be generated using the Number of extra and Node number inc
columns respectively.
Block generation of nodal loads
You can use the block function to copy blocks of nodal loads. The procedure is similar to that
for generating additional nodes see page 4-43 for more detail.

Beam element loads input
Distributed loads and point loads on beam elements are all referred to as element loads. The
Nodal loads input page provides the easiest way of applying point loads and moments at
nodes.
Use up to six characters to enter a descriptive name for each load case in the Load Case
column. Then enter the element string of nodes in the Beam element definition column.
Entering the beam element definition follows the same convention used as for the Elements
input table see page 4-23 for detail.
Sign conventions
Depending on the selected load direction, beam loads are applied parallel to the global axes or
parallel to the local y-axis the definitions of the global and local axes are given on page 4-35
and 4-35 respectively.
The load direction is entered in the Direction column. Enter a global direction 'X' or 'Y'.
Element loads are applied to the relevant projected length of the elements. Therefore, if a 'Y'
load is entered for a vertical element, for example, the resulting load will therefore be zero.
Note: Positive vertical loads act upward and negative loads act downward.
Plastic Frame Design 4-56
For a distributed load, entered in the load intensity at the smaller and larger node numbers in
the W-begin and W-end columns respectively. If the load is constant over the length of the
element, W-end may be left blank.

Error checking
The program checks that element definitions match previously defined elements. If an error is
detected, an Error list button will appear.
Generating additional element loads
The No of extra and Node number Inc columns can also be used to generate additional
element loads.
Block generation of beam loads
You can use the block function to copy blocks of beam loads. The procedure is similar to that
used to generating additional beam elements see page 4-48 for detail.

Plastic Frame Design 4-57
Load combinations input
You can model practical scenarios by grouping load cases together in load combinations. Enter
the load combination name in the Load comb column, followed by the load case name and
relevant load factors. Use up to six characters for a descriptive load combination name.
If the Load comb column is left blank, the load combination is taken to be the same as for the
previous line of the table. The load cases to consider in a load combination are entered one per
line in the Load case column. Enter the relevant ultimate and serviceability limit state load
factors in the ULS factor and SLS factor columns.
Tip: You may leave one or more blank lines between load combination definitions to
improve readability.

The ultimate and serviceability limit states are used as follows:
Deflections are calculated using the entered SLS loads. A set of reactions is also calculated
at SLS for the purposes of evaluating support stability and bearing pressures.
A second set of reactions and all element forces are determined using the entered ULS
forces.
Plastic Frame Design 4-58
Note: Unlike elastic design, which is done using an allowable stress design technique,
plastic design to SABS 0162 - 1984 is done at ultimate limit state. Refer to clause 12.2 and
Table 30 for guidance on load factors to be used.
Error checking
The program only checks that valid load cases are specified. It has no knowledge of the design
code that will be used in the member design and therefore does not check the validity of the
entered load factors.
Plastic Frame Design 4-59
Analysis
On completing the frame input, you should set the analysis options before commencing the
actual analysis.
Analysis options
Use the General input page to select the analysis mode:
Linear analysis: Basic linear elastic analysis. A linear analysis procedure is typically
performed markedly faster than a plastic analysis. It therefore is recommended that you
verify the basic integrity of the frame input by performing a linear analysis prior to
attempting a plastic analysis.
Plastic analysis: Choose between evaluating the adequacy of the frame as entered or
optimising the section sizes. When optimising, the program will search for a more
economic configuration of sections. The plastic modulus, Z
pl
, is used as the criterion for
section economy.
Note: The results of an optimising plastic analysis should not be regarded as a final solution.
You should return to the input data and enter the suggested or other preferred sections and
then re-analyse the frame as a final check.
On the Analysis page, select the following:
Output file: Enter an output
file name or accept the
default file name, e.g.
'Pasdes.out'.
Analyse load combinations
only: Enable this option if
the results of only the load
combinations are required.
Generally one would require
results for the load
combinations only. How-
ever, you may have a special
need to view the results of
specific load cases as well.
Disable this option to
include the results for the
individual load cases as well.
Plastic Frame Design 4-60
Analysing the structure
To analyse the structure, open the Analysis page and press Start Analysis. The analysis
progress of displayed to help you judge the time remaining to complete the analysis.
After a successful analysis, the deflected shape is displayed for the first load case or load
combination.
Error checking during analysis
During the input phase, the frame geometry and loading data is checked for errors. Not all
reported errors are necessarily serious. To define duplicate elements between two nodes, for
example, could be an accidental error on your side. However, the program is quite capable of
dealing with a situation like this and will therefore allow the analysis procedure to continue.
Other input errors could be serious enough to prevent an analysis from being completed
successfully. Nodes with no elements, for example, have no restraints and will cause numeric
instability during the analysis.
The first step of any analysis is the final verification of the input data. In the case of critical
errors still present, a warning message will be displayed. If you then choose to not proceed
with the analysis, you will be taken to the input table with the error. However, choosing to
proceed and ignore the warning, will have an unpredictable result.
Fixing errors that occurred during the analysis
Even if all input data seems valid, numeric errors may still occur during an analysis. For
example, if you entered incorrect section properties, such as a very small E-value, the mistake
may go by unnoticed. However, the analysis will then yield an invalid value in the stiffness
matrix or extremely large deflections. The same applies to the stability of the frame. Although
the frame may appear stable, some combinations of internal hinges may result in some nodes
being unstable.
If an error was detected during the analysis, a warning will be displayed. The cause of the error
should become clear when studying the output file:
The text at the end of the output file normally gives the reason for the error.
If the output file seems complete, the problem will require more careful attention. Scan all
output tables for excessively large or small values.
Plastic Frame Design 4-61
Viewing output
The analysis results can be viewed graphically or in tabular format. Output data, including
graphics and tabled values, can be selectively appended to the Calcsheets using the Add to
Calcsheets function on each output page.
Viewing output graphics
Diagram can be displayed for the following:
Deflections: Deflections are generally small in relation to dimensions of the structure,
especially in the case of linear analyses. To improve the visibility of the deflection
diagram, you can enter a screen magnification factor. You can optionally display the
deflected shape without the original geometry.
Beam element forces:
Axial forces: The force is
shown as expanded red and
blue lines. Compression
forces are shown in red and
tension forces in blue. The
distance of a line from the
element centre line is in
proportion to the size of the
axial force.
Moments: Bending
moments about the local x
and y-axes. A plot factor
can also be entered to
enlarge or reduce the
bending moment diagram
on the frame.
Shear: Shear force
diagrams are drawn for the
local y and x-directions. A
beam element's shear force
diagram is constructed by
viewing it with its local z-
axis pointing to the right.
Since the direction of the z-
axis depends on the node
numbers, irregular
numbering of nodes can
Plastic Frame Design 4-62
result in apparent inconsistent signs used in the shear force diagrams. For detail on the
sign conventions used for beam element forces, refer to page 4-36.
Envelopes: Enter a series of elements and select the load case and combinations to
include in the envelopes. Envelopes are drawn using the values as tabulated from the
output file. Positive moments, for example, are drawn below the line and negative
above. Because members of different orientations can be included in the same
envelope, no simple distinction is made between tension and compression faces of
members.
Tip: When working with complicated frames, you may prefer adding one or more zoomed
pictures to the Calcsheets instead of a single cluttered picture. To do this, simply into a
picture and then use the Add to Calcsheets function.
Viewing output tables
Open the Output file page for a tabular display of the frame analysis output file. You can filter
the information appended to the Calcsheets by enabling or disabling the relevant sections.
The Find output function allows you to quickly locate any section of the output file.
Plastic Frame Design 4-63
Calcsheets
Frame analysis output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad. To
include a particular component of the output in the calcsheets, view the relevant output
information and then click Add to Calcsheets.

Recalling a data file
The Data File is automatically included in the calcsheet sent to Calcpad. You can later recall
the frame by double-clicking the relevant object in Calcpad. A data file embedded in Calcpad
is saved as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the frame analysis
module as well.
Plastic Frame Design 4-64


Crane Gantry Girder Design 4-65
Crane Gantry Girder Design
The Crane Gantry Girder Design module can be used to design and optimise multi-span
crane gantry girders with one or two cranes. Girders may be continuous or simply supported.
The program supports multiple combinations of main beams and capping beams, including
standard I-sections, plate girders and box girders.

Crane Gantry Girder Design 4-66
Theory and application
A brief summary is given below regarding the design theory and design codes.
Design scope
Crane gantry girders are generally constructed from rolled I-beams or welded plate girder, and
channel capping beams are often used to stiffen top flanges. The program checks and optimises
crane gantry girders made of rolled or welded I-sections or box sections with or without
capping beams. One or two simultaneous cranes can be specified.
The design procedure for crane gantry girders is similar to that used for statically loaded
girders. The various loading codes recognise the varying degree of duty of different types of
crane and give parameters for horizontal transverse effects. In the case of heavier duty cranes,
especially, certain aspects of the design and construction may additional special consideration.
Design codes
The program designs plate girders according to the following design codes:
AISC - 1999 LRFD.
BS 5950 - 1990.
BS 5950 - 2000.
CAN/CSA S16.1-94.
CSA S16-01 - 2001.
IS:800 - 2007.
SABS 0162 - 1984 (allowable stress design).
SABS 0162 - 1993 (limit state design).
Symbols
Where possible, the same symbols are used as in the design codes. A list is given below.
A : Cross-sectional area (mm
2
).
b : Width of capping beam top flange (mm).
b
bot
: Width of main beam bottom flange (mm).
b
top
: Width of main beam top flange (mm).
C
w
: Warping torsional constant (mm
4
).
Crane Gantry Girder Design 4-67
h : Height of section (mm).
I
xx
: Second moment of area about major axis (mm
4
).
I
yt
: Second moment of area top flange only (mm
4
).
I
yy
: Second moment of area about minor axis (mm
4
).
J : St. Venant's torsional constant (mm
4
).
r
1
: Radius between flange and web (mm).
r
2
: Outside radius at end of taper flange in (mm).
r
y
: Radius of gyration about minor axis (mm).
t
f bot
: Main beam bottom flange thickness (mm).
t
f top
: Main beam top flange thickness (mm).
t
w
: Web thickness (mm).
Z
pl
: Plastic section modulus about major axis (mm
3
).
Z
pt
: Top flange plastic modulus about minor axis (mm
3
).
Z
yt
: Top flange section modulus about minor axis (mm
3
).
: Angle between web and inside taper flange surface ().
Stresses, forces and related entities
BS 5950:
F : Applied axial load (kN).
M : Applied moment (kNm).
M
a
: Maximum buckling moment in presence of axial load (kNm).
M
b
: Lateral torsional buckling resistance moment (kNm).
M
c
: Moment resistance in absence of axial load (kNm).
m : Equivalent uniform moment factor.
n : Slenderness correction factor.
P
c
: Compression resistance (kN).
p
y
: Design strength of steel (MPa).
CSA S16.1:
C
r
: Factored compression resistance (kN).
C
u
: Ultimate compression force (kN).
Crane Gantry Girder Design 4-68
f
y
: Yield strength (MPa).
M
r
: Factored moment resistance (kNm).
M
u
: Ultimate bending moment (kNm).
U
1
: Capacity factor to account for moment gradient and second-order effects. The
value depends on the bending moment diagram and the member stability.
V
r
: Factored shear resistance (kN).
V
u
: Ultimate shear force moment (kN).

1
: Equivalent uniform bending moment factor.

2
: Moment gradient factor for laterally unsupported members.
SABS 0162 - 1984:
f
'
cr
: 0.6 times the Euler buckling stress (MPa).
f
y
: Yield strength (MPa).
P
c
: Allowable axial compressive stress (MPa).
P
co
: Maximum allowable axial compressive stress (MPa).
P
mc
: Allowable compressive bending stress (MPa).
P
mco
: Maximum allowable compressive bending stress (MPa).

c
: Average axial compressive stress (MPa).

mc
: Maximum compressive bending stress (MPa)
: Coefficient allowing for varying bending moment.
SABS 0162 - 1993:
C
r
: Factored compression resistance (kN).
C
u
: Ultimate compression force (kN).
f
y
: Yield strength (MPa).
M
r
: Factored moment resistance (kNm).
M
u
: Ultimate bending moment (kNm).
U
1
: Capacity factor to account for moment gradient and second-order effects.
V
r
: Factored shear resistance (kN).
V
u
: Ultimate shear force moment (kN).

1
: Equivalent uniform bending moment factor.

2
: Moment gradient factor for laterally unsupported members.
Crane Gantry Girder Design 4-69
Design parameters
Various design parameters need to be set when designing a crane gantry girder:
Effective lengths
The codes give guidelines for determining effective length factors for flexural members:
BS 5950: Refer to clause 4.3.5 guidance on factors to use for members in bending. Refer
to clause 4.7.2 and Appendix D for members in compression.
CSA S16.1: Refer to clauses 9.1 to 9.4 and Annexes B and C.
SABS 0162 - 1984: See clause 7.2.2 for flexural members. Refer to clause 8.2.1 and
Appendix E for compression members.
SABS 0162 - 1993: Same as for CSA S16.1.
Crane Gantry Girder Design 4-70
Input
Design input comprises five categories:
General parameters: Design parameters including general characteristics of the girder, load
factors, support conditions.
Main beam sections: Dimensions and material properties of main beams sections.
Capping beam sections: Dimensions and material properties of optional capping beams.
Spans: Section composition and lengths along the length of the girder.
Crane data: Capacity, weight and dimensions of each crane.
General parameters
Various design parameters, some of which depend on the code used, should be entered.
General design parameters
Spans can be made continuous or simply supported. If this entry is left blank, full
continuity at supports is assumed.
Modulus of elasticity. The entered value is used for all main beam and capping beam
sections.
The rail height is used as eccentricity when applying horizontal crane loads.
The effective length factor for a typical span relates to effective length for lateral torsional
buckling. This will depend on the degree of fixity at the supports and the de-stabilizing
effect of applied loads.
During the analysis each crane is moved step-wise across the beam to determine the force
and deflection envelopes. A larger step can be used for an initial analysis and a smaller
step for the final design. A smaller step size will yield a more accurate analysis and
smoother output diagrams but will result in a longer analysis time.
ULS load factors:
Dead load factor: Factor by which the dead load, i.e. the self-weight of the girder,
bridge and crab, is to be multiplied to obtain the ultimate limit state design load.
Live load factor: Factor by which the live loads are to be multiplied
Combined live load factor: Factor by which both the horizontal and vertical live loads
must be multiplied if they are considered as acting together. This factor is usually
smaller than the normal live load factor.
When designing a girder for two cranes, enter the minimum spacing between the cranes.
Crane Gantry Girder Design 4-71
You can choose to make either end of the girder pinned (simply supported), fixed (built-in)
or free (cantilevered).
Dynamic load factors and deflection limits
By default, the tabled values are set to those given by the selected design code:
Vertical: Amplification factor for vertical loading per wheel, including the effect of
impact.
Horizontal surge: Factor for transverse force due to acceleration and braking of the crab.
The program assumes that surge forces are transmitted via the wheel flanges. The full
effects of such forces are applied perpendicular to the crane track.
Misalignment: For the effects of misalignment of the bridge's wheels or the crane tracks.
The misalignment forces are applied as two equal opposing forces.
Skewing: Allows for skewing of the bridge. Skewing forces are applied as two equal
opposing forces.
L/D vertical: Vertical deflection limit, given as a ration of the span length.
L/D horizontal: Horizontal deflection limit.
Note: The program does not include the effects of horizontal force due to acceleration,
braking or force exerted on end stops.
Design options
Two design approaches are available:
You can choose to evaluate the capacity of entered beam sections to carry the specified
loads.
The main beams and capping beam sections can be optimised to obtain the lightest
sections capable of resisting the design loads.
Main beam sections
Enter the properties for all the main beam sections that will be used in the analysis. You can
read the properties of any standard I, H, square or rectangular hollow section from the
database.
Plate girder and box girder sections can also be used as main beams. The properties for these
should be entered manually. Only fields relevant to the type of section need be completed:
The designation column is optional and is used to describe a section.
For square and rectangular hollow sections only h, b-top and t
f
-top are required.
Crane Gantry Girder Design 4-72
The value for r2 and applies to sections with tapered flanges only.
Each main beam section must be given a unique number for easy reference when defining
the girder.
Capping beams section data
Main beam sections may optionally have channels or flat plates as capping beams. Enter each
section that will be used during the analysis. Standard channels can be read from the database
and flat plates can be defined by entering values for h and b.
Each capping beam section must be given a unique number for easy reference when defining
the girder. Main and capping beam sections are numbered independently. The various sections
are combined when defining the girder geometry.
Spans
The data for a typical span comprises a span number, span length, main beam section number
and, if required, capping beam section number.

Information required for each span:
Crane Gantry Girder Design 4-73
Length : The length of a segment (m). Segment lengths are added to get the total length
of the girder.
Section M : Main beam section number.
Section C : Capping beam section number. Leave blank if no capping beam is used.
Any combination of previously defined main and capping beams may be used. However, you
should take care that the capping beam will correctly fit over the main beam.
Crane data
Enter the loading and dimensional data for the cranes. In the case of a single crane analysis,
simply leave the information for the second crane blank.
Capacity : The rated lifting capacity of crane (T, i.e. 10 kN units).
Class : The crane class designates its type of use:

Class Type of use
1 Light duty and hand operated cranes
2 Medium duty cranes
3 Heavy duty cranes
4 Extra heavy duty cranes

Weight bridge : Weight of the bridge assembly (kN).
Weight crab : Weight of the crab assembly (kN). The crab is defined as the portion that
can move across the bridge.
Tip: If the exact value of the crab weight is not known, a value of 15% of the capacity of the
crane will usually be a reasonable estimate.
Wheel spacing : Spacing between the bridge wheel assemblies (m).
Wheel load : For web buckling and crippling checks, the maximum load that any single
wheel will exert on the girder is required. This value should be obtained
from the manufacturer's technical data.
Crane Gantry Girder Design 4-74
Viewing analysis output
The analysis output is displayed
graphically. To view the detailed
design calculation, select the
Calcsheets page.
You can view the following
results and use the mouse to read
values from the diagrams:
The vertical and horizontal
deflected shape of the crane
gantry girder.
Ultimate limit state bending
moment diagrams about the
X-X (horizontal) and Y-Y
(vertical) axes. Bending
moment diagrams are drawn
on the tension face of the
girder.
Vertical and horizontal
shear force diagrams.
To append a deflection, moment
or shear force diagram to design
results on the Calcsheets page,
first display the diagram and
then click Add to Calcsheets.
Crane Gantry Girder Design 4-75
Calcsheet
The design results of all tasks are grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad.
The design calculations include the following:
Section properties for each combination of main beam and capping beam sections used.
Web buckling and crippling checks for each section.
Design checks for each span, including checks for the critical section and overall member
strength.
The design output shows the complete interaction formulae, with the zero values for axial
force. If required, the output equations can be edited to include bending about the minor axis.
To edit an equation, select it in the calcsheet, right-click it and choose Edit.

Recalling a data file
You can later recall the design by double-clicking the Data File object in Calcpad. Because a
data file is embedded in the calcsheets sent Calcpad and saved as part of a project, you
normally will not need to explicitly save your plate girder input using the Save command on
the File menu as well.
Crane Gantry Girder Design 4-76

Plate Girder Design 4-77
Plate Girder Design
The Plate Girder Design module can be used to design I-shaped welded plate girders. The
program checks the behaviour of girders under specified loading and gives guidance regarding
bearing and intermediate stiffeners.

Plate Girder Design 4-78
Theory and application
A brief background is given below regarding the application of the theory and principles given
by the design codes.
Design scope
Welded plate girders can often be effectively and economically used as flexural sections. Modern
mechanised manufacturing and automated welding techniques have simplified the production of
plate girders greatly, boosting their popularity.
The program is capable is designing I-shaped sections with identical or different top and
bottom flanges. You can also make the section properties vary along the length of the girder to
model a tapered element.
Tapered sections
CSA S16.1 - M89 and SABS 0162 - 1993 do not cover the design of tapered sections. You can
however choose to use the approach given by BS 5950 - 1990 to design tapered elements.
Bi-axial bending moment
Plate girders are normally used to resist high bending moments and/or vertical shear forces.
The program correspondingly assumes that these effects would govern the design and does not
explicitly perform the checks for bi-axial bending moment.
The design output shows the complete interaction formulae, with the zero values for bending
moments about the minor axis. If required, the output formulae can be manually adjusted to
include bending about the minor axis.
Buckling under axial compression
The program assumes that the effect of axial compression is small and therefore uses the full
moment capacity for bending about the major axis. No capacity reduction is made on account
of buckling about the major axis.
Design codes
The program designs plate girders according to the following design codes:
AISC - 1999 LRFD.
BS 5950 - 1990.
BS 5950 - 2000.
CAN/CSA S16.1-94.
CSA S16-01 - 2001.
Plate Girder Design 4-79
SABS 0162 - 1984 (allowable stress design).
SABS 0162 - 1993 (limit state design).
Symbols
Where possible, the same symbols are used as in the design codes. A list is given below.
General design parameters
A : Cross-sectional area (mm
2
).
B
bot
: Width of bottom flange (mm).
B
top
: Width of top flange (mm).
C
w
: Warping torsional constant (mm
4
).
f
yf
: Yield strength of flange (MPa).
f
yw
: Yield strength of web (MPa).
h : Total height of section (mm).
I
x
: Second moment of area about major axis (mm
4
).
I
y
: Second moment of area about minor axis (mm
4
).
J : St. Venant torsional constant (mm
4
).
r
y
: Radius of gyration about minor axis (mm).
T
b
: Bottom flange thickness (mm).
T
t
: Top flange thickness (mm).
T
w
: Web thickness (mm).
Z
cx
: Compression flange section modulus about major axis (mm
3
).
Z
tx
: Tension flange section modulus about major axis (mm
3
).
Z
plx
: Plastic section modulus about major axis (mm
3
).
Z
ply
: Plastic section modulus about minor axis (mm
3
).
Z
y
: Section modulus of entire section about minor axis (mm
3
).
Stresses, forces and related entities
BS 5950:
A
g
: Gross sectional area (mm
2
).
F : Applied axial load (kN).
Plate Girder Design 4-80
M : Applied moment (kNm).
M
a
: Maximum buckling moment in presence of axial load (kNm).
M
b
: Lateral torsional buckling resistance moment (kNm).
M
c
: Moment resistance in absence of axial load (kNm).
m : Equivalent uniform moment factor.
n : Slenderness correction factor.
P
c
: Compression resistance (kN).
p
y
: Design strength of steel (MPa).
CSA S16.1.:
C
r
: Factored compression resistance (kN).
Cu : Ultimate compression force (kN).
Mr : Factored moment resistance (kNm).
Mu : Ultimate bending moment (kNm).
U1 : Capacity factor to account for moment gradient and second-order effects. The
value depends on the bending moment diagram and the member stability.
Vr : Factored shear resistance (kN).
Vu : Ultimate shear force moment (kN).
1 : Equivalent uniform bending moment factor.
2 : Moment gradient factor giving increased moment resistance of laterally
unsupported members.
SABS 0162 - 1984:
f
'
cr
: 0.6 times the Euler buckling stress (MPa).
P
c
: Allowable axial compressive stress (MPa).
P
co
: Maximum allowable axial compressive stress (MPa).
P
mc
: Allowable compressive bending stress (MPa).
P
mco
: Maximum allowable compressive bending stress (MPa).

c
: Average axial compressive stress (MPa).

mc
: Maximum compressive bending stress (MPa)
: Coefficient allowing for varying bending moment.
Plate Girder Design 4-81
SABS 0162 - 1993:
C
r
: Factored compression resistance (kN).
Cu : Ultimate compression force (kN).
Mr : Factored moment resistance (kNm).
Mu : Ultimate bending moment (kNm).
U1 : Capacity factor to account for moment gradient and second-order effects. The
value depends on the bending moment diagram and the member stability.
Vr : Factored shear resistance (kN).
Vu : Ultimate shear force moment (kN).
1 : Equivalent uniform bending moment factor.
2 : Moment gradient factor giving increased moment resistance of laterally
unsupported members.
Design parameters
Various design parameters need to be set when designing a plate girder:
Effective lengths
The effective length of a member depends on the degree of restraint to be expected at each end
of the member. The program assumes that the effect of axial compression is relatively small
and hence uses the full bending capacity for bending about the major axis.
However, the program allows you to specify positions of restraints for lateral torsional
buckling of the compression flange. You can apply a different effective length factor to each
unsupported length, e.g. different factors for a cantilever end and internal continuous lengths.
Guidelines given in the codes include:
BS 5950 - 1990: Refer to clause 4.3.5 guidance on factors to use for members in bending.
Refer to clause 4.7.2 and Appendix D for members in compression.
CSA S16.1 - M89: Refer to clauses 9.1 to 9.4 and Annexes B and C.
SABS 0162 - 1984: See clause 7.2.2 for flexural members. Refer to clause 8.2.1 and
Appendix E for compression members.
SABS 0162 - 1993: Same as for CSA S16.1 - M89.
Plate Girder Design 4-82
Bending moment factors
A flexural member's lateral torsional behaviour is influenced by the shape of its bending
moment diagram. This phenomenon is acknowledged by the design codes through their
introduction of special design factors:
BS 5950-1990: The equivalent uniform moment and slenderness correction factors, m and
n, may not be less than 0.43 and 0.65 respectively.
CSA S16.1 - M89: The equivalent uniform bending moment,
1
, may not be less than 0.4
and the moment gradient factor,
2
, may not be higher than 2.5.
SABS 0162-1984: The values of the coefficient for varying bending moment, , may not
be less than 0.4. For members subjected to sway, should not be taken less than 0.85.
SABS 0162 - 1993: Same as for CSA S16.1 - M89.
The program automatically calculates the above factors and restrict their values to the
minimum and maximum values specified.
Plate Girder Design 4-83
Input
Design input comprises five categories:
General: Design parameters, supports and axial load.
Sections: Dimensions and material properties of section webs and flanges.
Spans: Section variations and lengths along the length of the girder.
Loads: Ultimate loads.
Lateral supports: Compression flange supports.
General parameters
Various design parameters, some of which depend on the code used, should be entered:
The shape of a flexural member's bending moment diagram influences its lateral torsional
stability. The design codes use different design factors to accommodate this phenomenon.
See page 4-82 for more details.
The entered support width is used to calculate local buckling and crushing of the girder's
web at every support.
Specify whether the program should calculate and add the girder's own weight in the
analysis.
You can choose to make either end of the girder pinned (simply supported), fixed (built-in)
or free (cantilevered).
Enter an axial force, with a positive force denoting compression (kN or kip).
Note: Although the program allows you to enter an axial force, it does not check for
buckling under axial load. The effect of axial compression is assumed to be so small as not
to cause a reduction in the moment capacity for bending about the major axis.
Sections
You can define a variety if I-section by entering the dimensions for the web and top and
bottom flanges. If different grades of steel are used for the flanges and web, you should enter
the appropriate yield strengths for each. Each section should be given a unique number for easy
reference when defining the girder.
Plate Girder Design 4-84
Spans
The plate girder is entered as one more continuous
segments. Up to twenty segments may be defined by
entering the following values in the Section Lengths
input table:
Length: The length of a segment (m or ft).
Segment lengths are added to the right hand side
of the girder.
Section Left/Right: Section numbers to be used
at left and right ends of a segment. You can
define a tapered section by specifying different
section numbers for the left and right ends.
Note: CSA S16.1 - M89 and SABS 0162 - 1993 do not cover the design of tapered sections.
When designing such elements, the program gives the option to use the weakest portion of
such elements or to design of them using the approach given by BS 5950 - 1990.
Loads
Applied loads may comprise distributed loads, point loads and moments. Positive forces and
moments are taken to work downward and anti-clockwise respectively:
Wleft : Distributed load intensity (kN/m or kip/ft) applied at the left-hand starting
position of the load. If you do not enter a value, the program will use a value of
zero.
Wright : Distributed load intensity (kN/m or kip/ft) applied on the right-hand ending
position of the load. If you leave this field blank, the value is made equal to
Wleft, i.e. a uniformly distributed load is assumed.
P : Point load (kN or kip).
M : Moment (kNm or kipft).
a : The start position of the distributed load, position of the point load or position
of the moment (m or ft). The distance is measured from the left-hand edge of
the girder. If you leave this field blank, a value of zero is used, i.e. the load is
taken to start at the left-hand edge of the beam.
b : The end position of the distributed load, measured from the start position of the
load (m or ft). Leave this field blank if you want the load to extend up to the
right-hand edge of the girder.
Plate Girder Design 4-85

Note: Applied forces are taken to be design loads at ultimate limit state. For allowable stress
design according to SABS 0162 - 1984, you should enter working loads.
Lateral supports
Specify the positions of lateral support by entering the unsupported lengths. A unique effective
length factor can also be entered for each length. Refer to page 4-69 for more details.
Note: The program always draws the specified lateral supports on the top flange. During the
analysis, however, these positions are taken to define lateral supports of the compression
flange, whether it is the top or bottom flange that is actually in compression.

Plate Girder Design 4-86
Viewing analysis output
The analysis output can be viewed graphically. To view the detailed design calculation, select
the Calcsheets page.
You can view the following results and use the mouse to read values from the diagrams:
The deflected shape of the
plate girder.
Ultimate limit state bending
moment diagram. The
bending moment diagram is
drawn on the tension face of
the girder.
Ultimate limit state shear
force diagrams.
Bending stresses at ultimate
limit state. The critical
stresses is shown in red.
The shear stresses at
ultimate limit state together
with the shear capacity for
various web stiffener
spacings. The actual stresses
are shown in red and the
shear capacities in blue.
Plate Girder Design 4-87
Calcsheet
The design results of all tasks are grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad.
The calcsheets include a Data File for easy recalling of the analysis from Calcpad.

The design output shows the complete interaction formulae, with the zero values for bending
moments about the minor axis. If required, the output equations can be edited to include
bending about the minor axis. To edit an equation, select it in the calcsheet, right-click it and
choose Edit.
Recalling a data file
You can later recall the design by double-clicking the Data File object in Calcpad. Because a
data file is embedded in the calcsheets sent Calcpad and saved as part of a project, you
normally will not need to explicitly save your plate girder input using the Save command on
the File menu as well.
Plate Girder Design 4-88




Steel Connection Design 5-1
Chapter
5
Steel Connection Design
The steel connection design modules can be used for design of common welded and bolted
steel connection.

Steel Connection Design 5-2
Quick Reference
Steel Connection Design using PROKON 5-3
Base Plate Design 5-5
Moment Connection Design 5-15
Hollow Section Connection Design 5-25
Shear Connection Design 5-33
Simple Connection Design 5-45

Steel Connection Design using PROKON 5-3
Steel Connection Design using
PROKON

The PROKON suite includes several design modules for typical steel connections.
Shear connections
Bolt groups and weld groups can be designed for eccentric in-plane shear.
Moment connections
The following types of moment transmitting connections can be designed:
- Stiffened and unstiffened column base plates.
- Bolted and welded beam-column connections with or without haunches.
- Bolted or welded apex connections with or without haunches.
Axial force connections
Welded hollow section connections can be designed for typical trusses, included triangulated
space trusses.
Simple connections
Simple beam to column connections that do not transmit moments:
- Web angle cleat connections.
- Flexible end plate connections.
- Fin plate connections.


Steel Connection Design using PROKON 5-4

Base Plate Design 5-5
Base Plate Design
The Base Plate Design module designs column base plates subjected to axial force and
bi-axial moment. Both stiffened or unstiffened base plates can be designed. Base plates can
bear on concrete or grout or can be supported on studs. Detailed drawings can be generated for
editing and printing using the PROKON Drawing and Detailing System, Padds.

Base Plate Design 5-6
Theory and application
A brief discussion of the application of the theory is given below.
Design scope and assumptions
The program can analyse column base plates that carry axial force and bi-axial moment. The
following assumptions are made:
- The effective applied column force and moment is applied to the base plate as a point load
in the flanges and a uniform distributed load in the webs of the approximated section.
- The application of the axial force as uniform distributed load in the webs serves as a
mechanism to model the stiffening effect of the webs on the base plate.
- The case of bi-axial bending is simplified by transforming the moments to an effective
design moment about one axis. Given the interaction between the base plate and the
concrete bearing surface, the clauses of the concrete design codes for bi-axially bent
concrete columns are deemed reasonable for this purpose.
- The base plate is analysed as a beam on an elastic support. The resulting concrete bearing
stresses or stud forces are applied to the base plate during its analysis.
- Unstiffened base plates are analysed using elastic theory. A rectangular perimeter that
encloses the column cross-section is considered and the bending stress in the base plate
evaluated on each of its four sides. The required base plate thickness is calculated by
limiting the bending stress on each of the lines that extend from edge to edge and passing
over a side of the rectangle.
- Stiffened base plates are analysed using yield line theory. Since this is an upper bound
method, allowable stresses are reduced by 20%.
- The interaction between the base plate and supporting concrete or grout layer is taken in
accordance with the relevant code. When using BS 5950 - 1990, for example, the parabolic
stress-strain relationship given in BS 8110 - 1997 is used. Similarly, the parabolic
relationship given by SABS 0100 - 1992 is used when designing the base plate using
SABS 0162 - 1993 and CSA A23.3 M89 for CSA S16.1 - 1989. In the case of allowable
stress design to SAB 0162 - 1984, a linear stress-strain relationship is assumed.
Base Plate Design 5-7
Design codes
The program designs axially loaded steel members according to the following design codes:
- BS 5950 - 1990.
- SABS 0162 - 1984 (allowable stress design).
- SABS 0162 - 1993 (limit state design).
Symbols
Where possible, the same symbols are used as in the design codes:
General design parameters
a
1
: Distance from the left edge of the base plate to the centre line of the
bolts (mm).
a
2
: Distance from the right edge of the base plate to the centre line of the
bolts (mm).
a
3
: Distance from the bottom edge of base plate, as shown on the screen, to the
centre line of the bolts (mm).
a
4
: Distance from the top edge of base plate, as shown on the screen, to the centre
line of the bolts (mm)
b
g
: Bolt grade, e.g. 4.8.
B : Width of the column flange (mm).
D : Overall depth of the column (mm).
f
cu
: Cube strength of bedding concrete or grout (MPa).
L : Length of the base plate (mm).
L
1
: Distance from the left edge of the base plate to the column flange (mm).
Studs : Enter 'Y' if the bolts are used as studs, i.e. the base plate transmits all tension
and compressions forces to the bolts. Enter 'N' to transmit compression forces
to the bedding concrete or grout.
W : Width of the base plate (mm).
W
1
: Distance from the top edge of the base plate, as shown on the screen, to the
corner of the column flange (mm).
Stresses, forces and related entities
C : Design compression force in the connection (kN).
Base Plate Design 5-8
T : Design tensile force in the connection (kN).
BS 5950-1990:
P
u
: Ultimate design axial force in the column (kN). A positive value is taken as a
downward force and negative value as an uplift force.
M
ux
: Ultimate design column moment applied about the X-axis (kNm).
M
ux
: Ultimate design column moment applied about the Y-axis (kNm).
Y
s
: Yield strength of steel (MPa).
U
s
: Ultimate strength of weld (MPa).
SABS 0162 - 1984:
P : Working design axial force in the column (kN). A positive value is taken as a
downward force and negative value as an uplift force.
M
x
: Working design column moment about the X-axis (kNm).
M
y
: Working design column moment about the Y-axis (kNm).
f
y
: Yield strength of steel (MPa).
f
w
: Strength of weld (MPa).
CSA S16.1 - M89 and SABS 0162 - 1993:
P
u
: Ultimate design axial force in the column (kN). A positive value is taken as a
downward force and negative value as an uplift force.
Mux : Ultimate design column moment applied about the X-axis (kNm).
Mux : Ultimate design column moment applied about the Y-axis (kNm).
fy : Yield strength of steel (MPa).
fuw : Ultimate strength of weld (MPa).
Base Plate Design 5-9
Input
Define the beam and column connection geometry by entering the relevant information in the
input table.

Column dimensions
To read a column section from the section database, select the section type and choose a
profile. For non-standard sections such as plate girders, you can enter the relevant dimensions.
Tip: To move the column to the centre of the base plate, use the Centralise Column
function.
Forces acting on the connection
Enter the forces transmitted from the column to the base plate using the sign conventions given
in the list of symbols. The entered forces are multiplied by the entered load factors to obtain
the design forces.
Base Plate Design 5-10
Special configurations
You can model some special configurations:
- The bolts can be moved inside the column flanges by sufficiently increasing the values of
a
1
and a
2
.
- Use a negative column load to model an uplift force.
- The input table allows you to change the bolts to studs, i.e. transfer the column loads in the
bolts rather than support the plate on the bedding concrete.
Base Plate Design 5-11
Design
The base plate connection is designed twice, with and without plate stiffeners.

Calculation of design forces acting on the connection
The entered column moments are converted to an effective moment about one axis. The
moment and axial force is then applied to the base plate via the column flanges. For a design
moment about the X-axis, a point load is applied at each of the two column flanges. If the
design moment works about the Y-axis, a trapezium-shaped distributed force is applied over
the width of the flanges.
Analysis of the base plate
In the case of the base plate bearing on concrete or grout, the plate is analysed as a beam on
elastic foundation. The resulting bearing stresses are then used to calculate the moment in the
base plate and the base plate thickness. This approach is slightly conservative due to stiffening
effect of the column web being neglected.
Base Plate Design 5-12
The unstiffened base plate thickness is calculated using normal elastic theory. For a stiffened
base plate, however, the required plate thickness is determined using yield line theory. If
tensile forces are dominant, the number of bolts used also influences the plate thickness.
Analysis of the bolts
In the case of the base plate bearing on the concrete or grout, the bolts are designed to resist
tensile forces only. For the case where the bolts are used as studs, the bolts are designed to
resist the full compressions and tension forces. It is then assumed that there is no bearing stress
on the concrete or grout.
Base Plate Design 5-13
Calcsheets
The base plate connection design output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending
to Calcpad. Various settings can be made with regards to the inclusion of design results and
pictures.

Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
Recalling a data file
If you enable the Data File option before sending a calcsheet to Calcpad, you can later recall it
by double-clicking the relevant object in Calcpad. A data file embedded in Calcpad is saved
as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the connection design module as
well.
Base Plate Design 5-14
Drawing
Detailed drawings can be generated for designed connections. Drawings can be edited and
printed using Padds.
Generating a drawing
Based on your initial input and the design results, initial values are chosen for the dimensions.
Change the values to suite your special requirements.
Required information:
- Drawing file name: Name of
the Padds drawing file.
- Drawing scale to use.
- Connection properties:
- Plate thickness.
- Stiffener size.
- Weld sizes.
- Bolt and hole sizes and
quantities.
Press Generate to create a
Padds drawing with the entered
settings.

Moment Connection Design 5-15
Moment Connection Design
The moment connection design modules are suitable for the design of the following
connections:
- Beam-column connection, BeamCol: Beam connected to the flange of a column.
- Apex connection, Apex: Symmetrical beam apex with end plates.
The connections incorporate beams and columns made of I and H-sections.

Moment Connection Design 5-16
Theory and application
The following text gives a brief background of the application of the design codes.
Design scope
The moment connection design modules can analyse connections that transmit shear, moment
and axial force. Only forces in the plane of the connection are considered, i.e. vertical shear,
axial compression or tension and in-plane moment. The connections may be bolted or welded.
The following assumptions are made:
- The centre lines of the connecting beams or beam and column are in the same plane.
- All bolt holes are normal clearance holes.
- Bolts have threads in their shear plane.
- Connections are deep enough for each sections flanges to resist the prevailing
compressive and tensile forces.
- Compressive forces in the flanges and stiffeners are transmitted through the welds and not
through bearing.
The following additional assumptions apply to BeamCol:
- Any axial force in the column is ignored.
- Longitudinal and transverse welds in the web plates are full size butt welds.
Codes of practice
The following codes are supported:
- AISC - 1993 LRFD.
- BS5950 - 1990.
- BS5950 - 2000.
- CAN/CSA S16.1-94.
- Eurocode 3 - 1992.
- IS:800 - 2007.
- SABS0162 - 1984 (allowable stress design).
- SABS0162 - 1993.
- SANS 10162 - 2005.
Moment Connection Design 5-17
Units of measurement
Both Metric and Imperial units of measurement are supported.
Sign conventions
Design loads are the forces transmitted by the right-hand side beam onto the connection:
- A positive axial force is taken as a compression force.
- A positive moment corresponds to a tensile force in the top flange of the beam.
- Downward shear is taken as positive.
Tip: Positive loads on the connection correspond to the directions of forces in a typical
single bay portal frame subjected to dead and live load.
List of symbols
Where possible the same symbols are used as in the design codes. The meanings of the
symbols are clear from their use in the design output.
Analysis of bolted moments connections
When moments are transferred by bolted connections the bolts are loaded in tension (and
shear). The programs allow you to use an elastic or plastic method of analysis for determining
the bolt forces:
- With an elastic analysis, the bolt furthest from the compression flange will have the largest
tensile force. Forces load will reduce linearly in bolts closer to the compression flange.
- In the case of a plastic analysis, all the bolts have the same force.
Prying action
In moment connection, prying action can be prevalent. The prying forces and method of failure
depend on the layout of the design, the thickness of the plate or flange in question and the
strength of the bolts.
A yield line analysis method is used to calculate three resistance values for each relevant
portion of the connection:
- Plate yielding at the web and the bolts.
- Plate yielding at the web and bolt failure.
- Bolt failure only.
The smallest of the three resistance values is taken to be the ultimate resistance.
Moment Connection Design 5-18
Input
The moment connection design modules use a similar procedure for data entry:
- Members: Set the connection type and properties of the beams or beam and column.
- Setting: Select the connection type and main design parameters.
- Loads: Enter the loads applied to the connection.
Members
Define the type of connection and the design parameters:
- Define the connection type by selecting an end plate configuration, e.g. no end plate, end
plate flush at the top and bottom of the beam or extending at the tope and/or bottom.
- Beam and column designations.
- Inclination of the beam.
- Haunch depth and length. If either value is zero, no haunch is used.
Settings
Use Settings to set the bolt, weld and member material properties:
- Select between elastic and plastic
analysis of bolts in tension. The
analysis mode determines the
distribution of the bolt forces. See
page 5-17 for detail.
- Enter a bolt type, grade and
diameter. For high strength
friction grip bolts, additional
information needs to be supplied
with regards to the analysis
method.
- Enter the strength properties of the
beam, column and connection
members.
- Specify the weld strength.
Note: If you need to modify the available bolt grades or bolt sizes, edit the General
Preferences from the Settings menu in Calcpad.
Moment Connection Design 5-19
Loads
Enter any number of load cases. For each load case:
- Use a maximum of six characters to enter a descriptive load case name or load case
number, e.g. 'Dead', 'DL + LL' or '1'.
- Specify the axial force, shear force and moment that the right-hand side beam exerts on the
connection.
- The SLS factor is divided into the entered ULS loads to obtain service loads.
Note: All entered loads should be ULS loads. The corresponding SLS loads are obtained by
dividing the entered ULS loads by the SLS factor. The SLS factor should thus be set equal
to the relevant ULS load factor divided by the SLS load factor.
Moment Connection Design 5-20
Design
The design table lists all variable dimensions and parameters of the connection. A value for
any property in the table can be calculated using the Optimise function. You can also
selectively fix values for any individual properties to suite your preferences:
- Select values for all properties that should have specific values. To obtain a specific bolt
layout, for example, enter preferred values for the bolt offsets.
- Set the values of all other properties to "Optimise".
- Click Optimise to calculate values for the latter.


Tip: For a table summarising the design results, go to the Calcsheet page.
Moment Connection Design 5-21
After optimisation, you should evaluate each of the values calculated by the program. You are
then free to refine the results by selectively entering more appropriate values. After adjusting
some values, you may wish to optimise some of the other values again.
Note: Several valid design solutions are possible for any particular connection. The
optimised results calculated by the programs should be regarded as one such solution.
Moment Connection Design 5-22
Calcsheet
Open the Calcsheet page to view the detailed design calculation. The information on the can
be printed or sending to Calcpad. Various settings can be made to include input data, tabular
design summaries and the complete design calculations.

Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
Recalling a data file
The Data File can be included when sending a calcsheet to Calcpad. You can later recall the
data file by double-clicking the relevant object in Calcpad. A data file embedded in Calcpad
is saved as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the connection design
module as well.
Moment Connection Design 5-23
Drawing
Detailed drawings can be generated for designed connections. Drawings can be edited and
printed using Padds.

Printing or saving a drawing
A drawing is displayed using the dimensions of the final design. To save or print the drawing
to disk, use the buttons next to picture. Drawings can be saved a variety of formats, including
Padds and DXF formats.
Moment Connection Design 5-24

Hollow Section Connection Design 5-25
Hollow Section Connection
Design
The Hollow Section Connection Design module does a complete design of welded structural
hollow section connections. The connecting members may transmit axial force and can be
circular, square or rectangular hollow sections. I-sections and H-sections can also be used for
the main chord.

Hollow Section Connection Design 5-26
Theory and application
The program designs structural hollow section connections that transmit axial forces. Various
connection layouts can be designed. These include K, T, N, X, and Y joints and combinations
thereof.
Design codes
The program designs according to recommendations given in Annex K of Eurocode 3 - 1992.
Symbols
Where possible, the same symbols and sign conventions are used as in the design codes:
Section dimensions
b
i
: Width of a section (mm or inches).
h
i
: Height of a section (mm or inches).
h
w
: Web height of an I-section or H-section (mm or inches).
i : Section number. The main chord is identified by i = 0 and the left, right and
centre chords by i = 1 to 3 respectively.
r
o
: Radius between the web and flange of an I-section or H-section (mm or
inches).
t
i
: Thickness of a section, i.e. wall thickness of a hollow section or flange
thickness of an I-section or H-section (mm or inches).
t
w
: Web thickness of an I-section or H-section (mm or inches).
Joint geometry
g : The clear gap between bracing as measured member on the chord surface (mm
or inches). A negative value denotes an overlap.
Symmetry : Enter 'Y' to make an X-joint symmetric, i.e. mirrored about the main chord. If
you enter 'N', bracing members continue along their axes to the other side of
the main chord.
X-joint : Enter 'Y' to put bracing elements on both sides of the main chord, i.e. an X-
joint. This option can only be used in combination with K, N and T joints
where a circular hollow section is used as the main chord. Enter 'N' for bracing
members on one side of the main chord only.
Hollow Section Connection Design 5-27
| : Out-of-plane separation angle between two sets of bracing members (). The
angle must lie between 60 and 90. This option is useful when modelling
joints in triangulated trusses. If this option is used, all setting relating to
X-joints are ignored. Leave this field blank if you do not want to use this
option. The option can only be enabled when a circular hollow section is used
as main chord.
u
1
: Angle between the main chord and the left bracing member (). The angle must
be between 30 and 90.
u
2
: Angle between the main chord and the right bracing member (). The angle
must be between 30 and 90.
u3 : Angle between the main chord and the centre bracing member (). The angle
must be between 30 and 150. The angle must also by greater than u
1
and
smaller than (180 - u
3
).
Forces and stresses
E
s
: Modules of elasticity of steel (GPa or Mpsi).
f
y
: Yield strength of main chord or bracing members (MPa or ksi).
N
0
: Ultimate axial force in the main chord (kN or kip). A positive value denotes a
compression force.
N
1
: Ultimate axial force in the left bracing member (kN or kip). A positive value
denotes a compression force.
N
2
: Ultimate axial force in the right bracing member (kN or kip). A positive value
denotes a compression force.
N
3
: Ultimate axial force in the centre bracing member (kN or kip). A positive value
denotes a tensile force.
Units of measurement
Both Metric and Imperial units of measurement are supported. When changing from one
system of units to another, the program automatically converts all input data.
Hollow Section Connection Design 5-28
Input
The definition of the connection requires you to enter geometrical and loading data.
Chord and bracing sections
Click Section Database to read a chord or bracing section from the section database. The main
chord can be an I-section, H-section or a circular, square or rectangular hollow section. You
can use circular, square or rectangular hollow sections as bracing members.
The following general guidelines apply when defining bracing members:
- You should define at least one bracing member.
- A single bracing member should be entered as either the left or right bracing member.
- The centre bracing member can be defined only after defining both the left and right
bracing members.
- X-joints can be defined only if the main chord is a circular hollow section.
- X-joints can be made symmetric by enabling the relevant option in the table.
- A separation angle for a 3D joint can only be used if the main chord is a circular hollow
section.
Tip: Use the 3D rendering option to view and rotate the connection in 3D.
Hollow Section Connection Design 5-29

Forces acting on the connection
Enter the forces in each member using the sign conventions displayed in the picture. With the
exception of the right bracing member, positive forces work in compression towards the centre
of the connection.

Hollow Section Connection Design 5-30
Design
The design checks are performed as prescribed in the code, including the following:
- Geometrical evaluation of the connection to ensure compliance with the design codes.
- Checking the main chord for plastification.
- Checking punching shear of the main chord.
- Design of welds.
Hollow Section Connection Design 5-31
Calcsheet
The connection design output is given on a calcsheet. You can choose to print the information
immediately or rather send it to Calcpad.

Tip: The Data File embedded in the calcsheet can be used for easy recalling of the design
from Calcpad.
Recalling a data file
The Data File is automatically included when sending a calcsheet to Calcpad. You can later
recall the data file by double-clicking the relevant object in Calcpad. A data file embedded in
Calcpad is saved as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the connection
design module as well.
Hollow Section Connection Design 5-32
Shear Connection Design 5-33
Shear Connection Design
The shear connection design modules are suitable for the design of the following connections:
- Bolt Group Design, Boltgr: Eccentrically loaded bolt groups.
- Weld Group Design, Weldgr: Eccentrically loaded weld groups.

Shear Connection Design 5-34
Theory and application
When a bolt group or weld group is loaded in its plane and the load does not work through the
centroid of the group, additional shear forces are caused in the bolts or welds. The shear
connection design modules calculate the maximum resistance of bolt and weld groups.
The modules also determine the smallest bolt or weld size that can be used to resist an in-plane
force with arbitrary orientation. In the case of bolt groups, both the cases of single and double
shear can be considered.
The groups are analysed using either linear or non-linear strength relationships.
Design codes
The programs support the following design codes:
- AISC - 1999 LRFD.
- BS 5950 - 1990.
- BS 5950 - 2000.
- CAN/CSA S16.1 - 94.
- Eurocode 3 - 1992.
- IS:800 - 2007.
- SABS 0162 - 1984 (allowable stress design).
- SABS 0162 - 1993.
Symbols
Where possible, the same symbols are used as in the design codes:
Bolt group geometry
d : Bolt Size.
a
1
: Horizontal bolt spacing
a
2
: Vertical bolt spacing
nr : Number of rows of bolts in the group.
nc : Number of columns.
Shear Connection Design 5-35
Material properties
f
u
: Ultimate strength of steel or weld.
f
y
: Yield strength of steel.
Applied loads
F : Force.
x : Force horizontal eccentricity
y : Force vertical eccentricity
| : Force angle
Units of measurement
Both Metric and Imperial units of measurement are supported. In addition, you can also choose
between units within the selected system, e.g. between mm and cm.
Analysis principles
The program designs bolt groups and fillet weld groups subjected to eccentric shear using
either linear or non-linear strength relationships.
Linear analysis
Eccentrically loaded fastener groups are usually analysed by considering the group areas as an
elastic cross-section subjected to direct shear and torsion. Assuming elastic behaviour, the
group's centre of rotation is taken as the group's centroid. The deformation of each fastener is
then assumed proportional to its distance from the assumed centre of rotation.
The elastic method has been popular because of its simplicity and has been found conservative.
Salmon and Johnson
1
quotes the ratio between actual strength and service loads to be in the
range of 2.5 to 3.0.
Non-linear analysis
The non-linear method, also called plastic analysis or instantaneous centre of rotation method,
assumes that the eccentric load causes a rotation as well as a translation effect on the fastener
group. The translation and rotation is reduced to a pure rotation about a point defined as the
instantaneous centre of rotation.

1
C. G. Salmon and J. E. Johnson, "Steel Structures, Design and Behaviour", Third Edition
(1990), Harper Collins Publishers.
Shear Connection Design 5-36
Similar to the linear method, the deformation of each fastener is taken proportional to its
distance from the instantaneous centre of rotation. The load in each fastener is however
determined using the non-linear strength expression proposed by Fisher
2
and used by
Crawford and Kulak
3
:
( )
55 . 0
10
1
A
= e R R
ult i

The relationship assumes a bearing-type connection and ignores slip. The coefficients 10 and
0.55 were experimentally determined. For the given experimental setup, the maximum
deformation, A, at failure was about 0.34 inches (8.6 mm).
Salmon and Johnson
1
conclude that the plastic analysis method is the most rational approach
to obtain the strength of eccentric shear connections.
Application of the non-linear strength relationship
For the purpose of its application
in the connection design
modules, the strength relationship
has been normalised and
rewritten:
( )
55 . 0
4 . 3
1 018 . 1
A
= e R
norm

The capacity of a fastener group
is governed by the yield of the
fastener furthest from the
instantaneous centre of rotation.
Taking the deformation at that
point as unity, the normalised
deformations for the other
fasteners are determined using
linear variance. The force of each
fastener is calculated using the
strength relationship.

2
J. W. Fisher, "Behaviour of Fasteners and Plates with Holes", Journal of the Structural
Division, ASCE, 91, STD6 (December 1965).
3
S. F. Crawford and G. L. Kulak, "Eccentrically Loaded Bolted Connections", Journal of the
Structural Division, ASCE, 97, ST3 (March 1971).

Shear Connection Design 5-37
Non-linear analysis of weld groups
Although the load-deformations characteristics of fillet welds depend on the direction of
loading, current design codes generally use a lower bound approach based on the longitudinal
strength, irrespective the actual loading direction. An expression developed by Lesik and
Kennedy
4
can be used to determine the ultimate strength of fillet welds loaded in any
direction.
Assuming that the resistance for compression and tension-induced shear is the same, the
resistance of a weld element for the calculated angle of loading is given by:
( ) ( ) 0 . 1 sin 5 . 0
5 . 1
+ = u
u u
R R
where
R
u

= Ultimate strength of a fillet weld loaded with longitudinal shear
R
u
= Resistance of a fillet weld when the loading angle equals u.
The relationship was determined empirically and implies the resistance in a weld element will
vary between 1.0R
u
for longitudinal shear and 1.5R
u
for transverse shear.
Application of non-linear method
The program divides the weld group into a discrete number of finite weld elements. When
performing a non-linear analysis, the instantaneous centre of rotation is determined through
iteration. The following criteria are used:
- The Lesik and Kenedy equation is used to determine the resistance of each weld element
for the relevant load direction.
- The deformation in an element is taken to vary linearly with the distance from the
instantaneous centre of rotation. At ultimate limit state, the element furthest from the
centre of rotation is assumed to experience the maximum deformation.
- The ultimate resistance of each element for longitudinal shear is determined using the
non-linear strength relationship explained above.


4
D. F. Lesik and D. J. L. Kennedy, "Ultimate Strength of Eccentrically Loaded Fillet Welded
Connections", Structural Engineering Report 159, Department of Civil Engineering, University
of Alberta
Shear Connection Design 5-38
Input
The definition of bolt groups and weld groups follow the same basic pattern. However, the
geometry of weld groups is entered using a slightly more complex method of polygon
definition.
Defining bolt groups
A bolt group analysis requires the following input:
- Analysis method.
- Number of shear planes, i.e. single or double shear.
- Number of rows and columns of bolts.
- Horizontal and vertical spacing of the bolts.
- Applied force, its orientation and offsets.
Defining weld groups
A weld group definition has the following components:
- Analysis method.
- Material strengths.
- In-plane force, angle and offsets.
- Weld geometry.
The weld group input table
A weld group's geometry is defined by entering one or more shapes in the input table. A shape
may comprise straight lines and arcs or may be a circle. When more than one shape is entered,
the shapes will accumulate and form one weld group.
To be able to enter a weld, you should understand the use of the input table:
- The Code column is used for categorise the data that follows in the next columns:
'+' : The start of a new weld. An absolute reference coordinate must be entered in
the X/Radius and Y/Angle columns.
Blank : Indicates a line drawn with relative coordinates.
'L' : Indicates a line drawn using polar coordinates.
Shear Connection Design 5-39
'A' : An arc that continues from the last line or arc. The arc radius and angle are
entered in the X/Radius and Y/Angle columns respectively. The angle is
measured anti-clockwise from the previous line or arc end point.
'B' : Sets the bearing, or starting angle, for the next entity, likely an arc.
'C' : A circle with the radius entered in the X/Radius column.
Note: If the Code column is left blank, relative coordinates are used.

- The X/Radius and Y/Angle columns are used for entering coordinates, radii and angles:
X : Absolute or relative X-coordinate. Values are taken positive to the right and
negative to the left.
Radius : Radius of a circle or an arc.
Y : Absolute or relative Y coordinate. Values are taken positive upward and
negative downward.
Angle : Angle that an arc is extending through.
Note: If the X/Radius or Y/Angle column is left blank, a zero value is used.
Shear Connection Design 5-40
Weld group definition
The definition of each portion of a weld group has three basic components:
- A reference coordinate which gives the starting point of a weld or the centre of a circle. In
the Code column, enter a '+' to indicate the start of a new weld.
- One or more entries defining the weld's coordinates of lines and arcs or a circles radius.:
- Enter the absolute values of the reference coordinate in the X/Radius and Y/Angle
columns.
- If the Code column is left blank, the coordinate is taken relative from the last point
entered.
- Set the Code to '+' if you want to enter an absolute coordinate.
- The coordinate values are entered in the X/Radius and Y/Angle columns. A negative
X or Y coordinate must be preceded by a minus sign. The plus sign before a positive
X or Y coordinate is optional.
- A circular arc is defined by setting the Code to 'A' and entering the radius in the
X/Radius column. The arc is then taken to extend from the end point of the last line
or arc, starting at the angle that the previous line or arc ended and extending through
the angle specified in the Y/Angle column. To set the bearing, or starting angle, of an
arc use a 'B' in the Code column followed by the angle in the Y/Angle column.
- Define a circle by setting the centre point using the Code '+' described above. On the
next line enter the Code to 'C' and the radius in the X/Radius column.
- The weld size.
Weld generation
Click the 'standard' shapes for
quick generation of welds.
Enter the required dimensions
and orientation angle. Press
Add to input to append the
shape to the bottom of the
table. The default values of X,
Y and are set to the ending
values of the last weld
segment.
Shear Connection Design 5-41
Design
Shear distribution in bolt groups and weld groups are calculated in similar ways:
Calculation of design shear forces in bolt groups
A simple procedure is followed during linear analysis:
- The applied force causes an equal force in each of the bolts parallel to the force.
- The rotational shear force in each bolt is taken proportional to the distance to the centroid.

Non-linear analysis requires an iterative procedure:
- An arbitrary rotational centre is chosen.
- The strain of each bolt is proportional to its distance from the centre.
- The force on each bolt is calculated assuming the non-linear strength model explained
form page 5-35.
Shear Connection Design 5-42
- Equilibrium of external and internal forces is considered and the rotational centre adjusted.
- This procedure is repeated until convergence is achieved.
Calculation of design shear stresses in weld groups
Assuming linear variation, rotational shear stresses in a weld group is calculated as follows:
- The centroid of the weld group is calculated.
- The rotational shear force in each segment of a weld is taken proportional to its distance
from the centroid.
Non-linear analysis requires an iterative procedure:
- An arbitrary rotational centre is chosen.
- The strain in each segment of the weld is taken proportional to its distance from the centre
of rotation.
- The force on each segment is calculated assuming the non-linear strength relationship
explained from page 5-35.
- External and internal forces are compared and the centre of rotation adjusted to improve
equilibrium.
- This procedure is repeated until convergence is achieved.
Shear Connection Design 5-43
Calcsheet
The connection design output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to
Calcpad. Various settings can be made to include input data, tabular design summaries etc.

Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
Recalling a data file
The Data File is automatically included when sending a calcsheet to Calcpad. You can later
recall the data file by double-clicking the relevant object in Calcpad. A data file embedded in
Calcpad is saved as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the connection
design module as well.
Shear Connection Design 5-44

Simple Connection Design 5-45
Simple Connection Design
The simple connection design modules are suitable for the design of the following connections:
- Double Angle Cleat Connection Design, Cleat: Web cleat connections.
- End Plate Connection Design, Endplate: Flexible end plate connections.
- Fin Plate Connection Design, Finplate: Fin plate connections.

Simple Connection Design 5-46
Theory and application
The following text gives a brief background of the application of the design codes.
Design scope
The simple connection design modules can analyse connections that transmit end shear and
axial force only. A designed connection has negligible resistance to rotation and is thus
incapable of transmitting significant moments at ultimate limit state.
The following assumptions are made:
- The centre lines of the beam and column are in the same plane.
- The connection transmits end shear only.
- Bolts have normal clearance holes.
- All bolts have threads in their shear planes.
Codes of practice
The following codes are supported:
- AISC - 1993 LRFD.
- BS5950 - 1990.
- BS5950 - 2000.
- CAN/CSA S16.1 - 94.
- Eurocode 3 - 1992.
- IS:800 - 2007.
- SABS0162 - 1984 (allowable stress design).
- SABS0162 - 1993 (limit state design).
Units of measurement
Both Metric and Imperial units of measurement are supported.
Simple Connection Design 5-47
Sign conventions
All applied shear forces are entered as loads in the beams local axes:
- A positive axial force is taken as a compression force.
- A downward shear force is taken as positive.
List of symbols
Where possible the same symbols are used as in the design codes. The meaning of the symbols
should be clear from their use in the design output.
Analysis of bolts in shear
Bolt groups in shear can be analysed using a linear or non-linear strength relationship. Refer to
page 5-35 for a detailed explanation of the analysis methods.

Simple Connection Design 5-48
Input
The simple connection design modules use a similar procedure for data entry:
- Settings: Select the connection type and main design parameters.
- Members: Specify the properties for the beam and column.
- Connection: Define the layout of the fasteners.
- Loads: Enter the loads applied to the connection.
Members
Define the connection orientation and profile to use for each member:
- Select a connection type by clicking the Member orientation buttons.
- The column and the beam can be set to I or H-sections.
- The definition of the connecting member depends on the type of connection:
- Double angle cleat connection: Select an angle section and enter the cleat length.
- Fin plate and end plate connections: Enter a plate height, width and thickness.
- Define the relative element positions by entering the spacing between the column and
beam and the vertical position of the cleat or connecting plate.
Tip: Click the Auto size and Auto spacing buttons for quick input of workable dimensions.
Design parameters
Select the connection shear
analysis method and define the
fastener and member material
properties:
- Select between linear and
non-linear analysis of bolts
in shear. For a detailed
explanation of the analysis
methods, refer to page 5-35.
- Enter a bolt type, grade and
diameter. For high strength
friction grip bolts, additio-
nal information needs to be
Simple Connection Design 5-49
supplied with regards to the analysis method.
- Enter the strength properties of the beam, column and connection members.
Connections
The layout of the bolts on the
connecting member is defined
by entering their number and
spacing.
In the case of angle cleats, the
connections to the beam and
column are defined indepen-
dently.
Tip: Click the Auto size and
Auto spacing buttons to
quickly input a workable bolt
layout.

View connection
To verify that you have defined
the connection geometry as you
intended, you can view it from
several angles:
- Dimensioned elevations are
an easy way to check bolt
spacings and the spacing
between the members.
- Use the 3D view to verify
the overall layout and check
that bolts are far enough
from webs and flanges. You
can rotate a 3D view and
use the View point and
View plane controls as
described in Chapter 2.
Simple Connection Design 5-50
Loads
Enter any number of load cases. For each load case:
- Use a maximum of six
characters to enter a
descriptive load case name
or load case number, e.g.
'Dead', 'DL + LL' or '1'.
- Specify the end shear forces
by entering the axial force
and shear force in the beam.
- When designing high
strength friction grip bolts at
serviceability limit state,
also enter the relevant
service loads.
Simple Connection Design 5-51
Calcsheet
Open the Calcsheet page to design the connection. The design output is grouped on a calcsheet
for printing or sending to Calcpad. Various settings can be made to include input data, tabular
design summaries and the complete design calculations.
To view the individual bolt forces, open the Bolt forces page.

Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
Recalling a data file
The Data File can be included when sending a calcsheet to Calcpad. You can later recall the
data file by double-clicking the relevant object in Calcpad. A data file embedded in Calcpad
is saved as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the connection design
module as well.


Simple Connection Design 5-52

Concrete Design 6-1
Chapter
6
Concrete Design
The concrete design modules can be used for the design of reinforced and pre-stressed concrete
beams and slabs, columns, column bases and retaining walls.

Concrete Design 6-2
Quick Reference
Concrete Design using PROKON 6-3
Continuous Beam and Slab Design 6-5
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-41
Finite Element Slab Analysis 6-97
Rectangular Slab Panel Design 6-125
Column Design 6-137
Retaining Wall Design 6-155
Column Base Design 6-171
Section Design for Crack width 6-185
Concrete Section Design 6-193
Punching Shear Design 6-201

Concrete Design using PROKON 6-3
Concrete Design using
PROKON
Several concrete design modules are included in the PROKON suite. These are useful tools for
the design and detailing typical reinforced and pre-stressed concrete members.
Beam and slab design
The Continuous Beam and Slab Design and Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design modules
are used to design and detail reinforced and pre-stressed beams and slabs. Simplified design of
flat slab panels is available through the Rectangular Slab Panel Design module. In contrast,
the Finite Element Slab Design module is better suited for the design of slabs with more
complicated geometries. Punching shear in flat reinforced concrete slabs can be checked with
the Punching Shear Design module.
Column design
Rectangular Column Design and Circular Column Design offer rapid design and detailing
of simple short and slender columns. Columns with complicated shapes can be designed using
the General Column Design module.
Substructure design
Use the Column Base Design and Retaining Wall design to design and detail typical bases
and soil retaining walls.
Section design
Two modules, Concrete Section Design and Section Design for Crack width, are available
for the quick design of sections for strength and crack width requirements.
Concrete Design using PROKON 6-4

Continuous Beam and Slab Design 6-5
Continuous Beam and
Slab Design
The Continuous Beam and Slab Design module is used to design and detail reinforced
concrete beams and slabs as encountered in typical building projects. The design incorporates
automated pattern loading and moment redistribution.
Complete bending schedules can be generated for editing and printing using Padds.

Continuous Beam and Slab Design 6-6
Theory and application
The following text gives an overview of the theory and application of the design codes.
Design scope
The program designs and details continuous concrete beams and slabs. You can design
structures ranging from simply supported single span to twenty-span continuous beams and
slabs. Cross-sections can include a mixture rectangular, I, T and L-sections. Spans can have
constant or tapered sections.
Entered dead and live loads are automatically applied as pattern loads during the analysis. At
ultimate limit state, moments and shears are redistributed to a specified percentage.
Reinforcement can be generated for various types of beams and slabs, edited and saved as
Padds compatible bending schedules.
Design codes
The following codes are supported:
- ACI 318 - 1999.
- ACI 318 - 2005.
- AS3600 - 2001.
- BS 8110 - 1985.
- BS 8110 - 1997.
- CP65 - 1999.
- Eurocode 2 - 1992.
- Eurocode 2 - 2004.
- HK Concrete - 2004.
- IS:456 - 2000.
- SABS 0100 - 2000.
Reinforcement bending schedules are generated in accordance to the guidelines given by the
following publications:
- General principles: BS 4466, BS 8666 and SANS 282.
- Guidelines for detailing: 'Standard Method of Detailing Structural Concrete' published by
the British Institute of Structural Engineers.
Continuous Beam and Slab Design 6-7
Sub-frame analysis
A two-dimensional frame model is constructed from the input data. Section properties are
based on the gross un-cracked concrete sections. Columns can optionally be specified below
and above the beam/slab and can be made pinned or fixed at their remote ends.
Note: No checks are made for the slenderness limits of columns or beam flanges.
Pattern loading
At ultimate limit state, the dead and live loads are multiplied by the specified ULS load
factors (see page 6-14). Unity load factors are used at serviceability limit state. The following
load cases are considered (the sketch uses the load factors applicable to BS8110):
- All spans are loaded with
the maximum design load.
- Odd numbered spans (spans
1, 3, 5, etc.) are loaded with
the minimum design dead
load and even numbered
spans (spans 2, 4, etc.) with
the maximum design
ultimate load (dead plus
live load).
- Even numbered spans are
loaded with the minimum
design dead load and odd
numbered spans loaded
with the maximum design
ultimate load.
Note: The case where any two adjacent spans are loaded with maximum load and all other
spans with minimum load, as was the case with CP 110 - 1972 and SABS 0100 - 1980, is
not considered.
The following are special considerations with pertaining to design using SABS 0100 - 1992:
- SABS 0100 - 1992 suggests a constant ULS dead load factor of 1.2 for all pattern load
cases. In contrast, the BS 8110 codes suggest a minimum ULS dead load factor of 1.0 for
calculating the minimum ultimate dead load. The program uses the more approach given
by the BS 8110 codes at all times, i.e. a ULS load factor of 1.0 for minimum dead load and
the maximum load factor specified for maximum dead load.
Continuous Beam and Slab Design 6-8
- The South African loading code, SANS 10162, prescribes an additional load case of
1.5DL. This load case is not considered during the analysis if required, you should
adjustment the applied loads manually. In cases where the dead load is large in comparison
with the live load, e.g. lightly loaded roof slabs, this load case can be incorporated by
increasing the entered dead load or increasing the ULS dead load factor. This adjustment
applies to cases where 1.5DL > 1.2DL + 1.6LL or, in other words, LL < 19%. Using
an increased dead load factor of 1.4 instead of the normal 1.2 will satisfy all cases except
where 1.5DL > 1.4DL + 1.6LL or, in other words, LL < 6%DL.
Moment redistribution
Ultimate limit state bending moments are redistributed for each span by adjusting the support
moments downward with the specified percentage. If the method of moment redistribution is
set to 'optimised', the design moments are further minimised by redistributing span moments
upward as well.
Note: No moment redistribution is done for serviceability limit state calculations.
The moment envelopes are
calculated for pattern
loading and then
redistributed using the
procedures explained in the
following text.
Downwards redistribution
The downward distribution
method aims to reduce the
hogging moments at the
columns without increasing
the sagging moments at
midspan. The redistribution
of moments and shear forces
procedure is performed as
follows:
1. The maximum hogging
moment at each column
or internal support is
adjusted downward by
the specified maximum
percentage.
2. The corresponding span
moments are adjusted
Continuous Beam and Slab Design 6-9
downward to maintain static equilibrium. The downward adjustment of hogging moments
above is limited to prevent any increase in the maximum span moments of end spans.
3. The shear forces for the same load cases are adjusted to maintain static equilibrium.
Optimised redistribution:
The optimised distribution procedure takes the above procedure a step further by upward
distribution of the span moments. The envelopes for the three pattern load cases are
redistributed as follows:
1. The maximum hogging moment at each internal support is adjusted downward by the
specified percentage. This adjustment affects the moment diagram for the load case where
the maximum design load is applied to all spans.
2. The relevant span moments are adjusted accordingly to maintain static equilibrium.
3. The minimum hogging moment at each internal support is subsequently adjusted upward
to as close as possible to the reduced maximum support moment, whilst remaining in the
permissible redistribution range. A second load case is thus affected for each span.
4. The relevant span moments are adjusted in line with this redistribution of the column
moments to maintain static equilibrium.
5. For each span, the moment diagram for the remaining third load case is adjusted to as near
as possible to the span moments obtained in the previous step. The adjustment is made in
such a way that it remains within the permissible redistribution range.
6. Finally, the shear force envelope is adjusted to maintain static equilibrium.
7. The following general principles are applied when redistributing moments:
8. Equilibrium is maintained between internal and external forces for all relevant
combinations of design ultimate load.
9. The neutral axis depth is checked at all cross sections where moments are redistributed. If,
for the specified percentage of moment redistribution, the neutral axis depth is greater than
the limiting value of (
b
0.4)d, compression reinforcement is added to the section to
sufficiently reduce the neutral axis depth.
10. The amount of moment redistribution is limited to the specified percentage. The maximum
amount of redistribution allowed by the codes is 30%.
Note: The exact amount of moment redistribution specified is always applied, irrespective
of the degree of ductility of the relevant sections. Where necessary, ductility is improved by
limiting the neutral axis depth. This is achieved by adding additional compression
reinforcement.
Continuous Beam and Slab Design 6-10
Deflection calculation
Both short-term and long-term deflections are calculated. No moment redistribution is done at
serviceability limit state.
Elastic deflections
Short-term elastic deflections are calculated using un-factored SLS pattern loading. Gross un-
cracked concrete sections are used.
Long-term deflections
Long-term deflections are determined by first calculating the cracked transformed sections:
1. The full SLS design load is applied to all spans to obtain the elastic moment diagram.
2. The cracked transformed sections are then calculated at 250 mm intervals along the length
of the beam. The results of these calculations are tabled in the Crack files on the
View output pages.
Note: The calculation of the cracked transformed section properties is initially based on the
amount of reinforcement required at ULS. However, once reinforcement is generated for
beams, the actual entered reinforcement is used instead. You can thus control deflections by
manipulating reinforcement quantities.
Next, the long-term deflection components are calculated by numerically integrating the
curvature diagrams:
1. Shrinkage deflection is calculated by applying the specified shrinkage strain.
Unsymmetrical beams and unsymmetrical reinforcement layouts will cause a curvature in
the beam.
2. The creep deflection is calculated by applying the total dead load and the permanent
portion of the live load on the beam. The modulus of elasticity of the concrete is reduced
in accordance with the relevant design code.
3. The instantaneous deflection is calculated by applying the transient portion of the live load
on the transformed crack section.
4. The long-term deflection components are summed to yield the total long-term deflection.
Note: When calculating the curvatures for integration, elastic moments are used together
with cracked transformed sections, which implies plastic behaviour. Although this
procedure is performed in accordance with the design codes, the use of elastic moments
together with cracked sections in the same calculation is a contradiction of principles. As a
result of this, long-term deflection diagrams may show slight slope discontinuities at
supports, especially in cases of severe cracking.
Continuous Beam and Slab Design 6-11
Calculation of flexural reinforcement
The normal code formulae apply when calculating flexural reinforcement for rectangular
sections and for flanged sections where the neutral axis falls inside the flange.
If the neutral axis falls outside the flange, the section is designed by considering it as two
sub-sections. The first sub-section consists of the flange without the central web part of the
section and the remaining central portion defines the second sub-section. The reinforcement
calculation is then performed as follows:
1. Considering the total section, the moment required to put the flange portion in
compression can be calculated using the normal code formulae. This moment is then
applied to the flange sub-section and the required reinforcement calculated using the
effective depth of the total section.
2. The same moment is then subtracted from the total applied moment. The resulting moment
is then applied to the central sub-section and the reinforcement calculated.
3. The tension reinforcement for the actual section is then taken as the sum of the calculated
reinforcement for the two sub-sections. If compression reinforcement is required for the
central sub-section, it is used as the required compression reinforcement for the actual
section.
Design and detailing of flat slabs
When entering the input data for a flat slab, you should use its whole width, i.e. the transverse
column spacing (half the spacing to the left plus half the spacing to the right). The program
will then calculate bending moments and shear forces for the whole panel width.
When generating reinforcement, however, the program considers the column and middle strips
separately. The program does the column and middle strip subdivision as suggested by the
design codes. The procedure is taken a step further by narrowing the column strip and
widening the middle strip to achieve a simpler reinforcement layout a procedure allowed by
the codes.
Initial column and middle strip subdivision
The flat slab panel is divided into a column strip and middle strip of equal widths and then
adjusted to simplify reinforcement detailing:
1. The width of the column strip is initially taken as half the panel width. The total design
moment is then distributed between the column and middle strips as follows:

Moment position Column strip Middle strip
Moment over columns 75% 25%
Moments at midspan 55% 45%

Continuous Beam and Slab Design 6-12
2. Reinforcement is calculated for each of the column and middle strips.
Adjusted column and middle strip subdivision
The design codes require that two-thirds of the column strip reinforcement be concentrated in
its middle half. The codes also state that a column strip may not be taken wider than half the
panel width, thereby implying that it would be acceptable to make the column strip narrower
than the half the panel width.
To simplify the reinforcement layout and still comply with the code provisions, the program
narrows the column strip and widens the middle strip. The widening of the middle strip is done
as follows:
1. The middle strip is widened by fifty percent from half the panel width to three-quarters of
the panel width.
2. The reinforcement in the middle
strip is accordingly increased by
fifty percent. Reinforcement
added to the middle strip is taken
from the column strip.
The column strip is subsequently
narrowed as follows:
1. The column strip is narrowed to
a quarter of the panel width.
2. As explained above, rein-
forcement is taken from the
column strip and put into the
widened middle strip.
3. The remaining reinforcement is
checked and additional rein-
forcement added where
necessary. This is done to ensure
that the amount of reinforcement
resisting hogging moment is
greater than or equal to two-
thirds of the reinforcement
required for the original column
strip.
Continuous Beam and Slab Design 6-13
Designing the slab for shear
The program considers the column strip like a normal beam when doing shear calculations. A
possible approach to the shear design of the slab is:
- Consider the column strip like a beam and provide stirrups equal to or exceeding the
calculated required shear steel.
- In addition to the above, perform a punching shear check at all columns.
Implications of modifying the column and middle strips
In applying the above modifications, the moment capacity is not reduced. The generated
reinforcement will be equal to, or slightly greater, than the amount that would be calculated
using the normal middle and column strip layout.
The above technique gives simplified reinforcement details:
- A narrower column strip is obtained with a uniform transverse distribution of main bars
and a narrow zone of shear links.
- Detailing of the adjoining middle strips is also simplified by the usage of uniform
reinforcement distributions.
The design procedures for flat slabs and coffer slabs are described in more detail on page 6-38.

Continuous Beam and Slab Design 6-14
Input
The beam/slab definition has several input components:
- Parameters: Material properties, load factors and general design parameters.
- Sections: Enter cross-sectional dimensions.
- Spans: Define spans and span segments.
- Supports: Define columns, simple supports and cantilevers.
- Loads: Enter dead and live loads.
Parameters input
Enter the following design parameters:
f
cu
: Characteristic strength of concrete (MPa).
f
y
: Characteristic strength of main reinforcement (MPa).
f
yv
: Characteristic strength of shear reinforcement (MPa).
Redistr : Percentage of moment redistribution to be applied.
Method : Method of moment redistribution, i.e. downward or optimised. For more
information, refer to page 6-8.
Cover top : Distance from the top surface of the concrete to the centre of the top steel.
Cover bottom: Distance from the soffit to the centre of the bottom steel.
DL factor : Maximum ULS dead load factor.
LL factor : Maximum ULS live load factor.
Note: The ULS dead and live load factors are used to calculate the ULS design loads. The
ULS dead and live loads are then automatically patterned during analysis. Refer to page 6-7
for more information.
Density : Concrete density used for calculation of own weight. If the density filed is left
blank, the self-weight of the beam/slab should be included in the entered dead
loads.
LL perm : Portion of live load to be considered as permanent when calculating the creep
components of the long-term deflection.
| : The thirty-year creep factor used for calculating the final concrete creep strain.
c
cs
: Thirty-year drying shrinkage of plain concrete.
Continuous Beam and Slab Design 6-15
The graphs displayed on-screen give typical values for the creep factor and drying shrinkage
strain. In both graphs, the effective section thickness is defined for uniform sections as twice
the cross-sectional area divided by the exposed perimeter. If drying is prevented by immersion
in water or by sealing, the effective section thickness may be taken as 600 mm.

Note: Creep and shrinkage of plain concrete are primarily dependent on the relative
humidity of the air surrounding the concrete. Where detailed calculations are being made,
stresses and relative humidity may vary considerably during the lifetime of the structure and
appropriate judgements should be made.
Sections input
You can define rectangular, I, T, L and inverted T and L-sections. Every section comprises a
basic rectangular web area with optional top and bottom flanges.
The top levels of all sections are aligned vertically by default and they are placed with their
webs symmetrically around the vertical beam/slab centre line. The web and/or flanges can be
move horizontally to obtain eccentric sections, for example L-sections. Whole sections can
also be moved up or down to obtain vertical eccentricity.
Continuous Beam and Slab Design 6-16
Note: In the sub-frame analysis, the centroids all beam segments are assumed to be on a
straight line. Vertical and horizontal offsets of sections are use used for presentation and
detailing purposes only and has no effect on the design results.
Section definitions are displayed graphically as they are entered. Section cross-sections are
displayed as seen from the left end of the beam/slab.

The following dimensions should be defined for each section:
Sec no : The section number is used on the Spans input page to identify specific
sections.
Bw : Width of the web (mm).
D : Overall section depth, including any flanges (mm).
Bf-top : Width of optional top flange (mm).
Hf-top : Depth of optional top flange (mm).
Bf-bot : Width of optional bottom flange (mm).
Hf-bot : Depth of optional bottom flange (mm).
Continuous Beam and Slab Design 6-17
Y-offset : Vertical offset the section (mm). If zero or left blank, the top surface is aligned
with the datum line. A positive value means the section is moved up.
Web offset : Horizontal offset of the web portion (mm). If zero or left blank, the web is
taken symmetrical about the beam/slab centre line. A positive value means the
web is moved to the right.
Flange offset : Horizontal offset of both the top and bottom flanges (mm). If zero or left blank,
the flanges are taken symmetrical about the beam/slab centre line. A positive
value means the flanges are moved to the right.
Note: There is more than one way of entering a T-section. The recommended method is to
enter a thin web with a wide top flange. You can also enter wide web (actual top flange)
with a thin bottom flange (actual web). The shear steel design procedure works with the
entered web area, i.e. B
w
D, as the effective shear area. Although the two methods produce
similar pictures, their shear modelling is vastly different.
Spans input
Sections specified on the Sections input page are used here with segment lengths to define
spans of constant or varying sections.

Continuous Beam and Slab Design 6-18
Spans are defined by specifying one or more span segments, each with a unique set of section
properties. The following data should be input for each span:
Span no : Span number between 1 and 20. If left blank, the span number as was
applicable to the previous row is used, i.e. another segment for the current
span.
Section length : Length of span or span segment (m).
Sec No Left : Section number to use at the left end of the span segment.
Sec No Right : Section number to use at the right end of the span segment. If left blank, the
section number at the left end is used, i.e. a prismatic section is assumed. If
the entered section number differs from the one at the left end, the section
dimensions are varied linearly along the length of the segment.
Tip: When using varying cross sections on a span segment, the section definitions are
interpreted literally. If a rectangular section should taper to an L-section, for example, the
flange will taper from zero thickness at the rectangular section to the actual thickness at the
L-section. If the flange thickness should remain constant, a dummy flange should be defined
for the rectangular section. The flange should be defined marginally wider, say 0.1mm, than
the web and its depth made equal to the desired flange depth.
Supports input
You can specify simple supports, columns below and above, fixed ends and cantilever ends. To
allow a complete sub-frame analysis, columns can be specified below and above the beam/slab.
If no column data is entered, simple supports are assumed.
The following input is required:
Sup no : Support number, between 1 to 2'. Support 1 is the left-most support.
C,F : The left-most and right-most supports can be freed, i.e. cantilevered, or made
fixed by entering 'C' or 'F' respectively. By fixing a support, full rotational
fixity is assumed, e.g. the beam/slab frames into a very stiff shaft or column.
D : Depth/diameter of a rectangular/circular column (mm). The depth is measured
in the span direction of the beam/slab.
B : Width of the column (mm). If zero or left blank, a circular column is assumed.
H : Height of the column (m).
Tip: For the sake of accurate reinforcement detailing, you can specify a width for simple
supports at the ends of the beam/slab. Simply enter a value for D and leave B and H blank.
In the analysis, the support will still be considered as a normal simple support. However,
when generating reinforcement bars, the program will extend the bars a distance equal to
half the support depth past the support centre line.
Continuous Beam and Slab Design 6-19
Code : A column can be pinned at its remote end by specifying 'P'. If you enter 'F' or
leave this field blank, the column is assumed to be fixed at the remote end.

Tip: You may leave the Support input table blank if all supports are simple supports.
Loads input
Dead and live loads are entered separately. The entered loads are automatically patterned
during analysis. For more detail on the pattern loading technique, refer to page 6-7.
Distributed loads, point loads and moments can be entered on the same line. Use as many lines
as necessary to define each load case. Defined loads as follows:
Case D,L : Enter 'D' or 'L' for dead load or live load respectively. If left blank, the previous
load type is assumed. Use as many lines as necessary to define a load case.
Span : Span number on which the load is applied. If left blank, the previous span
number is assumed, i.e. a continuation of the load on the current span.
Continuous Beam and Slab Design 6-20
Wleft : Distributed load intensity (kN/m) applied at the left-hand starting position of
the load. If you do not enter a value, the program will use a value of zero.
Wright : Distributed load intensity (kN/m) applied on the right-hand ending position of
the load. If you leave this field blank, the value is made equal to Wleft, i.e. a
uniformly distributed load is assumed.
P : Point load (kN).
M : Moment (kNm).
a : The start position of the distributed load, position of the point load or position
of the moment (m). The distance is measured from the left-hand edge of the
beam. If you leave this field blank, a value of zero is used, i.e. the load is taken
to start at the left-hand edge of the beam.
b : The end position of the distributed load, measured from the start position of the
load (m). Leave this field blank if you want the load to extend up to the
right-hand edge of the beam.
Note: A portion of the live load can be considered as permanent for deflection calculation.
For more detail, refer to the explanation of the Parameters input on page 6-14.

Continuous Beam and Slab Design 6-21
Note: If you enter a concrete density on the Parameters input page, the own weight of the
beam/slab is automatically calculated and included with the dead load.
Wind load input
If the beam or slab forms part of a frame subjected to sway due to wind loading, you can enter
the bending moments caused by the wind loads. The program does not calculate the wind
forces; you need to perform a frame analysis to determine them.
Wind loads are combined with dead and live loads with the load factors indicated on the
screen.

Continuous Beam and Slab Design 6-22
Design
The analysis is performed automatically when you access the Design pages.
Analysis procedure
Two separate analyses are performed for SLS and ULS calculations.
Serviceability limit state analysis
Elastic deflections are calculated by analysing the beam/slab under pattern loading using the
gross un-cracked sections.
When determining long-term deflections, however, the all spans of the beam/slab are subjected
to the maximum design SLS load. Sections are then evaluated for cracking at 250 mm
intervals, assuming the reinforcement required at ultimate limit state. The long-term deflections
are then calculated by integrating the curvature diagrams.
Tip: After having generated reinforcement for a beam, the long-term deflections will be
recalculated using the actual reinforcement.
Refer to page 6-10 for more detail on calculation of long-term deflections.
Ultimate limit state analysis
At ultimate limit state, the beam/slab is subjected to pattern loading as described on page 6-7.
The resultant bending moment and shear force envelopes are then redistributed. Finally, the
required reinforcement is calculated.
Detailed design calculations
You can view the detailed design calculations at any
position along the length of the beam by displaying the
Steel output page, and then clicking on the Detailed
Calculations button.


Continuous Beam and Slab Design 6-23
Fixing errors that occurred during the analysis
The Input pages incorporate extensive error checking. However, serious errors sometime still
slip through and cause problems during the analysis. Common input errors include:
- Using incorrect units of measurement. For example, span lengths should be entered in
metre and not millimetre.
- Entering too large reinforcement cover values on the Parameters input screen, gives
incorrect reinforcement. Cover values should not be wrongly set to a value larger than half
the overall section depth.
- Not entering section numbers when defining spans on the Spans input screens causes
numeric instability. Consequently, the program uses zero section properties.
Long-term deflection problems
The cause of unexpected large long-term deflections can normally be determined by careful
examination of the analysis output. View the long-term deflection diagrams and determine
which component has the greatest effect:
- The likely cause of large shrinkage deflection is vastly unsymmetrical top and bottom
reinforcement. Adding bottom reinforcement over supports and top reinforcement at in the
middle of spans generally induces negative shrinkage deflection, i.e. uplift.
- Large creep deflections (long-term deflection under permanent load) are often caused by
excessive cracking, especially over the supports. Compare the span to depth ratios with the
recommended values in the relevant design code.
- Reduced stiffness due to cracking also has a direct impact on the instantaneous deflection
component.
To verify the extent of cracking along the length of the beam/slab, you can study the contents
of the Crack file. Check the cracked status and stiffness of the relevant sections. The extent of
cracking along the length of the beam/slab is usually a good indication of its serviceability.

Continuous Beam and Slab Design 6-24
Viewing output graphics
The analysis results can be viewed graphically or in tabular format. Output data, including
graphics and tabled values, can be selectively appended to the Calcsheets using the Add to
Calcsheets function on each output page.
Diagrams can be displayed for deflection, member forces and stress and shell reinforcement of
any load case.
Deflections
The elastic deflection envelope
represents the deflections due to
SLS pattern loading.
The long-term deflection diagram
represents the behaviour of the
beam/slab under full SLS
loading, taking into account the
effects of shrinkage and creep:
- The green line represents the
total long-term deflection.
- The shrinkage deflection is
shown in red.
- The creep deflection (long-term
deflection due to permanent loads)
is given by the distance between the
red and blue lines.
- The distance between the blue and
green lines represents instantaneous
deflection due to transient loads.
Note: Long-term deflections in beams are influenced by reinforcement layout. Initial long-
term deflection values are based on the reinforcement required at ultimate limit state. Once
reinforcement has been generated for a beam, the long-term deflections will be based on the
actual reinforcement instead.
Continuous Beam and Slab Design 6-25
Moments and shear forces
The bending moment and shear
force diagrams show the
envelopes due to ULS pattern
loading.













Steel diagrams
Bending and shear reinforcement
envelopes are given for ULS
pattern loading. The bending
reinforcement diagram sows
required top steel above the zero
line and bottom steel below.










Viewing output tables
Open the Output file page for a tabular display of the beam/slab design results. Results include
moments and reinforcement, shear forces and reinforcement, column reactions and moments
and deflections.
The Crack file gives details of the cracked status, effective stiffness and concrete stresses in
the beam/slab at regular intervals. You should find the information useful when trying to
identify zones of excessive cracking.
Continuous Beam and Slab Design 6-26
Reinforcing
Reinforcement can be generated for the most types of continuous beam and slabs using the
automatic bar generation feature. Reinforcement is generated in accordance to the entered
detailing parameters after which you can edit the bars to suit your requirements.
To create a bending schedule, use each detailing function in turn:
- Detailing parameters: Select the detailing mode, enter you preferences and generate the
reinforcement.
- Main reinforcement: Review the main bars and adjust as necessary.
- Stirrups: Enter one or more stirrup configurations.
- Shear reinforcement: Distribute stirrups over the length of the beam.
- Sections: Specify positions where of cross-sections details should be generated.
- Bending schedule: Create the Padds file.
Detailing parameters
The detailing parameters set the rules to be used by the program when generating
reinforcement:
- Beam/slab type: Different detailing rules apply to different types of beams and slabs:

Type Description Main reinforcement Shear reinforcement
1 Normal beam
Nominal reinforcement
as for beams
Beam shear
reinforcement
2
One way spanning
flat slab
Nominal reinforcement
as for slabs.
No shear
reinforcement.
3
Column strip
portion of flat slab
on columns
Main reinforcement in
accordance with
moment distribution
between column and
middle strips. Nominal
reinforcement as for
slabs.
No shear
reinforcement.
Separate punching
shear checks should
be performed.
4
Middle strip
portion of flat slab
on columns
5 Rib
Nominal reinforcement
as for slabs.
Shear reinforcement
as for beams.

Continuous Beam and Slab Design 6-27
- Maximum bar length: Absolute maximum main bar length to be used, e.g. 13 m.
- Minimum diameter for top bars, bottom bars and stirrups: The minimum bar diameter to
be used in each if the indicated positions.
- Maximum diameter for top bars, bottom bars and stirrups: The maximum main bar
diameter to be used in each if the indicated positions.
Tip: To force the program to use a specific bar diameter, you can enter the same value for
both the minimum and maximum diameters.

Note: The default bar types used for main bars and stirrups, e.g. mild steel or high tensile,
are determined by the yield strength values entered on the Parameters input page refer to
page 6-14 for detail. High tensile steel markings, e.g. 'T' or 'Y', will be used for specified
values of f
y
and f
yv
exceeding 350MPa.
- Stirrup shape code: Preferred shape code to use for stirrups. Valid shape codes include:
- BS 4466 and BS 8666: 55, 61, 77, 78 and 79.
Continuous Beam and Slab Design 6-28
- SANS 282: 55, 60, 72, 73 and 74.
- First bar mark - top: The mark of the first bar in the top of the beam/slab. Any
alphanumerical string of up to five characters may be specified. The rightmost numerical
or alpha portion of the bar mark is incremented for subsequent bars. Examples of valid
marks include:
- '001' will increment to 002, 003 etc.
- 'A' will increments to B, C, etc.
- 'B002' will increment to B003, B004 etc.
- First bar mark - middle: The mark of the first bar in the middle of the beam/slab. If you
do not enter a mark, the bar marks continue from those used for the top reinforcement.
Middle bars are generated for all beams with effective depth of 650 mm or greater.
- First bar mark - bottom: The mark of the first bar in the bottom the beam/slab. If you
leave this field blank, the bar marks will continue from those used for the top or middle
reinforcement.
- Cover to stirrups: Concrete cover to use at the top, bottom and sides of all stirrups.
- Minimum stirrup percentage: Nominal shear reinforcement is calculated according to
the code provisions for beams and slabs. In some cases, it may be acceptable to provide
less than the nominal amount stirrups, e.g. for fixing top bars in a flat slab. The minimum
amount of stirrups to be generated can be entered as a percentage of the nominal shear
reinforcement.
Note: For beams and ribs, the minimum stirrup percentage should not be taken less than
100% of nominal shear reinforcement.
- Loose method of detailing: The envisaged construction technique can be taken into
account when detailing reinforcement:
- With the 'loose method' of detailing, also referred to as the 'splice-bar method', span
reinforcement and link hangers are stopped short about 100 mm inside each column
face. This is done at all internal columns were congestion of column and beam
reinforcement is likely to occur. The span bars and stirrups are often made into a cage,
lifted and lowered between supports. For continuity, separate splice bars are provided
through the vertical bars of each internal column to extend a lap length plus 100 mm
into each span. Top bars will extend over supports for the required distance and
lapped with nominal top bars or link hangers. Allowance is made for a lap length of
40 | and a 100 mm tolerance for the bottom splice bars that are acting in compression.
- Alternatively, where accessibility during construction allows, the 'normal' method of
detailing usually yields a more economical reinforcement layout. This method allows
bottom bars to be lapped at support centre lines. Top bars will extend over supports
Continuous Beam and Slab Design 6-29
for the required distance and lapped with link hangers. Where more practical, top bars
over adjacent supports may be joined. Adjacent spans are sometimes detailed together.
Note: The 'normal' method of detail may give rise to congested reinforcement layouts at
beam-column junctions, especially on the bottom beam/slab layer. Reinforcement layout
details at such points should be checked.
Generating reinforcement
Use the Generate reinforcing to have the program generate bars according the detailing
parameters.
Note: The aim of the automatic reinforcement generation function is to achieve a reasonable
optimised reinforcement layout for any typical beam or slab layout. More complicated
layouts will likely require editing of the generated reinforcement as described in the text that
follows. Very complicated layouts may require more detailed editing using Padds.
Editing reinforcement
You can modify the generated reinforcement to suite your requirements by editing the
information on the Main reinforcing, Stirrups, Shear reinforcing and Sections pages.
Main reinforcing
The main reinforcement bars are defined as follows:
- Bars: The quantity, type and diameter of the bar, example '2T20' or '2Y16'. The bar
defined at the cursor position is highlighted in the elevation.
- Mark: An alphanumerical string of up to five characters in length, example 'A', '01'
or 'A001'.
- Shape code: Standard bar shape code. Valid shape codes for main bars include 20, 32, 33,
34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39 and 51.
- Span: The beam/slab span number.
- Offset: Distance from the left end of the span to the start point of the bar (m). A negative
value makes the bar start to the left of the beginning of the span, i.e. in the previous span.
- Length: Length of the bar as seen in elevation (m).
- Hook: If a bar has a hook or bend, enter 'L' or 'R' to it on the left or right side. If this field
is left blank, an 'L' is assumed.
- Layer: Position the bar in the top, middle or bottom layer. Use the letters 'T', 'M' or 'B'
with an optional number, e.g. 'T' or 'T1' and 'T2'.
Continuous Beam and Slab Design 6-30

The bending reinforcement diagram is shown on the lower half of the screen. The diagrams for
required (blue) and entered (red) reinforcement are superimposed for easy comparison. Bond
stress development is taken into consideration in the diagram for entered reinforcement.
Stirrups
Define stirrup layouts as follows:
- Stirrup number: Enter a stirrup configuration number. Configuration numbers are used
on the Shear reinforcing input page (see page 6-32) to reference specific configuration. If
left blank, the number applicable to the previous row is assumed, i.e. an extended
definition of the current configuration.
- Section number: Concrete cross section number as defined on the Sections input page
(see page 6-33). If left blank, the number applicable to previous row in the table is used.
- Bars: Type and diameter of bar, example 'R10'.
Continuous Beam and Slab Design 6-31
Note: Mild steel bars are normally used for shear reinforcement. However, in zones where
much shear reinforcement is required, you may prefer using high yield stirrups. You can do
this by entering 'T' or 'Y' bars instead of 'R' bars. In such a case, the yield strength ratio of
the main and shear reinforcement, i.e. f
y
/f
YV
as entered, will be used to transpose the entered
stirrup areas to equivalent mild steel areas.

- Mark: Any alphanumerical string of up to five characters in length, e.g. 'SA1', '01' or
'S001'.
- Shape code: Standard double-leg bar shape code. The following shape codes can be used:
- BS 4466 and B S8886: 55, 61, 77, 78 and 74.
- SANS 282: 55, 60, 72, 73 and 74.
Bars are automatically sized to fit the section web. The first stirrup entered is put against the
web sides. Subsequent stirrups are positioned in such a way that vertical legs are spaced
equally.
Tip: Open stirrups, e.g. shape code 55, can be closed by entering a shape code 35.
Continuous Beam and Slab Design 6-32
Shear reinforcing
Stirrup layouts defined on the Stirrups input page (see page 6-30) are distributed over the
length of the beam/slab:
- Stirrup number: The stirrup configuration number to distribute.
- Spacing: Link spacing (mm).
- Span: The beam/slab span number.
- Offset: Distance from the left of the span to the start point of the distribution zone (m). A
negative value makes the zone start to the left of the beginning of the span, i.e. in the
previous span.
- Length: Length of the stirrup distribution zone (m).

The diagrams for required and entered shear reinforcement are superimposed. The required
steel diagram takes into account shear enhancements at the supports.
Continuous Beam and Slab Design 6-33
It may sometimes be acceptable to enter less shear steel than the calculated amount of nominal
sheer steel, e.g. when the stirrups are only used as hangers to aid the fixing main steel in slabs.
This option can be set as default on the Detailing parameters input screen see page 6-26
for detail.
Sections
Cross-sections can be generated anywhere along the length of the beam/slab to show the main
and shear steel layout:
- Label: The cross-section designation, e.g. 'A'.
- Span no: The beam/slab span number.
- Offset: The position of the section, given as a distance from the left end of the span (m).
Sections are displayed on the screen and can be used to check the validity of steel entered at the
different positions. Stirrup layouts defined on the Stirrups input (see page 6-30) rely on
appropriate section positions specified. All specified sections will be included in the final
bending schedule.

Continuous Beam and Slab Design 6-34
3D View
View a 3D rendering of the beam with longitudinal and shear reinforcement to help you spot
layout conflicts and gaps.

Bending schedule
The Bending schedule input page is used generate a complete Padds compatible bending
schedule. The parameters allow flexibility in the bending schedule creation, e.g. you can have
the details of a beam/slab on a single bending schedule or split it onto more than one schedule
to improve clarity. Each bending schedule can then be given a unique name and the associated
spans entered.
The following information should be entered:
- File name: The name of the Padds drawing and bending schedule file
- First span: For clarity, a beam/slab with many spans can be scheduled put on more than
one bending schedule. Enter the first span number to be included in the bending schedule.
- Last span: Enter the last span number to be included in the bending schedule.
Continuous Beam and Slab Design 6-35
- Grid lines: Optionally display grid lines and numbers appear on the bending schedule
drawing.
- Columns: Optionally display column faces on the bending schedule drawing.
- First grid: The name or number of the first grid. Use one or two letters and/or numbers.
- Number up or down: Specify whether grids must be numbered in ascending or
descending order, i.e. 'A', 'B' and 'C' or 'C', 'B' and 'A'
- Drawing size: Select A4 or A5 drawing size. If A4 is selected, the drawing is scaled to fit
on a full page and the accompanying schedule on a separate page. The A5 selection will
scale the drawing to fit on the same page with the schedule. Typically, a maximum of
three to four spans can be shown with enough clarity in A5 format and four to six spans in
A4 format.
Note: When combining a drawing and schedule on the same page, the number of schedule
lines is limited to a maximum of twenty-four in Padds. Using more lines will result in the
drawing and schedule being printed on separate pages.
Use the Generate schedule function to create and display the Padds bending schedule.
Editing and printing of bending schedules
Detailed editing and printing of bending schedules are done with Padds. For this, following the
steps below:
- Exit the program and launch Padds.
- Choose Open on the File menu and double-click the relevant file name. The file will be
opened and displayed in two cascaded widows. The active windows will contain the
drawing of the beam and the second window the bar schedule.
- Make any necessary changes to the drawing, e.g. editing or adding bars and adding
construction notes.
- Click on any visible part of the window containing the cutting list to bring it to the front.
Enter the following information at the relevant positions:
- Member description: Use as many lines of the member column to enter a member
description, e.g. '450x300 BEAM'.
- General schedule information: Press PgDn to move to the bottom of the bending
schedule page and enter the detailers name, reference drawing number etc.
- Bending schedule title: Enter the project name and bending schedule title in the centre
block at the bottom of the bending schedule.
Continuous Beam and Slab Design 6-36
- Bending schedule number: The schedule number in the bottom right corner defaults to
the file name, e.g. 'BEAM.PAD'. The schedule number can be edited as required to
suite your company's schedule numbering system, e.g. 'P12346-BS001'.
Note: The bottom left block is reserved for your company logo and should be set up as
described in the Padds User's Guide.
Finally, combine the beam drawing and schedule onto one or more pages using the Title Block
and Print button on the bending schedule window.
Continuous Beam and Slab Design 6-37
Calcsheets
The beam/slab design output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad.
Various settings are available to include input and design diagram and tabular result.

Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
Recalling a data file
If you enable the Data File option before sending a calcsheet to Calcpad, you can later recall
the design by double-clicking the relevant object in Calcpad. A data file embedded in Calcpad
is saved as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the design module
as well.
Continuous Beam and Slab Design 6-38
Appendix: Suggested design procedures for slabs
Some suggestions are made below with regards the design and detailing of solid slabs and
coffer slabs.
Suggested design procedure for solid slabs
The suggestions are explained by way of an example. A flat slab with a regular rectangular
column layout of 6.0 m by 5.5 m is considered.
Typical strip over a row of internal columns (Strip A)
The strip is modelled as a 6000 mm wide panel, i.e. 3000 mm either side of the columns. The
program calculates moments and shear forces for the whole panel width. It then details a
column strip, 1500 mm wide, and middle strip, 4500 mm wide. For an explanation of the
division into column and middle strips, see page 6-11.
External strip (Strip B)
The external strip, strip B, is defined as the portion over the external columns that extending
halfway to the first row of internal columns. Strip C is the first internal strip and it extends to
midspan on both sides.
Consider the end panel,
i.e. the portion between
edge columns and the
first row of internal
columns or, in other
word, strip B together
with half of strip C. The
portion over the internal
columns (portion of strip
C) will tend to attract
more moment than the
portion over the external
columns (strip B). Using
a rule of thumb, a
reasonable moment distri-
bution ratio would be
about 62.5% to 37.5%.
The external strip (strip
B) can thus be
conservatively modelled
Continuous Beam and Slab Design 6-39
as a panel with width equal to half the transverse column spacing, i.e. 3000 mm, carrying the
full load for that area. The program will analyse the strip and the generate reinforcement for a
column strip, 750 mm wide, and a middle strip, 2250 mm wide.
First internal strip (Strip C)
The first internal strip can subsequently be modelled using the same width as a typical internal
panel, i.e. 6000 mm. Because of the moment distribution explained above, the loading is
increased to 50% + 62.5% = 112.5% of the typical panel loading. The small overlap in loading
between the edge and first internal panels should take care of any adverse effects due to pattern
loading.
Note: If the own weight is modelled using a density, you should account for the increased
loading by either increase the density value by 12.5% or increasing the applied dead load.
The program will analyse the panel and generate a column strip, 1500 mm wide, and a middle
strip 4500 mm wide.
Reinforcement layout
Careful combination of the column and middle strips generated above, should yield a
reasonably economical reinforcement layout:
- For typical internal strips (strip A), use the generated column strip (CA) and middle
strip (MA).
- For the column strip over the external row of columns, use no less than the column strip
reinforcement (CB) generated for the external strip (strip B).
- For the column strip over the first row of internal columns, use no less than the column
strip reinforcement (CC) generated for the first internal strip (strip C).
- The first middle strip from the edge (MC/MB) can be conservatively taken as the worst of
middle strip generated for the first internal strip (MC) and twice that generated for the
external strip (MB).
Suggested design procedure for coffer slabs
Coffer slabs can normally be designed and detailed using the design procedure for solid slabs.
The procedure suggested for solid slabs should be also a reasonable design approach for coffer
slabs if the following conditions are met:
- The solid bands should be as wide or slightly wider than the generated column
strips, i.e.
L
/
4
or wider.
- Assuming that the concrete compression zone of each coffer rib falls in the coffer flange,
the slab can be modelled as a solid slab.
Continuous Beam and Slab Design 6-40
- Setting the density to zero and appropriately increasing the applied dead load can model
the own weight of the slab.
- The linear shear requirements should be verified for the column strips, i.e. solid bands.
The areas around columns slab should also be checked for punching shear.
- The coffer webs should be checked for linear shear and compression reinforcement.
Note: You should validate the design procedure by checking that, in zones of sagging
moment, the concrete compression zones of coffer ribs fall within the coffer flanges. Zones
of hogging moment should be located inside solid bands.



Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-41
Pre-stressed Beam and
Slab Design
Captain (Computer Aided Post Tensioning Analysis Instrument) can be used to design and
detail most types of continuous pre-stressed beam and slab systems encountered in typical
building projects. The design incorporates automated pattern loading and moment
redistribution.
Both unbounded systems, e.g. flat slabs, and bonded systems, e.g. bridge decks, can be
designed. Estimates for quantities are calculated and tendon profile schedules can be generated
for use with Padds.

Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-42
Theory and application
The following text gives an overview of the theory and application of the design codes.
Design scope
The program designs and details continuous pre-stressed concrete beams and slabs. You can
design structures ranging from simply supported single span to twenty-span continuous beams
or slabs.
Cross-sections can include a mixture rectangular, I, T and L-sections. More complex sections,
e.g. box bridge decks, can be modelled with the aid of the section properties calculation
module, Prosec. Spans can have constant or tapered sections.
Entered dead and live loads are automatically applied as pattern loads during the analysis. You
can also enter individual load cases and group them in load combinations. At ultimate limit
state, moments and shears are redistributed to a specified percentage.
Pre-stressed tendons can be generated to balance a specified percentage of dead load.
Conventional reinforcement can be added to help control cracking, deflection and increase the
ULS capacity.
Tendon profiles can be scheduled and saved as Padds compatible drawings.
Design codes
The following codes are supported:
- ACI 318 - 1999.
- ACI 318 - 2005.
- BS 8110 - 1985.
- BS 8110 - 1997.
- CP65 - 1999.
- SABS 0100 - 2000.
Reinforcement bending schedules are generated in accordance to the guidelines given by the
following publications:
- Report No 2 of the Joint Structural Division of SAICE and ISA (JSD), 'Design of Pre-
stressed Concrete Flat Slabs'.
- Technical Report 25 of the Concrete Society, published in 1984.
- Attached torsional members are treated in accordance with ACI 318 - 1989.
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-43
Sub-frame analysis
A two-dimensional frame model is constructed from the input data. Section properties are
based on the gross un-cracked concrete sections. Columns can optionally be specified below
and above the beam/slab and can be made pinned or fixed at their remote ends.
Note: No checks are made for the slenderness limits of columns or beam flanges.
Column stiffness
BS 8110 and SABS 0100 - 2000 assume that columns are rigidly fixed to slabs over the whole
width of the panel. If the ultimate negative moment at an outer column exceeds the moment of
resistance in the adjacent slab width, the moment in the column should be reduced and the
sagging moment in the outer span should be increased to maintain equilibrium.
In ACI 318 - 1989, on the other hand, allowance is made for the reduction of column stiffness
due to torsion. Report 2 of the JSD adapts a similar column stiffness reduction approach. The
program incorporates this approach by allowing you to optionally enable attached torsional
members.
Note: When the approach to include the attached torsional members is followed, column
heads will also be taken into account in the column stiffness.
Pattern loading
At ultimate limit state, the dead and live loads are multiplied by the specified ULS load
factors (see page 6-70). Unity load factors are used at serviceability limit state. The following
load cases are considered (the sketch uses the load factors applicable to BS8110):
- All spans are loaded with the
maximum design load.
- Odd numbered spans (spans
1, 3, 5, etc.) are loaded with
the minimum design dead
load and even numbered
spans (spans 2, 4, etc.) with
the maximum design ultimate
load (dead plus live load).
- Even numbered spans are
loaded with the minimum
design dead load and odd
numbered spans loaded with
the maximum design ultimate
load.
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-44

Note: The case where any two adjacent spans are loaded with maximum load and all other
spans with minimum load, as was the case with CP 110 - 1972 and SABS 0100 - 2000, is
not considered.
The following are special considerations with pertaining to design using SABS 0100 - 1992:
- SABS 0100 suggests a constant ULS dead load factor of 1.2 for all pattern load cases. In
contrast, the BS 8110 codes suggest a minimum ULS dead load factor of 1.0 for
calculating the minimum ultimate dead load. The program uses the more approach given
by the BS 8110 codes at all times, i.e. a ULS load factor of 1.0 for minimum dead load and
the maximum load factor specified for maximum dead load.
- The South African loading code, SANS 10162, prescribes an additional load case of
1.5DL. This load case is not considered during the analysis if required, you should
adjust the applied loads manually. In cases where the dead load is large in comparison
with the live load, e.g. lightly loaded roof slabs, increasing the entered dead load or
increasing the ULS dead load factor can incorporate this load case. This adjustment
applies to cases where 1.5DL > 1.2DL + 1.6LL or, in other words, LL < 19%. Using
an increased dead load factor of 1.4 instead of the normal 1.2 will satisfy all cases except
where 1.5DL > 1.4DL + 1.6LL or, in other words, LL < 6%DL.
Moment redistribution
Ultimate limit state bending moments are redistributed for each span by adjusting the support
moments downward with the specified percentage. If the method of moment redistribution is
set to 'optimised', the design moments are further minimised by redistributing span moments
upward as well.
Note: No moment redistribution is done for serviceability limit state calculations.
The moment envelopes are calculated for pattern loading and then redistributed using the
procedures explained in the following text.
Code requirements
The JSD Report 2 recommends that the maximum moment redistribution should not
exceed 20%.
Downwards redistribution
The downward distribution method aims to reduce the hogging moments at the columns
without increasing the sagging moments at midspan. The redistribution of moments and shear
forces procedure is performed as follows:
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-45
4. The maximum hogging moment at each column or internal support is adjusted downward
by the specified maximum percentage.
5. The corresponding span moments are adjusted downward to maintain static equilibrium.
The downward adjustment of hogging moments above is limited to prevent any increase in
the maximum span moments of end spans.
6. The shear forces for the same load cases are adjusted to maintain static equilibrium.
Optimised redistribution:
The optimised distribution procedure takes the above procedure a step further by upward
distribution of the span moments. The envelopes for the three pattern load cases are
redistributed as follows:
11. The maximum hogging
moment at each internal
support is adjusted
downward by the
specified percentage.
This adjustment affects
the moment diagram for
the load case where the
maximum design load is
applied to all spans.
12. The relevant span
moments are adjusted
accordingly to maintain
static equilibrium.
13. The minimum hogging
moment at each internal
support is subsequently
adjusted upward to as
close as possible to the
reduced maximum
support moment, whilst
remaining in the
permissible
redistribution range. A
second load case is thus
affected for each span.
14. The relevant span
moments are adjusted in
line with this redis-
tribution of the column
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-46
moments to maintain static equilibrium.
15. For each span, the moment diagram for the remaining third load case is adjusted to as near
as possible to the span moments obtained in the previous step. The adjustment is made in
such a way that it remains within the permissible redistribution range.
16. Finally, the shear force envelope is adjusted to maintain static equilibrium.
17. The following general principles are applied when redistributing moments:
18. Equilibrium is maintained between internal and external forces for all relevant
combinations of design ultimate load.
19. The neutral axis depth is checked at all cross sections where moments are redistributed. If,
for the specified percentage of moment redistribution, the neutral axis depth is greater than
the limiting value of (
b
0.4)d, compression reinforcement is added to the section to
sufficiently reduce the neutral axis depth.
20. The amount of moment redistribution is limited to the specified percentage. The maximum
amount of redistribution allowed by the codes is 30%.
Note: As would be the case in typical pre-stressed sections, the program assumes that all
sections have adequate ductility to allow moment redistribution. The actual ductility of
sections is not verified.
Tendon generation procedures
Captain is capable of generating tendons for typical beam and slabs. The procedure aims to
balance a specified percentage of the dead load in the span.
For purposes of the generation, all the dead loads on the span, including self weight, UDL's,
partial UDL's, trapezoidal and point loads, are summed and divided by the span length to
obtain an equivalent UDL for the span.
Parabolic or harped tendons are then selected to balance the required percentage of this
equivalent dead load. In the case of harped tendons, the tendons are chosen to provide two
upward point loads per span that balance the selected percentage of the sum of all the dead load
components.
Note: The program uses load balancing only for the purpose of generating tendons.
Since long-term losses are not known beforehand, a 15% loss of pre-stress is assumed. Further,
the generation procedure that tendons are stressed to 70% of their ultimate tensile
strength (UTS).
The details of the tendon generation procedure are explained in the following text.
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-47
Parabolic tendons in cantilever spans
Consider a typical cantilever span with a tendon
following a parabolic profile. The profile is chosen
with a zero eccentricity at the cantilever end. At
the internal support the tendon is taken as high as
possible.
The program chooses the following values:
- The left offset, L, is chosen as zero.
- The right offset, R, is chosen equal to the span length divided by twenty, with a minimum
of 250 mm.
- The eccentricity at the cantilever end is taken as zero, i.e. b
1
(b
3
for a cantilever on the
right end) is chosen on the neutral axis.
- The tendon position over the internal support is taken as high as possible. The value of b
3

(b
1
for a cantilever on the right end) is thus taken as the top cover plus half the sheathed
tendon diameter.
The tendon force, T, required to produce the balanced load W
bal
is given by
) )( ( 2
) ( 15 . 1
1 3
2
R Length b b
Length R Length W
T
bal
req


=
and the number of tendons required by
tendon
req
tendons
UTS
T
N
7 . 0
=
Parabolic tendons in internal spans and end spans
For a typical internal span, a parabolic tendon
profile is chosen to give maximum eccentricities
over supports and at midspan.
The same also applies to an end span, except that
the tendon as moved to the neutral axis at the
anchor.
The program chooses the following default values:
- The left and right offsets, L and R, are chosen by the program to be equal to the span
length divided by twenty, with a minimum of 250 mm.
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-48
- Over the supports, the tendons are taken as high as possible. The values of b
1
and b
2
are
made equal to the top cover plus half the sheathed tendon diameter. At the end of the
beam/slab, i.e. at an anchor, the tendons are taken on the neutral axes.
- At midspan, tendons are taken as low as possible. The value of b
2
is therefore chosen as
being equal to the bottom cover plus half the sheathed tendon diameter.
The drape of the tendon is then calculated as
( ) ( )( )
Length
R L Length b b b
drape
+
=
2 2 / 3 1

The tendon force required to produce the balanced load W
bal
is then given by
drape
Length R L Length W
T
bal
req


=
8
) ( 15 . 1
2

and the number of tendons required by
tendon
req
tendons
UTS
T
N
7 . 0
=
Harped tendons in cantilever spans
For a cantilever span with a harped tendon profile,
the profile is taken as a straight line from the
neutral axis at the cantilever end to the highest
position over the internal support.
In the calculations, the minimum radius R
min

specified is used in determining the final slopes of
the tendons. The program chooses the following
values:
- The left offset, L, is chosen as zero.
- The right offset, R, is set equal to the span length.
- The eccentricity at the cantilever end is taken as zero, i.e. b
1
(b
3
for a cantilever on the
right end) is chosen on the neutral axis.
- The tendon position over the internal support is taken as high as possible. The value of b
3

(b
1
for a cantilever on the right end) is thus taken as the top cover plus half the sheathed
tendon diameter.
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-49
The position of the start of the radius of the internal support, x
w
, is calculated as
) ( 2
1 3 min
2
b b R Length Length x
w
=
Further, the corresponding vertical offset for the start of the radius, y
w
, is given by
min
2
2R
x
y
w
w
=
and the slope of the tendon as
|
|
.
|

\
|


= O
w
w
x Length
y b b
1 3
arctan
The tendon force required to produce the balanced load W
bal
is then given by
O
=
sin
15 . 1
bal
req
W
T
and the number of tendons required by
tendon
req
tendons
UTS
T
N
7 . 0
=
Harped tendons in end spans
For an external span, a harped tendon profile is
chosen to give maximum eccentricities over the
internal support and at midspan. The eccentricity
at the end support is chosen to be zero to eliminate
moments.
The following values are chosen:
- The left and right offsets, L and R, are set to span length divided by four.
- The eccentricity at the end of the beam/slab end is taken as zero, i.e. b
1
(b
3
for a right end
span) is chosen on the neutral axis.
- The eccentricities at both ends are taken as high as possible. The value of b
3
(b
1
for a right
end span) is thus taken as the top cover plus half the sheathed tendon diameter.
- At midspan, tendons are taken as low as possible. The value of b
2
is therefore chosen as
being equal to the bottom cover plus half the sheathed tendon diameter.
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-50
The position of the start of the radius of the internal support, x
w
, is calculated as
) ( 2
4 4
2 3 min
2
b b R
Length Length
x
w
|
.
|

\
|
=
Further, the corresponding vertical offset for the start of the radius, y
w
, is taken as
min
2
2R
x
y
w
w
=
The tendon force required to produce the balanced load W
bal
is then given by
( )
w
bal
req
x Length
d
Length
d
W
T

+

=
3
16
3
16
15 . 1
2 1

where
3
) ( 2
2 1
1
b b
d

=
3
) ( 2
2 3
2
b y b
d
w

=
The number of tendons required is then given by
tendon
req
tendons
UTS
T
N
7 . 0
=
Harped tendons in internal span
Maximum eccentricities are chosen over the
supports and at midspan for an internal span with a
harped tendon profile.
The following values are chosen:
- The left and right offsets, L and R, are set to
span length divided by four.
- The eccentricities at both ends are taken as high as possible. The values of b
1
and b
3
are
thus taken as the top cover plus half the sheathed tendon diameter.
- At midspan, tendons are taken as low as possible. The value of b
2
is therefore chosen as
being equal to the bottom cover plus the half the sheathed tendon diameter.
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-51
The position of the start of the radius of the internal support, x
w
, is calculated as
) ( 2
4 4
2 3 min
2
b b R
Length Length
x
w
|
.
|

\
|
=
Further, the corresponding vertical offset for the start of the radius, y
w
, is taken as
min
2
2R
x
y
w
w
=
The tendon force required to produce the balanced load W
bal
is then given by
( )
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
=
w
bal
req
x Length
d d
W
T
3
16 16
15 . 1
2 2

where
3
) ( 2
2 1
1
b y b
d
w

=
3
) ( 2
2 3
2
b y b
d
w

=
The number of tendons required is then given by
tendon
req
tendons
UTS
T
N
7 . 0
=
Pre-stress losses
In the following text, an explanation as given for the various components of pre-stress losses:
- Friction losses.
- Wedge-set.
- Long-term losses.
Friction losses in parabolic tendons
Friction losses are calculated for each span in turn. The calculation is started at the active end
of each tendon. The effective tendon force is calculated at the end of the span taking into
account the friction losses. This force is then carried over to the start of the next span for the
process to be repeated.
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-52
The following is applicable to parabolic tendon profiles, including those cases where L and R
are zero:
Length Length R a n
L a R Length m
) (
) 2 (
1
2
=
=

where
1 2
a a a
dif
=
These values are used to determine the position of the lowest point on the parabola, X, and are
derived from the basic parabolic equations describing the tendon profiles. The position of the
lowest point is at midspan if a
dif
is equal to zero, otherwise it is calculated as
dif
a
p
x
2
=
where
n a m p
dif
=
2

If x = 0, then the vertical position of the left inflection point, c
1
, is given by
X
L a
c
1
1
= else c
1
is zero.
If L = X then the vertical position of the right inflection point, c
s
, is given by
X Length
R a
c

=
2
2
else c
2
is zero.
The following can then be calculated:
2
3 2 1
2
2
2 2 1 1
2
1
1
) ( 16
8
3
2
) ( ) (
8
3
Length
d d d
c
d
c a c a
d
c
d
+ +
=
=
+
=
=
o

Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-53
The effective pre-stressing force at the end of the span, P
e
, can now be calculated:
Length k
o e
e P P
) ( +
=
o

where
P
o
= Applied tendon force
= Friction coefficient of the tendon against the sheath
o = Cumulative angle of curvature over length
k = Friction coefficient for unintentional variation form specified profile ('wobble' in
sheath)
Friction losses in harped tendons
The following is applicable to harped tendon
profiles, including those cases where L and R are
zero:
R L Length l =
2

The position of the end of the left minimum radius, x
wL
, is given by
1 min
2
2 a R L L x
wL
= for
1 min
2
2 a R L >
0 =
wL
x otherwise.
Corresponding to this

min
2
2R
x
y
wL
wL
=
Similarly, the position of the start of the right minimum radius, x
wR
, is given by
2 min
3
2 a R R R x
wR
= for
2 min
2
2 a R R >
0 =
wR
x in all other cases.
Corresponding to this

min
2
2R
x
y
wR
wR
=
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-54
The slopes of the three sections of tendon are now known. The change in slope o at each kink
is then determined. At the first kink, friction losses occur over a length x
wL
and at the second
kink over a length of 2 x
wL
. At the Last kink, friction losses occur over a length x
wR
and at the
third kink over a length of 2 x
wR
.
Starting from the one side the force at the end of each kink is calculated as:
fric
L k
begin end
e P P
) ( +
=
o

where
L
fric
= Portion over which the losses occur.
Wedge-set
As soon as the stressing jacks are
released, a phenomenon known as
'wedge-set' or 'wedge pull-in' occurs.
In typical building slabs, the tendons
normally pull in by about 5mm to
10 mm before the tendons grip onto
the wedges in the anchor head. The
influence on the tendon force is
significant.
Because of frictional losses, the effect of wedge-set is to reduce the effective pre-stress over a
limited length of tendon only. This length, labelled l
w
, is calculated by considering the average
force loss over the entire length of the tendon:
length tendon Total
P P
m
end begin

=
The length effected by wedge-set is then given by
m
E A d
l
s ps ws
w
=
where
A
ps
= Area of tendons
E
s
= Modulus of elasticity of tendons
d
s
= Wedge-set
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-55
The force loss over the length affected by the wedge-set can then be calculated:
w
ps s ws
lossws
l
A E d
P =
The tendon force profile can then be adjusted by reducing the tendon force at the live anchor
by 2P
lossws
and taking the negative pre-stress loss gradient up to the position of wedge-set
influence, l
w
.
Long-term tosses
The average steel strain in all the tendons is given by
ps s
end pan begin span
st
A E
Ps P
E
+ E
=
2
) (
c
This summation is carried out over all spans for all tendons.
The creep strain is estimated as
| c
c c
avg
creep
E A
P
=
where
P
avg
= Average pre-stressing force
A
c
= Concrete area
E
c
= Concrete modulus of elasticity
| = Creep factor
The percentage total losses can be calculated as
ps s
creep shrinkage
A E
relaxation Loss
E
+
+ =
) ( 100
% %
c c

where
c
shrinkage
= Shrinkage strain
c
creep
= Strain due to creep
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-56
Load balancing
Captain uses a load balancing approach when generating tendons. The average tendon force,
P
av
, is calculated for each span and each tendon. P
av
is used to calculate the equivalent load
from the central portion of the tendon. The tendon force values at the beginning and end of
each span are used to calculate the equivalent loads for the reversed parabolic portions of
parabolic tendons and for the point loads from harped tendons at supports.
Equivalent load for parabolic tendons
Consider a typical span with parabolic tendons.
The procedure described next for calculating the
equivalent loads is applicable to cantilever and end
spans as well.
The following values are used to determine the
position of the lowest point on the parabola and
are derived from the basic parabolic equations
describing the tendon profiles.
Length Length R a n
L a R Length m
) (
) 2 (
1
3
=
=

where
1 3
a a f a
di
=
These values are used to determine the position of the lowest point on the parabola, X, and are
derived from the basic parabolic equations describing the tendon profiles. The position of the
lowest point is at midspan if a
dif
is equal to zero, otherwise it is calculated as
dif
a
p
X
2
=
where
n a m p
dif
=
2

If x 0 then vertical position of left inflection point, c
1
, is given by
X
L a
c
1
1
= else c
1
is zero.
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-57
If L X then the vertical position of right inflection point, c
s
, is given by
X Length
R a
c

=
3
2
else c
2
is zero.
If L > 0, the equivalent load starting at the left support is given by
2
1
2
L
P
W
begin
=
If L = 0 then W
1
= 0.
The central portion of the equivalent tendon load is calculated by using a length l
calc
. The
distance l
calc
is measured from the lowest point of the parabola to the nearest inflection point.
If the left inflection point is nearest to the lowest point, then
L X l
calc
=
and the equivalent load in the centre portion
2
1 1
2
) (
calc
av
l
c a P
W

=
Else, if the right inflection point is nearest to the lowest point, then
R X Length l
calc
=
and the equivalent load in the centre portion
2
2 3
2
) (
calc
av
l
c a P
W

=
If R > 0, the equivalent load ending at the right support is given by
2
3
2
R
P
W
end
=
If R = 0 then W
3
= 0.
If the value of X is equal to zero, it implies that the tendon is horizontal at the beginning or end
of the span. If the value of L or R is equal to zero, it means that there is no reverse portion of
the parabola. In such a case a point load is calculated which acts downwards at the support.
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-58
If L is zero, the slope of the tendon is calculated as
|
|
.
|

\
|
= O
X
a
1
2
arctan
The downward point load is then given by
O = sin P P
begin t

Similarly, if R is zero, the slope of the tendon is calculated as
|
|
.
|

\
|
= O
X
a
3
2
arctan
The downward point load is then given by
O = sin
end t
P P
If a tendon is stopped off away from the neutral axis, a point moment is generated in the slab.
The magnitude of this moment is given by:
tendon tendon t
e P M =
where
e
tendon
= Tendon eccentricity measured from the section neutral axis.
Equivalent load for harped tendons
Consider a typical span with harped tendons. The
procedure described next for calculating the
equivalent loads is applicable to both cantilever
and end spans.
The four point loads caused by the typical harped
tendon are labelled P
1
to P
4
. The central portion of
the tendon is assumed to be horizontal, causing no
vertical components of force.
The sloped ends with offset lengths L and R cause upward or downward point loads where they
change direction at the support or at the offset points to the horizontal portion. In practice, the
change in direction of the tendon occurs over a short distance dictated by the allowable
minimum radius of the tendon. For calculation purposes the vertical components are calculated
as point loads at the theoretical intersection points of the straight portions.
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-59
The tendon forces used in the calculation are P
begin
end P
end
, which are the tendon forces at the
beginning and end of each span. For calculating the values of P
2
and P
3
, the tendon force is
interpolated linearly between the end values.
The equivalent loads are given by
2 2
3
3
4
4 3
1 2
2 2
1
1
1
) (
1
) (
1
R b
b P
P
LengthP
R P P
P P
LengthP
L P P
P P
L b
b P
P
end
end
end begin
begin
end begin
begin
+
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
|
|
.
|

\
|

+ =
+
=

Calculation of concrete stresses
Tensile stresses calculated on un-cracked sections do not always correlate well with cracking.
For this reason, Report 2 of the JSD does attach great value to concrete stresses as a
serviceability limit state. However, tensile stresses are a good indicator of where cracking may
be a problem and could therefore be useful during preliminary design. The stress checks will
be useful if you have been using the Report 25 provisions in the past.
Stress envelopes are calculated for the following two cases:
- At transfer of tendon forces: Only initial dead loads are considered at transfer. Additional
dead loads are only considered later at SLS. On the Loads input screen, a dead load is
considered as an initial dead load except if the letter 'A' is entered before or after the load
value. In that case, the load is taken as an additional dead load to be considered at SLS
only and will not be considered at transfer.
- At SLS: The full SLS loads, i.e. initial dead load, additional dead load and live load, are
applied and long-term losses in tendon forces are included.
Note: Tensile concrete stresses are not considered when generating tendon profiles. The pre-
stressing is considered as an external load with a load balancing effect. Typical bridge
design code checks for class 1, 2 and 3 structures should be done in an iterative way by
manually checking the stress diagrams.
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-60
Reports 2 and 25 gives the following allowable concrete stresses for flat slab construction:

Loading
Condition
Permissible
Compression
Permissible Tension
Bonded Un-bonded
Transfer
Sagging 0.33f
ci
0.45\f
ci
0.15\f
ci

Hogging 0.24f
ci
0.45\f
ci
0
Serviceability limit state
Sagging 0.33f
cu
0.45\f
cu
0.15\f
cu

Hogging 0.24f
cu
0.45\f
cu
0

The allowable stresses tabled above apply to post-tensioned flat slab design. Different values
may apply to the design of other types of members. Refer to the relevant design code for
allowable stresses for class 1, 2 and 3 pre-tensioned and post-tensioned members.
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-61
Deflection calculation
Both short-term and long-term deflections are calculated. No moment redistribution is done at
serviceability limit state.
Code guidelines
Deflection can generally be controlled in the preliminary design by limiting span to depth
ratios. Report 2 of the JSD gives the following guidelines for flat slabs where at least half of
the dead plus live load is balanced by pre-stress:

Type of Slab
Loading
Intensity
Maximum span
to depth ratio
Flat Slabs
Light 40 to 48
Normal 34 to 42
Heavy 28 to 36
Waffle Slabs Heavy 28 to 32
Elastic deflections
Short-term elastic deflections are calculated using un-factored SLS pattern loading. Gross un-
cracked concrete sections are used.
Long-term deflections
Long-term deflections are determined by first calculating the cracked transformed sections:
3. The full SLS design load is applied to all spans to obtain the elastic moment diagram.
4. The cracked transformed sections are then calculated at 250 mm intervals along the length
of the beam. The results of these calculations are tabled in the Crack files on the
View output pages.
Note: The calculation of the cracked transformed section properties is initially based on the
amount of reinforcement required at ULS. However, once reinforcement is generated for
beams, the actual entered reinforcement is used instead. You can thus control deflections by
manipulating reinforcement quantities.
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-62
Next, the long-term deflection components are calculated by numerically integrating the
curvature diagrams:
5. Shrinkage deflection is calculated by applying the specified shrinkage strain.
Unsymmetrical beams and unsymmetrical reinforcement layouts will cause a curvature in
the beam.
6. The creep deflection is calculated by applying the total dead load and the permanent
portion of the live load on the beam. The modulus of elasticity of the concrete is reduced
in accordance with the relevant design code.
7. The instantaneous deflection is calculated by applying the transient portion of the live load
on the transformed crack section.
8. The long-term deflection components are summed to yield the total long-term deflection.
Note: When calculating the curvatures for integration, elastic moments are used together
with cracked transformed sections, which implies plastic behaviour. Although this
procedure is performed in accordance with the design codes, the use of elastic moments
together with cracked sections in the same calculation is a contradiction of principles. As a
result of this, long-term deflection diagrams may show slight slope discontinuities at
supports, especially in cases of severe cracking.
Crack width calculation
In the calculation of crack widths, the program takes into account all bonded tendons and also
any additional reinforcement that has been entered. The effect of the axial compressive
concrete stress due to pre-stressing is also taken into account. Un-bonded tendons are ignored.
The crack spacing is calculated on the assumption that all unstressed bars and bonded tendons
are spaced equally across the widest portion of the section. In flat slab design, it is common
practice to have tendons banded in one direction. In such cases, tensile concrete stresses will
tend to be concentrated at the position of the tendons. Therefore, the assumption that all
unstressed bars and bonded tendons are spaced equally across the section, will likely yield
conservative crack width values.
Calculation of additional flexural reinforcement
The required reinforcement is based on supplying reinforcement for the tensile force in the
concrete at a stress of 0.58fy. This is the method employed by the British Concrete Society
Technical Report 25, published in 1984.
Note: Because the additional reinforcement is calculated using stress considerations, the
suggested values are normally conservative. In the final analysis, you should check that the
beam/slab has adequate strength at ultimate limit state.
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-63
Calculation of ULS capacity
Ultimate limit state calculations are performed for the following:
- Bending moment.
- Linear shear.
- Punching shear.
Moment capacity
The moment capacity is calculated using general flexural theory. The tendon strain at ultimate
limit state is given by
pa pe pb
c c c + =
where
c
pe
= Strain due to tendon pre-stress after losses
c
pa
= Additional strain due to applied loading
The strain due to pre-stress is determined from the stress-strain curve. If the pre-stress is within
the elastic limit, the strain is given by
s
pe
pe
E
f
= c
The additional strain, c
pa
, is determined by considering the change in concrete strain at the
level of the tendon. The concrete strain distribution resulting from the effective pre-stress force
is shown as a dashed line in the figure.

Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-64
Thus, for bonded tendons, the additional tendon strain is given by
u e pa
c c c + =
where
c
e
E
prestress Concrete
= c at the level of the tendons
For un-bonded tendons
u e pa
c c c + <
In general, one can say
u e pa
c | c | c
2 1
+ =
where
|
1
and |
2
= Bond coefficients
The program uses the following typical bond coefficients values:

Tendon bond
coefficients
Pre-tensioned and bonded
post-tensioned tendons
Un-bonded post-
tensioned tendons
|
1
1.0 0.5
|
2
1.0 0.1

It now follows that
cu e pa
x
x d
c | c | c

+ =
2 1

and
cu a pe
pa pe pb
x
x d
c | c | c
c c c

+ + =
+ =
2 1

This can be rewritten as
c pe pb cu
cu
d
x
c | c c c |
c |
1 2
2
+
=
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-65
From equilibrium it follows that
bx f k A f
cu ps pb 1
=
Therefore
c pe pb cu
cu
ps
cu
pb
A
bd f k
f
c | c c c |
c |
1 2
2 1
+
=
The values of f
pb
and c
pb
are solved by iteration using the stress-strain curve to subsequently
yield the neutral axis depth, x.
The ultimate moment of resistance is then calculated as
) (
2
x k d A f M
ps pb u
=
The calculated ULS capacity envelopes for bending moment and shear force incorporate all
tendons and additional reinforcement entered. Strain is calculated on the assumption that plane
sections remain plane and concrete and steel stresses are then calculated correspondingly.
Note: The secondary moments, or a portion thereof, caused by pre-stressing may optionally
be included in the ULS calculations. Refer to page 6-70 for information on specifying the
percentage of secondary moment to be included in the analysis.
Linear shear
The linear shear checks performed by the program are done according to the provisions of
codes using the procedure described below.
An analysis is done on the sub-frame with only the equivalent tendon loads applied. The
minimum fibre stress as a result of the tendon forces is then calculated as
Z
M
A
P
f
concrete
tendons
pt
+ =
The section modulus, Z, is taken at the top for negative bending and at the bottom for positive
bending.
The cracking moment is then calculated as
Z
f .
M
pt
o
8 0
=
The section is considered as cracked in areas where the ultimate moment exceeds the cracking
moment.
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-66
In areas that are un-cracked, the shear capacity is calculated as
t cp t w co
f f . f h b . V 8 0 67 0
2
+ =
where
f
t
= Concrete tensile strength
=
cu
f .24 0
f
cp
= Average concrete compressive pre-stress
=
concrete
tendons
A
P
for rectangular sections
=
I
z P
A
P
f tendons
concrete
tendons
+ for flanged sections
z
f
= Distance from the neutral axis to the junction of the flange and the web of the
section which falls inside the compression zone
In areas that are cracked, the shear capacity s given by
M
V M
d b )v
f
f
. - ( V
o
w c
pu
pe
cr
+ = 55 0 1
where

tendon
tendons
pu
pe
UTS
P
f
f

=
tendons of No

The value of v
c
is calculated by taking into account the total area of pre-stressing tendons and
unstressed steel.
In areas that are cracked, the shear capacity V
cap
is the minimum of V
co
and V
cr
calculated
above.
The shear forces are reduced by the vertical components of the tendon forces if this was
specified. Where the shear force V is less than 0.5 the shear capacity V
cap
, no shear
reinforcement is required. Shear reinforcement must be supplied in zones where
(V
cap
+ 0.4b
w
d) > V > 0.5V
cap
:

f .
b .

S
A
yv
w
v
sv
87 0
4 0
=
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-67
If V > V
cap
+ 0.4b
w
d then
t yv
cap
v
sv
d f .
V - V

S
A
87 0
=
where
d
t
= Depth to the bottom reinforcement or tendons about which the stirrups are taken.
Linear shear is normally not a problem in flat slabs, but comes into play if ribbed slabs and
beams are analysed. For flat slabs, punching shear is normally the main shear design criterion.
Evaluation of punching shear
The first item to be determined is the enhanced shear. Columns have to be considered as either
internal, edge or corner columns. For purposes of calculations done by the program, the
following is assumed:
- If no edges are closer than 5d from
the column centre, the column is
considered to be an internal column.
- If one edge is closer than 5d from
the column centre, the column is
considered to be an edge column.
- If two edges are closer than 5d from
the column centre, the column is
taken as a corner column.
The enhanced shear force, V
eff
, for an
internal column is then calculated as the
largest of
1 1 05
1 1 05
1 15
tx
eff
b
ty
eff
b
eff
M
V V( . )
Vy
M
V V( . )
Vx
V . V
= +
= +
=

Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-68
where
M
ty
= Moments transferred between slab and column in the X direction, i.e. about the
Y-Y axis
M
tx
= Moments transferred between slab and column in the Y direction
x
b
= Projected width of the critical perimeter in the X directions
y
b
= The projected width of the critical perimeter in the Y direction
Note: The factor 1.05 is derived from 1.5M as given by the codes, with a 30% reduction
allowed if the equivalent frame method with pattern loading has been used in calculating the
moments.
For an edge column, the enhanced shear force is the largest of
V . V
)
Vx
M
. . V( V
eff
eff
25 1
05 1 25 1
=
+ =

If the edge lies parallel with the X-axis, then M = M
ty
and x = y
b
. Similarly M = M
tx
and x = x
b

for the edge parallel to the Y-axis.
For a corner column, the enhanced shear force is given by
V . V
eff
25 1 =
The effective shear force is then adjusted by the vertical components of the tendon forces as
specified. The shear capacity is subsequently checked for each perimeter and reinforcement
calculated.
The shear capacity on a specific perimeter is given by
d u v V
crit c cap
=
where
u
crit
= Critical perimeter
d = Effective slab depth
The value of v
c
is calculated for both the x and y-directions and the average of the two values
used. If V
eff
exceeds V
cap
, shear reinforcement is calculated as
yv
crit
yv
crit c eff
sv
f
d u
f
d u v V
A
87 . 0
4 . 0
87 . 0
>

= E
The shear reinforcement represents vertical links to be placed in slabs deeper than 200 mm.
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-69
Circular columns
Given modern design trends, e.g. the approaches by ACI 318 - 1995 and Eurocode 2 - 1992,
the use of circular perimeters seems a more rational approach to evaluating punching shear for
circular columns. The program recognises this and uses the following design approach for
checking punching by circular columns:
- As in the case of a rectangular column, the shear capacity v
c
is taken as the average of v
cx

and v
cy
. Put differently, one could consider an imaginary square shear perimeter when
determining v
c
.
- The shear force capacity, V
c
, is calculated using the actual circular perimeter. The shorter
circular perimeter (compared to a rectangular perimeter) yields a lower (conservative)
shear force capacity.

Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-70
Input
The beam/slab definition has several input components:
- Parameters: Material properties, load factors and general design parameters.
- Tendon data: Tendon properties and profile generation options.
- Sections: Enter rectangular, I, T and L-sections.
- User-defined sections: Complex section geometries.
- Spans: Define spans and span segments.
- Supports: Define columns, simple supports and cantilevers.
- Column heads: Square and tapered drop panels.
- Loads: Uniform distributed loads, point loads and moments.
- Load combinations: User-defined combination of load cases.
Parameters input
The following general parameters are required for analysis and design:
- f
cu
: Characteristic 28day strength of concrete (MPa).
- f
y
: Characteristic strength of additional un-tensioned reinforcement (MPa).
- f
yv
: Characteristic strength of shear reinforcement (MPa).
- f
ci
: Characteristic strength of concrete at transfer of pre-stress (MPa).
- E
c
: Concrete modulus of elasticity (kPa).
- E
st
: Modulus of elasticity of unstressed steel (kPa).
- Density: Concrete density used for calculation of own weight.
Note: Own weight is automatically added to the dead load with the 'auto load combination'
mode selected and to the first load case with the 'user load combination' mode selected
refer to page 6-82 for more detail on the load combination modes.
- Top cover: Concrete cover to top of tendon sheaths (mm).
- Bottom cover: Concrete cover to bottom of tendon sheaths (mm).
- Reduce moments to column face: If selected, this option will take the moments at the
column faces as the design moments rather than the moments at support centres.
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-71
- Reduce shear by tendon force component: Select this option to include the effect of
tendons in punching shear checks.
- SLS DL factor: Serviceability limit state dead load factor used for calculation of
deflection, stresses and crack widths.
- SLS LL factor: Serviceability limit state live factor.
- ULS DL factor: Ultimate limit state dead load factor used for calculation of moments,
shear and reactions.
- ULS LL factor: Ultimate limit state live load factor.
Note: In the automatic load combination mode, the ULS load factors are used with the
patterned dead and live loads. The load factors are ignored when using the user load
combination mode. Refer to page 6-82 for more detail on specifying your own load
combinations. The procedure of automated pattern loading is explained on page 6-43.

- Redistribution: Percentage of moment redistribution to be applied. Redistribution should
be limited 10% in structures over four storeys high where the frame provides lateral
stability.
- Optimised/downward: Method of moment redistribution.
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-72
- Secondary moment: Moments resulting from reactions to the pre-stress in statically
indeterminate beams. Some design methods, e.g. the method given in Report 25, ignore
secondary moments. Report 2 of the JSD recommend the tendons be considered as
external forces with a load-balancing effect and hence secondary moments are to be taken
into account.
- Live load permanent: Percentage of live load to consider as permanent when calculating
long-term deflections.
- Attached torsional members: This option enables the reduction in column stiffnesses as
allowed for by ACI 318 - 1989. To prevent overestimation of column moments, it is
recommended that this option should be enabled. For more detail on the sub-frame
analysis technique used by the program, refer to page 6-43.
- Edge beam: This option only applies if attached torsional members are used and allows
for the case where the columns are framing into the slab on one side only.
- |: The thirty-year creep factor used for calculating the final concrete creep strain.
- c
cs
: Thirty-year drying shrinkage of plain concrete.
The graphs displayed on-screen give typical values for the creep factor and drying shrinkage
strain. In both graphs, the effective section thickness is defined for uniform sections as twice
the cross-sectional area divided by the exposed perimeter. If drying is prevented by immersion
in water or by sealing, the effective section thickness may be taken as 600 mm.
Note: Creep and shrinkage of plain concrete are primarily dependent on the relative
humidity of the air surrounding the concrete. Where detailed calculations are being made,
stresses and relative humidity may vary considerably during the lifetime of the structure and
appropriate judgements should be made.
Tendon data input
Characteristics can be entered for up to three types of tendons or cables:
- Bonded: Classify tendons as bonded (grouted after stressed) or un-bonded.
- Ultimate strength: Ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of one tendon or cable (kN).
- Maximum stress: Maximum tensile stress as a percentage of the UTS.
- Outside diameter of sheath: The diameter of a tendon or cable, including sheath or duct
(mm). The program measures concrete cover to the outside diameter.
- Tendon area: The cross sectional area of the tendon or cable itself (mm
2
).
- k: Friction coefficient due to unintentional variation from the specified profile ('wobble' in
the sheath). Both BS 8110 and SABS 0100 - 1992 recommend a value of not less than
33E-4 in general. Where wobbling is limited, e.g. rigid ducts with close supports, a
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-73
reduced value of 17E-4 may be used. For greased tendons in plastic sheaths, a value
of 25E-4 may be taken. However, for greased tendons, both FIP and Report 2 of the JSD
recommend a value of 10E-4.
- : Friction coefficient due to curvature of the tendon. BS 8110 - 1997 and SABS 0100 -
1992 recommend values ranging from 0.55 to 0.05, depending on the condition of the
strand and the duct. For greased tendons, FIP and Report 2 of the JSD recommend values
of 0.05 and 0.06 respectively.
- Wedge pull-in: Movement of the tendon will occur when the pre-stressing force is
transferred from the tensioning equipment to the anchorage, causing a loss in pre-stress.
The magnitude of the draw-in depends on the type of tendons used and the tensioning
equipment. Values of 4 to 8 mm are common for flat slab construction.
- Tendon / Cable relaxation: Percentage long-term loss of force due to cable steel
relaxation.

- Es: Modulus of elasticity of tendon (kPa). This value is typically set to 195E6 kPa.
- Minimum radius: The minimum radius to use for harped tendons at change of slope (m).
This value is ignored when using parabolic tendons.
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-74
Sections input
You can define rectangular, I, T, L and inverted T and L-sections. Every section comprises a
basic rectangular web area with optional top and bottom flanges.

The top levels of all sections are aligned vertically by default and they are placed with their
webs symmetrically around the vertical beam/slab centre line. The web and/or flanges can be
move horizontally to obtain eccentric sections, for example L-sections. Whole sections can
also be moved up or down to obtain vertical eccentricity.
Note: In the sub-frame analysis, the centroids all beam segments are assumed to be on a
straight line. Vertical offsets of sections are used when calculation of tendon eccentricities
and has no other effect on the design results.
Section definitions are displayed graphically as they are entered. Section cross-sections are
displayed as seen from the left end of the beam/slab.
The following dimensions should be defined for each section:
- Sec no: The section number is used on the Spans input page to identify specific sections
(see page 6-77).
- Bw: Width of the web (mm).
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-75
- D: Overall section depth, including any flanges (mm).
- Bf-top: Width of optional top flange (mm).
- Hf-top: Depth of optional top flange (mm).
- Bf-bot: Width of optional bottom flange (mm).
- Hf-bot: Depth of optional bottom flange (mm).
- Y-offset: Vertical offset the section (mm). If zero or left blank, the top surface is aligned
with the datum line. A positive value means the section is moved up.
- Web offset: Horizontal offset of the web portion (mm). If zero or left blank, the web is
taken symmetrical about the beam/slab centre line. A positive value means the web is
moved to the right.
- Flange offset: Horizontal offset of both the top and bottom flanges (mm). If zero or left
blank, the flanges are taken symmetrical about the beam/slab centre line. A positive value
means the flanges are moved to the right.
Note: There is more than one way of entering a T-section. The recommended method is to
enter a thin web with a wide top flange. You can also enter wide web (actual top flange)
with a thin bottom flange (actual web). The linear shear steel design procedure works with
the entered web area, i.e. B
w
D, as the effective shear area. Although the two methods
produce similar pictures, their linear shear modelling is vastly different.
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-76
User-defined sections input
Complicated sections can be
defined with the aid of the
section properties calculation
module, Prosec.
If Prosec is included in your set
of programs, it can be used for
entering sections as follows:
- Enter the section dimensions
in millimetres.
- Save the input data to a file,
e.g. 'Deck.G01'.
- Calculate the bending sect-
ion properties.
Section properties calculated by Prosec are subsequently used to derive an equivalent
I-section. It is important that the area and inertia values of the effective I-section tie up. The
program limits the non-dimensional parameter I/(Ad
2
) to the range 0.02 to 0.225.
The properties of the user-defined sections are:
- Sec no: Number of the section to be referenced when you enter spans on the Spans
input page (see page 6-77).
- Designation: Prosec file name. If the cursor is on a defined section when you press the
Prosec button, the relevant section will automatically be loaded and displayed in Prosec.
- Area: Gross sectional area as calculated by Prosec (mm
2
).
- Shear Area: Enter the area likely to transmit the vertical shear (mm
2
). Use your own
judgement on what portions of the section are suitable for transmitting shear.
- Ix: Second moment of inertia about the X-axis calculated by Prosec (mm
4
)
- Neut Axis: Position of the neutral axis as measured from the bottom of the section (mm).
- Y-plas: Plastic neutral axis position. (mm).
- Y-top: Offset of top surface from the datum line (mm). This value will initially be set to
zero but can be adjusted to move the section up (positive) or down.
- Y-bottom: Offset of bottom surface from the datum line (mm). The section depth is given
by Y-top minus Y-bottom.
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-77

Note: The derived equivalent I-section is not unique more than one solution is possible.
The derived section merely serves the purpose of simplifying the section for use by the
program. If a particular equivalent section does not seem like a realistic approximation of
the original section, you should consider entering the section as a normal I-section on the
preceding input page, using more appropriate section dimensions.
Spans input
Sections specified on the Sections input and User sections input pages are used here with
segment lengths to define spans of constant or varying sections.
Spans are defined by specifying one or more span segments, each with a unique set of section
properties. The following data should be input for each span:
- Span no: Span number between 1 and 20. If left blank, the span number as was applicable
to the previous row is used, i.e. another segment for the current span.
- Section length: Length of span or span segment (m).
- Sec No Left: Section number to use at the left end of the span segment.
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-78
- Sec No Right: Section number to use at the right end of the span segment. If left blank,
the section number at the left end is used, i.e. a prismatic section is assumed. If the entered
section number differs from the one at the left end, the section dimensions are varied
linearly along the length of the segment.

Tip: When using varying cross sections on a span segment, the section definitions are
interpreted literally. If a rectangular section should taper to an L-section, for example, the
flange will taper from zero thickness at the rectangular section to the actual thickness at the
L-section. If the flange thickness should remain constant, a dummy flange should be defined
for the rectangular section. The flange should be defined marginally wider, say 0.1mm, than
the web and its depth made equal to the desired flange depth.
Supports input
You can specify simple supports, columns below and above, fixed ends and cantilever ends. To
allow a complete sub-frame analysis, columns can be specified below and above the beam/slab.
If no column data is entered, simple supports are assumed.
The following input is required:
- Sup no: Support number, between 1 to 2'. Support 1 is the left-most support.
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-79
- C,F: The left-most and right-most supports can be freed, i.e. cantilevered, or made fixed
by entering 'C' or 'F' respectively. By fixing a support, full rotational fixity is assumed, e.g.
the beam/slab frames into a very stiff shaft or column.
- D: Depth/diameter of a rectangular/circular column (mm). The depth is measured in the
span direction of the beam/slab.
- B: Width of the column (mm). If zero or left blank, a circular column is assumed.
- H: Height of the column (m).
Tip: For the sake of accurate reinforcement detailing, you can specify a width for simple
supports at the ends of the beam/slab. Simply enter a value for D and leave B and H blank.
In the analysis, the support will be considered as a normal simple support. However, when
generating reinforcement bars, the program will extend the bars a distance equal to half the
support depth past the support centre line.
- Code: A column can be pinned at its remote end by specifying 'P'. If you enter 'F' or leave
this field blank, the column is assumed to be fixed at the remote end.

Tip: You may leave the Support input table blank if all supports are simple supports.
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-80
Column heads input
The punching shear capacity of a flat slab can be enhanced by defining column heads or drop
panels. If the ACI approach of column stiffness reduction is used, the stiffness of column heads
is also included in the sub-frame analysis.
The following data can be entered at each column head:
- S/T: Specify a square or tapered column head. If left blank, a tapered head is used.
- Diameter/Depth: The depth (in span direction) or diameter, in the case of circular column
heads (mm).
- Width: The width of a rectangular column head (mm). Leave this field blank if the
column head is circular.
- Height: The height of the column head (mm).

Note: The program will not check the validity of a column head in relation to column. It is
possible, for example, to define an unpractical circular column head for a rectangular
column.
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-81
Loads input
Dead and live loads are entered separately. The entered loads are automatically patterned
during analysis. For more detail on the pattern loading technique, refer to page 6-43.

Distributed loads, point loads and moments can be entered on the same line. Use as many lines
as necessary to define each load case. Defined loads as follows:
- Case D,L: Enter 'D' or 'L' for dead load or live load respectively. If left blank, the previous
load type is assumed. Use as many lines as necessary to define a load case.
- Span: Span number on which the load is applied. If left blank, the previous span number
is assumed, i.e. a continuation of the load on the current span.
- Wleft: Distributed load intensity (kN/m) applied at the left-hand starting position of the
load. If you do not enter a value, the program will use a value of zero.
- Wright: Distributed load intensity (kN/m) applied on the right-hand ending position of the
load. If you leave this field blank, the value is made equal to Wleft, i.e. a uniformly
distributed load is assumed.
- P: Point load (kN).
- M: Moment (kNm).
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-82
- a: The start position of the distributed load, position of the point load or position of the
moment (m). The distance is measured from the left-hand edge of the beam. If you leave
this field blank, a value of zero is used, i.e. the load is taken to start at the left-hand edge of
the beam.
- b: The end position of the distributed load, measured from the start position of the
load (m). Leave this field blank if you want the load to extend up to the right-hand edge of
the beam.
Note: A portion of the live load can be considered as permanent for deflection calculation.
For more detail, refer to the explanation of the Parameters input on page 6-70.

Note: If you enter a concrete density on the Parameters input page, the own weight of the
beam/slab is automatically calculated and included with the dead load.
Load combinations input
Load cases can be optionally be combined into load combinations.

Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-83
Two loading modes are available:
- 'Automatic load combinations' allows for automatic pattern loading of dead and live loads,
e.g. as for typical building slabs.
- 'User load combinations' allows for combinations of the entered load cases, e.g. as for
bridge decks.
Note: No load combinations need be entered if the automatic load combination mode is
selected.
As many lines as necessary may be used to input combinations of the various load cases:
- Load Combination: Name of the load combination. If this field is left blank, the load
combination is taken to be the same as for the previous row in the table.
- Load Case: Number or name of the load case.
- ULS Factor: Load factor with which the load case should be multiplied for the ultimate
limit state.
- SLS Factor: Load factor with which the load case should be multiplied for the
serviceability limit state.
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-84
Tendon Profiles
You can let the program generate tendon profiles or you can enter profiles as required. The
program is capable of generating reasonable tendon profiles for typical beams and slabs that
you can adjust and change to obtain the required result.
Generated tendons can have parabolic or harped profiles. The program attempts to generate
tendons to balance the specified percentage of dead load. Profiles generated will not be perfect
for all cases and may require some manual adjustment.

Tendon profiles are displayed one set at a time, where a set is defined as one or more tendons
with the same profile and force distribution. The following parameters define the profile for
each span:
- L: Left offset of tendon inflection point (parabolic) or slope change (harped) from left end
of span (m).
- R: Right offset of tendon inflection point or slope change from right end of span (m).
- b1: Distance from top surface to tendon centre line at left end of the span (mm).
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-85
- b2: Distance from bottom surface at midspan to tendon centre line (mm).
- b3: Distance from top surface to tendon centre line at right end of the span (mm).
Tip: The values of L and R are normally taken is the greater of span divided by and 250mm
for parabolic cables and span divided by four for harped cables.
The following properties cab be set for each group of tendons:
- Number of tendons: Number of tendons in the set.
- Tendon property no: Tendon property number 1, 2, or 3 as defined in the original input.
- Life end position: Position of live end from left hand side of entire beam or slab.
- Dead end position: Position of dead end from left hand side of entire beam or slab.
- Parabolic / Harped: Parabolic or harped tendons.
The plotted tendon force diagrams represent the total force of all tendons:
- The initial tendon forces are shown in blue and include losses due to friction, wedge slip
and elastic shortening of the concrete.
- The final tendon forces are shown in red and include the long-term effects, tendon
relaxation, shrinkage and creep of the concrete.
The equivalent balancing loads are also displayed. The balancing loads are shown as
percentage of the equivalent dead load. The latter is defined as the total dead load for each
span, including own weight and any applied dead load, divided by span length.
Tip: Even if you want to specify your own tendon profile, it is nearly always easier to allow
the program to generate the tendon profiles and then edit them, delete some or add more
tendon groups.
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-86
Reinforcement
Additional bending reinforcement and punching shear reinforcement can be designed
interactively.
Additional bending reinforcement
Diagrams are displayed for additional reinforcement required (blue lines) and reinforcement
entered (red lines). Anchorage and bond lengths are taken into account.
The required additional unstressed reinforcement is calculated in accordance with the Concrete
Society Technical Reports 17 (paragraph 3.3 and 4.3) and 25 (paragraph 4.11):
- A minimum of 0.15% unstressed reinforcement is taken over columns over a width equal
to the column width plus four times the slab width.
- Where tensile stress prevails over supports, reinforcement is supplied to resist
tensile force.
- At midspan and where the tensile concrete stress exceeds 0.15f
cu
, a working stress of
0.58f
y
is used in the reinforcement.

Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-87
Tip: The method used to calculate reinforcement aims to limit tensile concrete stress by
adding sufficient reinforcement and tends to be conservative. Less reinforcement can
normally be used, say three quarters of the peak values. In the final analysis you should
check that the various requirements for crack width, ULS capacity and nominal
reinforcement are met.
Reinforcement bars are entered as follows:
- Span: Span number
- T/B: Reinforcement at Top or Bottom
- Bar: Specify the steel as individual bars, e.g. 3T16, 2Y20 or 4R16, or groups of bars, e.g.
Y25@300. One can also combine bars, e.g. 2T16 + T10@250.
- L/R: If a hook or bend is required on the left end of the bar, enter an 'H' or 'B' in the L
column. For a hook or bend on the right end of the bar, use the R column.
- X: Position of left end of the bar measured from the left end of the span (m).
- Length: Length of the bar (m).
Punching shear reinforcing
The data required for punching shear design is categorised as follows:
- Geometrical input.
- Forces and parameters required calculating the effective shear force V
eff
.
- Tendons and additional reinforcement to consider when calculating the allowable shear
stress, v
c
.
The following parameters are required to define the column and slab geometry:
- A: Column dimension in longitudinal direction (mm). If a column below was originally
input, its D value will be used as default.
- B: Column dimension in transverse direction (mm). If a column below was originally
input, its B value will be used as default.
- C: Column head dimension in longitudinal direction (mm). Leave this field blank if there
is no column head.
- D: Column head dimension in the transverse direction (mm). Leave this field blank if there
is no column head.
- Deffx: Effective depth for reinforcement orientated in the X-direction (mm).
- Deffyx: Effective depth for reinforcement orientated in the Y-direction (mm).
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-88
- X: Longitudinal distance from the support centre to the edge of the slab (mm).
- Y: Transverse distance from the support centre to the edge of the slab (mm).
- Corner: Enter 'Y' for an outside corner or 'N' for an inside corner.
For the calculation of the effective shear force V
eff
, the program detects internal, edge and
corner columns as follows:
- Internal column: Both edges further than 5d
eff
from the column centre.
- Edge column: One edge closer than 5d
eff
from the column centre.
- Corner column: Two edges closer than 5d
eff
from the column centre.
Information required calculating the effective shear force V
eff
:
- Vt: Total Shear force transferred from slab to column.
- Mtx: Moment transferred between slab and column in X-direction.
- Mty: Moment transferred between slab and column in Y-direction.
Note: Irrespective of the selected loading combination mode, the program will assume that
pattern loading would have been applied. The program therefore automatically reduces the
entered values for M
tx
and M
ty
by 30%. Refer to BS 8110 - 1997 clauses 3.7.6.2 and 3.7.6.3
and SABS 0100 - 1992 clauses 4.6.2.2 and 4.6.2.3 for detail.
- UDL: Uniform ultimate load in the region of the column (kN/m). The shear force is
reduced by the portion of load within each perimeter considered.
- Pcx: The pre-stressing force in the longitudinal direction deemed to have a shear relieving
effect (kN). The value will default to the total pre-stressing force of all tendons. This may
be accurate for banded tendons. However, for tendons spaced further apart, only those
passing through the shear perimeters should be considered. The vertical component of the
entered total pre-stressing force is deducted from the effective shear force.
- Pcy: The pre-stressing force in the transverse direction deemed to have a shear relieving
effect (kN). This value must be entered manually.
- Slope-X: Average slope of tendons in X-direction crossing the punching shear perimeters.
The slope is used to calculate the vertical component of the pre-stress relieving the
effective shear force. The program will base the initial value on the generated tendon
profiles.
- Slope-Y: Average slope of tendons in Y-direction crossing the punching shear perimeters.
The value must be entered manually.
Note: Although the program performs a uni-directional analysis for bending moment,
deflections, etc, bi-directional effects are included in the punching shear design procedure.
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-89

Tip: For orthogonally stressed slabs, it is recommended that you design one direction, e.g.
the banded direction, and record the relevant punching shear values. On analysing the other
direction, you can enter these parameters for the Y-direction entered for complete
bi-directional punching shear checks.
The shear capacity is based on the following parameters:
- Type: The number of the tendon types entered on the Parameters input page refer to
page 6-70 for detail. The specified type's properties are used to calculate the pre-stressed
reinforcement passing through each perimeter.
- N cables: Number of cables passing longitudinally through each perimeter (average per
side) in the X (longitudinal) and Y-directions (transverse). The area of the pre-stressed
cables is then incorporated in the calculation of the shear resistance V
c
.
Note: When calculating the shear resistance V
c
, both bonded and un-bonded tendons are
considered.
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-90




- Ast: Amount of conventional
reinforcement passing longitudinally
through each shear perimeter in the X and
Y-directions. The reinforcement values
A
sx
and A
sy
represent the minimum
amount of main reinforcement crossing
each perimeter in the X and Y-directions.
For a perimeter edge on both side if the
column, e.g. y
1
in the sketch, you should
use the minimum of the amount of
reinforcement crossing the left edge and
the amount crossing the right edge. For a
perimeter edge on one side only, e.g. y
2
in
the sketch, use the amount of
reinforcement crossing that single edge.
Note: The amount of conventional reinforcement can be taken as the average (minimum for
unsymmetrical reinforcement) amount passing through the perimeter on the left and the
right (as seen on the screen) of the column. For an edge or corner column, the amount
should be taken equal to the amount passing through the perimeter on the span side.
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-91
Design
The analysis is performed automatically when you access the View output pages.
Analysis procedure
Two separate analyses are performed for SLS and ULS calculations.
Serviceability limit state analysis
Elastic deflections, concrete stresses and cracking are calculated by analysing the beam/slab
under pattern loading using the gross un-cracked sections.
When determining long-term deflections, however, the all spans of the beam/slab are subjected
to the maximum design SLS load. Sections are then evaluated for cracking at 250 mm
intervals, assuming the reinforcement required at ultimate limit state. The long-term deflections
are then calculated by integrating the curvature diagrams.
Tip: After having generated reinforcement for a beam, the long-term deflections will be
recalculated using the actual reinforcement.
Refer to page 6-61 for more detail on calculation of long-term deflections.
Ultimate limit state analysis
At ultimate limit state, the beam/slab is subjected to pattern loading as described on page 6-43.
The resultant bending moment and shear force envelopes are then redistributed. Finally, the
required reinforcement is calculated.
Fixing errors that occurred during the analysis
The Input pages incorporate extensive error checking. However, serious errors sometime still
slip through and cause problems during the analysis. Common input errors include:
- Entering too large reinforcement cover values on the Parameters input screen, gives
incorrect reinforcement. Cover values should not be wrongly set to a value larger than half
the overall section depth.
- Not entering section numbers when defining spans on the Spans input screens causes
numeric instability. Consequently, the program uses zero section properties.
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-92
Long-term deflection problems
The cause of unexpected large long-term deflections can normally be determined by careful
examination of the analysis output. View the long-term deflection diagrams and determine
which component has the greatest effect:
- The likely cause of large shrinkage deflection is vastly unsymmetrical top and bottom
reinforcement. Adding bottom reinforcement over supports and top reinforcement at in the
middle of spans generally induces negative shrinkage deflection, i.e. uplift.
- Large creep deflections (long-term deflection under permanent load) are often caused by
excessive cracking, especially over the supports. Compare the span to depth ratios with the
recommended values in the relevant design code.
- Reduced stiffness due to cracking also has a direct impact on the instantaneous deflection
component.
Viewing output graphics
The analysis results can be viewed graphically or in tabular format. Output data, including
graphics and tabled values, can be selectively appended to the Calcsheets using the Add to
Calcsheets function on each output page.
Diagrams can be displayed for deflection, member forces and stress and shell reinforcement of
any load case.
Deflections
The elastic deflection envelope
represents the deflections due to
SLS pattern loading. The long-
term deflection diagram
represents the behaviour of the
beam/slab under full SLS
loading, taking into account the
effects of shrinkage and creep:
- The green line represents the
total long-term deflection.
- The shrinkage deflection is
shown in red.
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-93
- The creep deflection (long-term
deflection due to permanent loads) is
given by the distance between the red
and blue lines.
- The distance between the blue and
green lines represents instantaneous
deflection due to transient loads.
Note: Long-term deflections in beams are influenced by reinforcement layout. Initial long-
term deflection values are based on the reinforcement required at ultimate limit state. Once
reinforcement has been generated for a beam, the long-term deflections will be based on the
actual reinforcement instead.
Moments and shear forces
The bending moment and shear
force diagrams show the
envelopes due to ULS pattern
loading. The capacities are
calculated from the entered
tendons and conventional rein-
forcement. Capacities are shown
in blue and actual moments and
shear forces in red.


Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-94
Concrete stress
Serviceability limit state stress envelopes are displayed for the following cases:
- At transfer of tendon forces:
Only initial dead loads and
no additional dead loads are
considered.
- At SLS: The full SLS loads
are applied and long-term
losses in tendon forces
included.
The actual stress envelopes are
shown in red and the allowable
stresses in blue. Guidelines for
allowable concrete stresses are
given on page 6-59.

Crack widths
In the calculation of crack
widths, the program takes into
account all bonded tendons and
also any additional
reinforcement that has been
entered. The crack spacing is
calculated on the assumption
that all the bars and bonded
tendons are spaced equally
across the widest portion of the
section.
Un-bonded tendons are ignored
when calculating crack widths.
If too few bars or bonded
tendons are present, rotations in
the sections will be high and
unrealistic values of deflection
will result. The program will
give a warning when this occurs.
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-95
Calcsheets
The beam/slab design output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad.
Various settings are available to include input and design diagram and tabular result.

Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
Recalling a data file
If you enable the Data File option before sending a calcsheet to Calcpad, you can later recall
the design by double-clicking the relevant object in Calcpad. A data file embedded in Calcpad
is saved as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the design module
as well.
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-96
Profile Scheduling
Designed tendons can be
scheduled as Padds compatible
drawings. Profile properties are
taken from the Tendon profiles
input page. Enter Padds file name
special notes that should appear
on the schedules and then click
Generate schedules.
The resulting schedule can be
opened in Padds for further
editing and printing.








Tendon detailing in Padds
Apart from other reinforcement detailing commands, Padds cab also draw tendons in plan.

Finite Element Slab Analysis 6-97
Finite Element Slab Analysis
Fesd (Finite Element Slab Design) can perform linear elastic plate bending analyses of
two-dimensional concrete slab structures. Reinforcement can be calculated from moments
transformed using the Wood and Armer equations.
To design concrete membranes, use the Space Frame Analysis module instead.
Note: This module is no longer developed or supported, and was removed from the program
toolbar in PROKON version 2.4. However, for the sake of users that purchased this module
in the past, it is still access via the Program menu. To analyse and design flat slabs, the
recommended procedure is to use shell finite elements in the Frame Analysis module. See
Chapter 3 for more information.

Finite Element Slab Analysis 6-98
Theory and application
The following text explains the sign conventions used and gives a brief background of the
analysis techniques.
Sign conventions
Slab input is done using the global axes. The analysis output is given in a mixture of global
axis and local axes values.
Global axes
The global axis system is nearly exclusively used when entering slab geometry and loading.
Global axes are also used in the analysis output for deflections and reactions.
The global axes are defined as follows:
- For the sake of this definition, the
X-axis is chosen to the right.
- The Y-axis always points vertically
upward.
- Using a right-hand rule, the Z-axis points out of the screen.
Note: Unlike some other 3D programs that put the Z-axis vertical, this program takes the
Y-axis vertical.
Local axes
Local axes are used in the output for
bending stresses:
- The local x-axis is chosen parallel to
the global X-axis.
- The y-axis is taken parallel to the
negative Z-axis.
- The z-axis is then taken vertical parallel
to the Y-axis.

Finite Element Slab Analysis 6-99
Shell element stresses
Shell element stresses are given using the local axes:
- Bending stresses: The entities M
x
and M
y
are moment per unit width about the local x and
y-axes.
- M
xy
represents a torsional moment in the local x-y plane.
- The principal bending moments per unit width are represented as M
max
and M
min
.
Note: To assist you in evaluating shell element stresses, stress contour diagrams show
orientation lines at the centre of each shell element. An orientation line indicates the
direction the direction (not axis) of bending or plane stress. In a concrete shell, the
orientation line would indicate the direction of reinforcement resisting the particular stress.
Wood and Armer moments and shell reinforcement axes
Reinforcement is calculated in the user-defined x' and y'-directions. Unlike the shell bending
stresses that are taken about the x and y-axes, the Wood and Armer moments are given in the x'
and y'-directions. Refer to page 6-118 for detail.
Units of measurement
The following units of measurement are supported:

Units Metric Imperial
Distance mm,m ft, inch
Force N, kN lb, kip
Finite element analysis
Fesd uses four-node quadrilateral and three-node triangular isoparametric shell elements with
plate bending behaviour. The bending formulation of the quadrilateral shell element was
derived from the Discrete Kirchoff-Midlin Quadrilateral.
Accuracy of triangular elements
Both the quadrilateral and triangular elements yield accurate stiffness modelling. However,
stress recovery from the triangular elements is not as accurate as is the case for quadrilateral
elements. This means that deflections calculated using triangular elements are generally quite
accurate, but moments may be less accurate.

Finite Element Slab Analysis 6-100
Stress smoothing
A reduced integration technique is used to calculate the element stiffness matrices. The stresses
are calculated at the Gaussian integration points and subsequently extrapolated bi-linearly to
the corner point and centre point of each element. Stresses at common nodes are smoothed by
taking the average of all contributing stress components.
Element layout
Consider a typical continuous flat concrete slab supported on columns or walls. To ensure
accurate modelling of curvature, a minimum of about four elements should be used between
bending moment inflection points. This translates to a minimum of about eight elements per
span in both directions.
Using more elements per span often does not yield a significant improvement in analysis
accuracy. In addition, the particular finite element formulation yields its most accurate results
when the element thickness does not greatly exceed its plan dimensions.
For a typical concrete slab with a thickness of about one-tenth or one-fifteenth of the span
length, a reasonable rule of thumb is to make the plan dimensions of the shell elements no
smaller than the thickness of the slab. In other words, use a maximum of about ten to fifteen
elements per span.
Concrete design
Fesd can perform reinforced concrete design for shell elements. The Wood and Armer
equations are used to transform the bending and torsional stresses to effective bending
moments in the user-defined x' and y'-directions.
Note: The Space Frame Analysis modules can design shells for in-plane stresses as well.
Refer to Chapter 3 for detail.
Finite Element Slab Analysis 6-101
Codes of practice
The following concrete design codes are supported:
- ACI 318 - 1999.
- ACI 318 - 2005.
- AS 3600 - 2001.
- BS 8110 - 1985..
- BS 8110 - 1997.
- CP65 - 1999.
- CSA A23.3 - 1994.
- Eurocode 2 - 1992.
- HK Oncrete - 2004.
- IS: 456 - 2000.
- SANS 0100 - 2000.

Finite Element Slab Analysis 6-102
Input
Work through the relevant Input pages to enter the slab geometry and loading:
- General input: Enter special design parameters.
- Nodes input: Slab coordinates.
- Shell elements input: Define shell elements.
- Supports input: External supports.
- Point loads input: Point loads and moments.
- Shell loads input: Apply uniform distributed loads to shells.
- Load combinations input: Group dead and live loads in load combinations.
Alternative methods of generating slab analysis input are discussed on page 6-117.
Viewing the structure during input
You may want to enlarge portions of the picture of the structure or rotate it on the screen.
Several functions, all of which are described in detail in Chapter 2, are available to help you
using pictures of the structure:
- Use the Zoom buttons to zoom into a part of the structure or view it from another angle.
- Use the View Point Control to set a new viewpoint or camera position.
- Use the View Planes Control to view a slice through the slab.
The Options menu makes the following additional functions available:
- Graphics:
- Select whether you want items
like node numbers and supports to
be displayed.
- Display the structure with full 3D
rendering, e.g. to verify the
thickness of slab sections.
- Choose quick or detailed
rendering. Quick rendering is
faster than the detailed method,
but you may find that some
surfaces are drawn incorrectly.
Finite Element Slab Analysis 6-103
- All surfaces are drawn as polygons. You can choose to make the surfaces transparent
or have them filled and outlined.
- Contour values, like those on the reinforcement contour diagrams, can optionally be
shown.
Tip: The Graphics options and 3D rendering function can also be accessed using the buttons
next to the displayed picture.
- Views: You can save the current viewpoint and graphic display options. The current
view's name is displayed on the picture. To re-use a saved view, click the view name
on the picture to drop down a list of saved views. A detailed explanation is given
in Chapter 2.
The functions described above can also be used when viewing output. Contour diagrams, for
example, are drawn as polygons. You can therefore use the Graphics options setting for
polygons to change their appearance. Views defined during input are also available when
viewing output and vice versa.
General input
The General input page handles several important analysis parameters.
Concrete design parameters
Specify the concrete and reinforcement material properties, concrete cover to reinforcement
and orientate the reinforcement axes. Refer to page 6-118 for more detail.
Envelope of load cases
Fesd calculates a set of results, including reinforcement values, for each load case or
combination analysed. To enable you to easily identify the worst-case scenario, you can
specify an envelope of load cases for which the minimum and maximum values are extracted.
The envelope can comprise load cases and/or load combinations. Results for the envelope is
presented and can be accessed as if a separate load case.
Wizards
The wizards are suitable for the
rapid generation of complete
input files for some typical slabs.
Input generated this way can
optionally be appended to
existing data you can therefore
repeatedly use the wizards to
generate complicated structures.

Finite Element Slab Analysis 6-104
Note: The program is not limited to modelling only those slabs generated by the parametric
modules. Any general two-dimensional slab can be treated. The parametric modules merely
serve to simplify input of typical slabs.
Own weight
The own weight of the frame can be calculated using the entered cross-sectional areas and
member lengths. If you specify a load case, the own weight is calculated and added to the other
loads of that case.
The following are points of importance:
- By default, the own weight of the frame is set to not be included in the analysis. Be sure to
select the appropriate load case for own weight or, alternatively, to include the frame's
own weight in the values of the loads entered.
- The list of load cases from which you can select is based on the load cases defined on the
Point loads and Shell loads input pages. You may thus prefer to specify the own weight
load case only after completing all other input for the frame. However, you can also enter
the own weight load case at the start of the frame input process in which case you may
ignore the warning message (that the load case does not exist).
Tip: If you wish to use own weight in its own separate load case, you can do so by defining
an empty load case. You can enter a zero load at any node number, for example, and then
select that load case as the one to use for own weight.
Adding input data to the Calcsheets
You can append the input tables (as they appear on the screen) to the Calcsheets by clicking
the Add input tables to Calcsheets button.
You can add a picture from any input pages to the Calcsheets by clicking the Add to
Calcsheets button next to the picture in question.
Title
Enter a descriptive name for the frame. It should not be confused with the file name you use
when you save the input data.





Finite Element Slab Analysis 6-105
Nodes input
Use as many lines as necessary to enter the nodes defining the slab. A unique number must be
assigned to each node. The node number is entered in the No column, followed by the X and
Z-coordinates in the X and Z columns. If you leave X or Z blank, a value of zero is used.

You are allowed to skip node numbers to simplify the definition of the slab. You may also
leave blank lines in the input to improve readability. If a node number is defined more than
once, the last definition will be used.

Finite Element Slab Analysis 6-106
Error checking
The program checks for nodes lying at the same coordinate. If a potential error is detected, an
Error list button will appear.
Generating additional nodes
When defining a node, you can have additional nodes generated at regular intervals. Example:

- The X-coordinate of node 4 is left blank. Therefore, node 4 is put at the coordinate
(0,14.614).
- The No of is set to '2', meaning that two additional nodes must be generated.
- Setting Increment to '7' means that the node numbers are incremented by seven.
Therefore, node 4 is copied to node 11 and node 11 is copied to node 18.
- The values in the X-inc and Z-inc columns set the distance between copied nodes. The
coordinates 4 to 18 are spaced at 1.140 m and 0.472 m along the X and negative Z-axis
respectively. The coordinates of the additional nodes are thus (1.140,14.142) and
(2.280,13.670).
An alternative method to generate equally spaced nodes is to use the Inc to End option. This
method allows you to define two nodes and then generate a number of nodes in-between:
- Use the same procedure as above to define the first node's coordinates.
- Set the values of X-inc and Z-inc to the total co-ordinate difference to the last node and
enable the Inc to End option. The last node's coordinates are then first calculated and the
specified number of intermediate nodes then generated.

Second order generation
Once you have defined one or more nodes in the table, you can copy that relevant rows nodes
by entering a '' character in the No column of the next row. Then enter the number of
additional sets of nodes to be generated in the No of column and the coordinate increments in
the X-inc and Z-inc columns.
Finite Element Slab Analysis 6-107
Second order generation example:

The following nodes are generated:
No X Z
15 0.00 5.12
16 2.00 5.22
17 4.00 5.32
18 0.50 6.12
19 2.50 6.22
20 4.50 6.32
Block generation
A group of nodes can be repeated by entering a 'B' in the No column followed by the first and
last table row numbers in which the nodes were defined. Separate the row numbers with a ''.
Block generation example:

The nodes defined in rows 11 to 26 are copied twice. Node numbers are incremented by thirty for
each copy. The X and Z-coordinate increments are 10 m and zero respectively.
To copy one row only, simply omit the end row number, e.g. 'B10' to copy row 10 only.
The block generation function may be used recursively. That means that the rows specified
may themselves contain further block generation statements.
Tip: To move a group of nodes to a new location without generating any new nodes, set the
No-of to '1' and Inc to '0'.
Arc generation
A group of nodes can be repeated on an arc by entering an 'A' in the No column, followed by
the start and end row numbers. Enter the centre of the arc in the X and Z columns and use the
X-inc column to specify the angle increment.
Example:


Finite Element Slab Analysis 6-108
All nodes defined in rows 5 to 9 of the table will be repeated eleven times on an imaginary
horizontal arc. The centre point of the arc is located at the coordinate (10,1.5). The node
number increment is set to 5, i.e. node number 3 becomes node 8, etc. The rotation angle
between the generated groups of nodes is 30 degrees about the Y-axis, i.e. anti-clockwise using
a right-hand rule.
To copy one row only, simply omit the end row numbers, e.g. 'A5' to copy row 5 only.
Note: The arc generation function may be used recursively.
Rotating nodes
To rotate a group of existing nodes without generating any new nodes, use the arc generation
function and set the No-of to '1' and Increment to '0'.
Deleting nodes
Nodes can be deleted by entering a special X-coordinate of '1E-9' or by entering 'Delete' in the
Inc to end column. This can be especially handy if you have generated a large group of nodes
and then need to remove some of them again.
Example:

Nodes 15 and the additional nodes 18 and 21 are deleted.
Rigid links input
Point loads and supports invariably result in stress concentrations. In the case of slabs
supported on columns, it may be reasonable to ignore stress concentrations within the column
areas and rather work with the stress values at the column faces. An alternative approach could
be to smooth the stresses that prevail with the close surrounds of each of the columns, e.g.
within a perimeter at a distance equal to the depth of the slab away from the column face.
Another more rational approach to modelling a slab at column supports is to introduce rigid
links. This approach entails stopping shell elements at the column face and then linking the
perimeter with the supported node at the position of the column centre. The high bending
stiffness of the rigid links gives a reasonable approximation of the increased stiffness of the
slab inside the perimeter of the column. The approach has the advantage of ridding the analysis
of high shell bending stress peaks at the points of support.
Finite Element Slab Analysis 6-109



Shell elements input
Elements are defined by referring to corner nodes, four in the case of quadrilaterals and three
for triangles. You should enter the node numbers in sequence around the perimeter, either
clockwise or anti-clockwise, in the Node 1 to Node 4 columns. Leave Node 4 blank to define a
triangular element.
Note: Quadrilateral elements generally yield more accurate analysis results than triangular
elements. Refer to page 6-99 for more detail.

Finite Element Slab Analysis 6-110

Selecting materials
Each slab element should
have an associated
material.
To add one or more
materials to a slab analysis
data file, click Materials.
Open the relevant material
type screen and select the
materials that are required
for the current slab input.
After adding the selected
materials to the input, you
can select them by clicking
the Material column to
drop down a list.

Finite Element Slab Analysis 6-111
Adding materials to the global database
The procedure to permanently add more materials to the database is described in Chapter 2.
Error checking
The program checks for duplicate elements and nodes not connected to elements. It also checks
that a group number is assigned to each element. If an error is detected, an Error list button
will be displayed.
Generating additional elements
You can generate additional elements with the same section and fixity code values using the
No of extra and Node No Inc columns.
Example:

The element enclosed by nodes 15, 16, 26 and 25 are copied ten times with a node number
increment of three, i.e elements (18,19,29,28), (21,22,32,310 etc.
Block generation
A group of elements can be repeated by entering a 'B' in the No column. Then enter the first
and last table row numbers in which the elements were defined, separated with a ''.
Block generation example:

All elements defined in rows 5 to 7 will be copied ten times with a node number increment of
twelve. The copied elements will use the same thickness and material properties as the original
elements.
To copy one row only, simply omit the end row number, e.g. 'B5' to copy row 5 only.
The block generation function may be used recursively. The group of lines referenced may thus
contain block generation statements.
Tip: When entering a complicated slab it may help to leave a few blank lines between
groups of elements. Not only will it improve readability, but it will also allow you to insert
additional elements at a later stage without upsetting block and arc generations.

Finite Element Slab Analysis 6-112

Deleting elements
Shell elements can be deleted by entering 'Delete' in the Material column. This can be useful if
you have generated a large group of elements and need to remove some of them again.
Example:

Elements 15-16-26-25 and 18-19-29-28 are deleted.
Supports input
Slabs require external supports to ensure global stability. Supports can be entered at nodes to
prevent any of the three degrees of freedom associated with plate bending, i.e. translation in the
Y-direction and rotation about the X and Z-axes. You can also define elastic supports and
prescribed displacements, e.g. foundation settlement.

Enter the node number to be supported in the Node No column. In the next column a
combination of the letters 'Y', 'x' and 'z' can be entered to indicate the direction of fixity. Use
Finite Element Slab Analysis 6-113
capitals and lowercase to define restraint of translation and rotation respectively, e.g. 'Yxz'
means fixed against movement in the Y-direction and rotation about the X and Z-axes.
Note: The use of lowercase for rotational restraints should not be confused with the
convention of using lowercase for local element axes.
Tip: To enter a simple support with no moment restraint, one would typically enter a 'Y'.
If you want to repeat the supports defined on the previous row of the table, you need only enter
the node number, i.e. you may leave the Fixity column blank. If the Yxz column is left blank,
the supports applicable to the previous row will be used automatically.
Skew supports
The rotational supports 'x' and 'z' can be made skew by entering a value in the Angle column.
This feature may be useful when modelling slabs with rotational support perpendicular to skew
edges.
Prescribed displacements
Use the X, x, and z columns to enter prescribed displacements and rotations. Being a global
support condition, the effect of the prescribed displacement is added once only to the analysis
results of each load case and load combination. Optionally enter a 'P' in the P/S column to
designate the values as prescribed displacements.
Elastic supports
Elastic supports, or springs, are defined by entering spring constants in the X, x, and z
columns. The spring constant is defined as the force or moment that will cause a unit displace-
ment or rotation in the relevant direction. Enter an 'S' in the P/S column to indicate that an
entered value is a spring constant rather than a prescribed displacement. If you leave the P/S
column blank, the entered values are taken as prescribed displacements.
Tip: The effect of a column above or below the slab can be modelled by entering their
bending stiffnesses as rotational spring supports about the x and z-axes. From simple elastic
theory, the rotational stiffness of a column that is fixed at the remote end is given as 4EI/L.
The stiffness of a column that is simply supported at the remote end is equal to 3EI/L.
Error Checking
The program does a basic check on the structural stability of the slab. If a potential error is
detected, an Error list button will appear.
Note: You cannot define an elastic support and a prescribed displacement at the same node
because it will be a contradiction of principles.

Finite Element Slab Analysis 6-114
Generating additional supports
Additional supports and prescribed displacements can be generated using the Number of extra
and Node number inc columns. The procedure is similar to that described on page 6-106 for
generating additional nodes.
Note: The display of supports can be enabled by editing the Display Options.
Point loads input
Loads on shell elements are categorised as point loads, i.e. concentrated loads at specific
coordinate, and element loads, i.e. uniform distributed loads.
All loads are organised in load cases, e.g. 'DL' for own weight, 'ADL' for additional dead loads,
'LL' for live load, etc. Load cases apply equally to the various load input screens, meaning that
you can build up a load case using different types of loads.

To define a load case, type a descriptive name for each load case in the Load Case column.
Use up to six characters to describe each load case. If the load case name is not entered, the
load case applicable to the previous row in the table is used.
Finite Element Slab Analysis 6-115
Enter the coordinates and load values in the appropriate columns, using the global axis sign
conventions given on page 6-98. The load case at the cursor position is displayed graphically.
Press Enter or Display to update the picture.
Error checking
The program checks that specified nodes have indeed been defined in the Nodes input table. If
an error is detected, an Error list button will appear.
Generating additional point loads
Additional point loads can be generated using the Number of extra and X-increment and
Z-increment columns.
Shell loads
Distributed loads can be applied on shell elements. Enter a load case description in the Load
case column followed by the relevant element numbers in the Shell numbers column. The
program automatically assigns numbers to all shell elements in the sequence they are defined
on the Shells input page.


Finite Element Slab Analysis 6-116
A series of elements can be entered by separating the first and last element numbers by a ' '
character, e.g. '16' to define elements 1 up to 6.Enter the distributed load intensity in the UDL
column.
Note: Positive vertical loads act upward and negative loads act downward.
Error checking
The program checks that the entered element numbers are valid. If an error is detected, an
Error list button will appear.
Generating additional element loads
The No of extra and Shell number Inc columns can also be used to generate additional shell
loads. The procedures are similar to that used to generating additional shell elements see
page 6-111 for detail.
Load combinations input
You can model practical scenarios by grouping load cases together in load combinations. Enter
the load combination number in the Load Combination column; followed by the load case
name and relevant load factors.
If the Load Combination column is left blank, the load combination is taken to be the same as
for the previous row of the table. The load cases to consider in a load combination are entered
one per row in the Load case column. Enter the relevant ultimate and serviceability limit state
load factors in the ULS factor and SLS factor columns.
Tip: You may leave one or more blank lines between load combination definitions to
improve readability.
The ultimate and serviceability
limit states are used as follows:
- Deflections are calculated
using the entered SLS loads.
A set of reactions is also
calculated at SLS for the
purpose of evaluating
stability and bearing
pressures.
- A second set of reactions
and all element forces are
determined using the
entered ULS forces.
Finite Element Slab Analysis 6-117
Error checking
The program only checks that valid load cases are specified. It has no knowledge of the design
code that will be used in the member design and therefore does not check the validity of the
entered load factors.
Alternative slab input methods
Alternative means of slab input are available:
- Parametric input: Modules are available for the rapid generation of input for typical slab
structures.
- Graphical input: Structures can be drawn in Padds or another CAD system and converted
to slab analysis input.
Wizards
A number of typical frames can be input by entering a number of parameters. The Wizards do
most of the data input. See page 6-103 for detail on the wizards.
Graphical input
In some situations, it may be easier to define a slab's geometry graphically. With Padds you
can draw a slab and then generate a slab analysis input file.
Using Padds for slab input
To use Padds to define a slab's geometry:
1. Use Padds to draw the slab. Alternatively, import a DXF drawing from another CAD
system.
2. The slab should be drawn to scale using millimetres as unit.
3. The element grid is drawn using lines.
Tip: You may sometimes find it quicker to hatch an area with a line pattern and then
vectorise the hatch to turn it into normal lines.
4. Use the Generate input command on the Macro to display the drawing conversion
options. Choose the Fesd and press OK to start the conversion procedure.
5. Close Padds.
Tip: To see a graphical input example, open '\prokon\data\demo\inputgen.pad' in Padds.

Finite Element Slab Analysis 6-118
Analysis parameters input
The General input page allows you to set the parameters relevant to the analysis.
Concrete design parameters input
It is generally impractical to design reinforcement to resist torsional moments in slabs.
Reinforcement is usually fixed in two directions approximately, but not necessarily,
perpendicular to each other. This justifies the use of transformed moments to calculate
reinforcement.
Fesd uses the Wood and Armer theory; to convert calculated bending and torsional moments
to transformed bending moments. More detail is given on page 6-100.
The required concrete design parameters are:
- Enter the concrete and reinforcement material characteristics, f
cu
and f
y
.
- Define the orientation for
the 'main' and 'secondary'
reinforcement, i.e. the x'
and y'-axis. Looking from
the top, the x'-axis is
measured anti-clockwise
from the local x-axis to the
reinforcement x'-axis. The
y'-axis is in turn measured
anti-clockwise from the x'-
axis.
- Define the reinforcement
levels in the slab by
entering the concrete cover
values for the top and
bottom reinforcement in
both directions.
Reinforcement contours can be displayed on the Bending stresses output page.
Finite Element Slab Analysis 6-119
Analysis
On completing the slab input, you should set the analysis options before commencing the
actual analysis.
Analysis options
Analysis options available on the General input page include:
- Concrete design: If the model includes finite shell elements, you can optionally design the
shells as reinforced concrete members.
- Add own weight: Select a load case to which the self-weight of the beam and shell
members should be added.
On the Analysis page, select the following:
- Output file: Enter an output file name or accept the default file name, e.g. 'Fesd.out'.
- Analyse load combinations only: Enable this option if the results of only the load
combinations are required. Generally, one would require results for the load combinations
only. However, you may have a special need to view the results of specific load cases as
well. Disable this option to include the results for the individual load cases as well.
Analysing the slab
To analyse the slab, open the
Analysis page and press Start
Analysis. The analysis progress
of displayed to help you judge
the time remaining to complete
the analysis.
After a successful analysis, the
deflected shape is displayed for
the first load case or load
combination or, in the case of
modal or buckling analysis, the
first mode shape.

Finite Element Slab Analysis 6-120
Error checking during analysis
During the input phase, the slab geometry and loading data is checked for errors. Not all
reported errors are necessarily serious. To define duplicate elements between two nodes, for
example, could be an accidental error on your side. However, the program can deal with a
situation like this and will allow the analysis procedure to continue.
Other input errors could be serious enough to prevent an analysis from being completed
successfully. Nodes with no elements, for example, have no restraints and will cause numeric
instability during the analysis.
The first step of any analysis is the final verification of the input data. In the case of critical
errors still present, a warning message will be displayed. If you then choose to not proceed
with the analysis, you will be taken to the input table with the error. However, choosing to
proceed and ignore the warning will have an unpredictable result.
Fixing errors that occurred during the analysis
Even if all input data seems valid, numeric errors may still occur during an analysis. For
example, if you entered incorrect section properties, such as a very small E-value, the mistake
may go by unnoticed. However, the analysis will then yield an invalid value in the stiffness
matrix or extremely large deflections. The same applies to the stability of the slab.
If an error was detected during the analysis, a warning will be displayed. The cause of the error
should become clear when studying the output file:
- The text at the end of the output file normally gives the reason for the error.
- If the output file seems complete, the problem will require more careful attention. Scan all
output tables for excessively large or small values.
Finite Element Slab Analysis 6-121
Viewing output
The analysis results can be viewed graphically or in tabular format.
Viewing output graphics
Diagram can be displayed for the following:
- Deflections: Deflections are
generally small in relation to
dimensions of the structure.
To improve the visibility of
the elastic deflection
diagram, you can enter a
screen magnification factor.
- Bending stresses in shells:
- The x, y and xy
bending stresses: The
bending stresses about
the local x and y-axes
and the torsional
stresses. The direction
(not axis) of bending is
shown as a small line on each shell element.
- Maximum and minimum bending stresses: The principal bending stresses.
- Reinforcement and Wood and Armer moments: Contours of the effective bending
moments and corresponding required reinforcement at the top and bottom in the x' and
y'-directions. The reinforcement direction is shown as a small line on each shell. Refer
to page 6-99 for an explanation of the use of the Wood and Armer equations and to
page 6-118 for the definition of the reinforcement directions.
Note: Shell bending stresses are taken about the x and y-axes. In contrast, the Wood and
Armer bending moments are given in the x' and y'-directions.

Finite Element Slab Analysis 6-122
Viewing output tables
Open the Output file page for a tabular display of the slab analysis output file. You can filter
the information sent to the calcsheets by enabling or disabling the relevant sections.
You can also quickly locate a section of the output file using the Find output function.

Finite Element Slab Analysis 6-123
Calcsheets
Slab analysis output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad. To
include a particular component of the output in the calcsheets, view the relevant output
information and then click Add to Calcsheets.

Recalling a data file
The Data File is automatically included in the calcsheet sent to Calcpad. You can later recall
the slab by double-clicking the relevant object in Calcpad. A data file embedded in Calcpad is
saved as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the slab analysis module
as well.


Finite Element Slab Analysis 6-124
Rectangular Slab Panel Design 6-125
Rectangular Slab Panel Design
The Rectangular Slab Panel Design module designs rectangular flat slab panels with a variety
of edge supports. The program should best be used for designing slabs with approximately
rectangular panel layouts. You can use the Space Frame Analysis or Finite Element Slab
Design module to analyse slabs with irregular panel layouts and openings.


Rectangular Slab Panel Design 6-126
Theory and application
The following text gives an overview of the theory and application of the design codes.
Design scope
The program designs rectangular reinforced concrete flat slab panels. Design loads include
own weight, distributed and concentrated dead and live loads. Slab edges can be made free,
simply supported or continuous.
Bending moment is transformed to include torsional moment using the Wood and Armer
equations. Reinforcement is calculated using the normal code formulae.
Irrespective the selected design codes, long-term deflections are estimated in accordance with
clause 9.5.2.3 of ACI318 - 1992
Codes of practice
The following codes are supported:
- ACI 318 - 1999.
- ACI 318 - 2005.
- AS3600 - 2001.
- BS 8110 - 1985.
- BS 8110 - 1997.
- CP65 - 1999.
- Eurocode 2 - 1992.
- Eurocode 2 - 2004.
- HK Concrete - 2004.
- IS:456 - 2000.
- SABS 0100 - 2000.
Units of measurement
Both Metric and Imperial units of measurement are supported.
Rectangular Slab Panel Design 6-127
List of symbols
The design code symbols are used as far as possible:
Slab geometry
d
x
: Effective depth for reinforcement in the longer span direction, i.e. parallel to
the X-axis (mm or in).
d
y
: Effective depth for reinforcement in the shorter span direction, i.e. parallel to
the Y-axis (mm or in).
h : Overall slab depth (mm or in).
L
short
: Length of the short side of the slab, taken parallel to the Y-axis (m or ft).
L
long
: Longer side length of the slab, taken parallel to the X-axis (m or ft).
Material properties
f
cu
: Concrete cube strength (MPa or psi).
f
y
: Reinforcement yield strength (MPa or psi).
: Time factor for long-term deflection
v : Poisson's ratio, typically equal to 0.2.
: Unit weight of concrete (kN/m or lb/ft)
Applied loads
W
ADL
: Additional distributed dead load (kN/m or kip/ft).
W
LL
: Additional distributed dead load (kN/m or kip/ft).).
P
DL
: Additional dead point load (kN or kip).
P
LL
: Additional live point load (kN or kip).
Design output
A
botx
: Bottom steel parallel to the X-axis (mm/m or in/ft).
A
topx
: Top steel parallel to the X-axis (mm/m or in/ft).
A
boty
: Bottom steel parallel to the Y-axis (mm/m or in/ft).
A
topy
: Top steel parallel to the Y-axis (mm/m or in/ft).

Rectangular Slab Panel Design 6-128
Analysis of the slab
The program calculates bending stresses and elastic deflection by means of a finite element
analysis. Thirty-six plate elements are placed on a 6 x 6 grid. The program uses eight-noded
isoparametric finite elements that are well suited for thin plate analysis.
The analysis procedure employs a 2 x 2 Gaussian integration technique to calculate the
element stiffness matrix. The stresses are calculated at the Gaussian integration points and
subsequently extrapolated to the eight nodes and centre point of each element. The stresses at
common nodes are smoothed by taking the average of all contributing stress components.
Long-term deflections
The program estimates long-term deflections by adjusting the stiffness of the slab based on the
level of cracking. The use of a time factor for estimating creep behaviour, is based on the
approach by ACI 318 1999 clause 9.5.2.3.
Typical values for are:

Duration of load Time factor
5 years or more 2.0
12 months 1.4
6 months 1.2
3 months 1.0
Instantaneous 0.0

Note: The calculated long-term deflections are not exact and should be considered a
reasonable estimate only.
Reinforcement calculation
The finite element analysis yields values for bending stresses about the X and Y-axes and
torsional stresses. Due to the practical difficulties involved in reinforcing a slab to resist
torsion, the Wood and Armer equations are used to transform the bending and torsional
stresses to effective bending moments in the X and Y-directions.
Rectangular Slab Panel Design 6-129
Correlation with the design code values
The moments and reinforcement calculated by the program are generally lower than the values
given by the design codes. The discrepancy can be ascribed to the differences in the analysis
techniques used. In particular, the code values include allowances for pattern loading and
moment redistribution.
Considering continuous slabs, negative moments will generally correlate well while positive
span moments would be about ten to fifteen percent too low.
Note: In cases where pattern loading is important, e.g. continuous slabs, it is suggested that
the calculated bottom reinforcement be increased by about fifteen percent.

Rectangular Slab Panel Design 6-130
Input
Use the single input table to define the slab and its loading.
Geometry and loads input
The following general points should be noted:
- If the aspect ratio of the slab exceeds 3:1, it may be more appropriate to design it as
spanning in one direction only.
- Long-term deflections are calculated if you specify a time factor, , larger than one.

- Own weight is modelled by entering a value for the unit weight. The own weight is
automatically added to each load case entered.
- For the ultimate limit state calculations, the own weight, additional dead load and dead
point loads are multiplied by the entered dead load factors. All live loads are similarly
multiplied by the live load factor.
Rectangular Slab Panel Design 6-131
- To create load combinations, simply repeat the relevant loads in the table. Copying lines in
the table is easily accomplished using the table editor commands.
Tip: You can use the mouse to click on the slab picture and stretch its dimensions.
Supports input
The corners of the slab are supported vertically at all times. The edges can be supported using
the following codes:
- Displacement: To support an edge in the vertical direction, i.e. simply supported. A typical
example would be a slab simply supported on a masonry wall that provides no rotational
support.
- Rotation: To restrain rotation about an axis parallel to the slab edge, i.e. continuous. This
could be a reasonable model for a slab panel supported on columns if it is continuous with
one or more adjacent panels.
- Displacement and rotation: The support conditions can be used together to support an edge
vertically and prevent rotation, e.g. a continuous slab resting on a wall.
Note: Edges that are made continuous are given zero rotation during the analysis. This could
be a reasonable assumption provided that the adjacent panel has a similar flexural stiffness.
Where adjacent spans differ significantly in terms of span length and thickness, spans
should be modelled individually with continuous supports. Differences in the negative
moments on the continuous edges should then be redistributed manually according to the
relative stiffness of each panel.

Rectangular Slab Panel Design 6-132
Design
Due to the simple finite element arrangement used, the analysis procedure will complete
almost instantaneously. You can view the design results graphically:
- Moments: Transformed
moment diagrams, using
the Wood and Armer
equations, for the top and
bottom in the X and
Y-directions are shown.
Values are given per unit
width. The transformed
moments in the top and
bottom fibres represent the
moments to be resisted by
the calculated
reinforcement.
- Deflections: Short-term
elastic deflections, based
on the un-cracked gross
concrete section are
shown. To view an
estimate of the long term
effects like shrinkage and
creep, enable the show
long term deflections
option.
- Reinforcement: Required
reinforcement for the top
and bottom in the X and
Y-directions is shown. The
calculated reinforcement is
based on the transformed
moments and therefore
includes the effects of
torsion.
Rectangular Slab Panel Design 6-133
Calcsheets
The slab panel design output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad.
Various settings can be made with regards to the inclusion of design results and pictures.

Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
Recalling a data file
If you enable the Data File option before sending a calcsheet to Calcpad, you can later recall
the design by double-clicking the relevant object in Calcpad. A data file embedded in Calcpad
is saved as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the column design
module as well.

Rectangular Slab Panel Design 6-134
Detailing
Reinforcement bending schedules can be generated for designed slab panels. Bending
schedules can be edited and printed using Padds.
Generating a bending schedule
Based on your initial input and the design results, initial values are chosen for the
reinforcement. Change the values to suit your detailing requirements.
Required information:
- Schedule file name: Name of the Padds drawing and schedule file.
- Detailing parameters:
- First bar mark: Mark to
use for the main bar.
You may use any
alphanumeric string of
up to five characters,
e.g. 'A', '01' or 'A01'.
The mark is incre-
mented automatically
for subsequent bars.
- Concrete cover to
reinforcement
- Reinforcement bond
length.
- Drawing scale: The
drawing paper is sized
to fit the complete detail.
- Reinforcement for top and bottom layers in each of the X and Y-directions.
Press Generate to create a Padds bending schedule with the entered settings. To discard all
changes you have made and revert to the default values for the designed column, press Reset.
Note: To detail slabs of more complex shape, use Padds.
Rectangular Slab Panel Design 6-135
Editing and printing of bending schedules
Detailed editing and printing of bending schedules are done with Padds. For this, follow the
steps below:
- In Padds, choose Open on the File menu and double-click the relevant file name. The file
will be opened and displayed in two cascaded widows. The active windows will contain
the drawing of the slab panel and the other window the bar schedule.
- Make any necessary changes to the drawing, e.g. editing or adding bars and adding
construction notes.
- Click on any visible part of the window containing the cutting list to bring it to the front.
Enter the following information at the relevant positions:
- Member description: Use as many lines of the Member column to enter a description,
e.g. 'SLAB PANEL E'.
- General schedule information: Press PgDn to move to the bottom of the bending
schedule page and enter the detailers name, reference drawing number etc.
- Bending schedule title: Enter the project name and bending schedule title in the centre
block at the bottom of the bending schedule.
- Bending schedule number: The schedule number in the bottom right corner defaults to
the file name, e.g. 'SLABE.PAD'. The schedule number can be edited as required to
suit your numbering system, e.g. 'P123456-BS405'.
Note: The bottom left block is reserved for your company logo and should be set up as
described in the Padds User's Guide.
Finally, combine the beam drawing and schedule onto one or more pages using the Title Block
and Print button on the bending schedule window.


Rectangular Slab Panel Design 6-136

Column Design 6-137
Column Design
The concrete column design modules are suitable for the design of the following column types:
- Rectangular Column Design, RecCol: Solid rectangular columns of which the larger
column dimension does not exceed four times the smaller dimension.
- Circular Column Design, CirCol: Solid circular columns where the simplified design
approach applicable to rectangular columns may be applied.
- General Column Design, GenCol: Columns of any general shape and columns with
openings.
All column design modules can design reinforced concrete columns subjected to bi-axial
bending. Bending schedules can be generated for editing and printing using the PROKON
Drawing and Detailing System, Padds.


Column Design 6-138
Theory and application
The following text gives an overview of the theory and application of the design codes.
Design scope
The column design modules design reinforced concrete columns subjected to axial force and
bi-axial bending moment.
The following conditions apply to the design of rectangular and circular columns:
- The design codes give simplified procedures for designing columns of which the ratio of
the larger to the smaller dimension does not exceed 1:4.
- The procedure used for the design of rectangular columns is applied to the design of
circular columns.
- The reinforcement layout is assumed to be symmetrical.
Reinforcement bending schedules can be generated for designed columns. Schedules can be
opened in Padds for further editing and printing.
Codes of practice
The following codes are supported:
- ACI 318 - 1999.
- ACI 318 - 2005.
- AS3600 - 2001.
- BS 8110 - 1985.
- BS 8110 - 1997.
- CP65 - 1999.
- Eurocode 2 - 2004.
- HK Concrete - 2004.
- IS:456 - 2000.
- SABS 0100 - 2000.
Units of measurement
Both Metric and Imperial units of measurement are supported.

Column Design 6-139
List of symbols
The design code symbols are used as far as possible:
Rectangular column geometry
b : Width of cross section, perpendicular to h (mm or in). This smaller column
dimension is taken parallel the X-axis.
d'
x
: Distance from the column face to the centre of the reinforcement resisting
moments about the X-axis (mm or in).
d'
y
: Distance from the column face to the centre of the reinforcement resisting
moments about the Y-axis (mm or in).
h : Depth of the cross section (mm or in). This larger column dimension is taken
parallel the Y-axis.
Circular column geometry
d' : Distance from the column face to the centre of the reinforcement (mm or in).
: Diameter of column (mm or in).
Effective lengths
x : Effective length factor for bending about the X-axis
y : Effective length factor for bending about the Y-axis
Material properties
f
cu
: Concrete cube strength (MPa or psi).
f
y
: Reinforcement yield strength (MPa or psi).
E
s
: Modulus of elasticity of reinforcement (GPa or ksi).
Applied loads
M
x top
: Moment about the X-axis applied at the top end of the column (kNm or kipft).
If left blank, a value of zero is used. A positive moment is taken anti-
clockwise.
M
x bot
: Moment about the X-axis applied at the bottom (kNm or kipft).
M
y top
: Moment about the Y-axis applied at the top (kNm or kipft). A positive moment
is taken anti-clockwise.
M
y bot
: Moment about the Y-axis applied at the bottom (kNm or kipft).

Column Design 6-140
P : Axial force in the column (kN of kip). A positive value denotes a downward
compression force and a negative value an uplift force.
Design output
A
c
: Gross concrete area (mm or in).
A
scx
: Area of vertical reinforcement to resist the effective design moment about
the X-axis (mm or in).
A
scy
: Area of vertical reinforcement to resist the effective design moment about the
Y-axis (mm or in).
b' : Effective depth to reinforcement in shorter direction of rectangular
column (mm or in).
h' : Effective depth to reinforcement in longer direction of rectangular
column (mm or in).
L
ex
: Effective length for bending about the X-axis (m or ft).
L
ey
: Effective length for bending about the X-axis (m or ft).
M
add
: Additional moment about the design axis of a circular column (kNm or kipft).
M
add x
: Additional slenderness moment about the X-axis due to the column deflection
(kNm or kipft).
M
add y
: Additional moment about the Y-axis (kNm or kipft).
M
min x
: Minimum design moment for bending about the X-axis (kNm or kipft).
M
min y
: Minimum design moment about the Y-axis (kNm or kipft).
M
x
: Design moment about the X-axis for rectangular column (kNm or kipft).
M
y
: Design moment about the X-axis for rectangular column (kNm or kipft).
M' : Design moment (kNm or kipft).
M'
x
: Effective uniaxial design moment about the X-axis for rectangular
column (kNm or kipft).
M'
y
: Effective uniaxial design moment about the Y-axis for rectangular
column (kNm or kipft).

Column Design 6-141
Code requirements
The supported design codes have similar clauses with respect to bracing and end fixity
conditions.
Braced and un-braced columns
A column is braced in a particular plane if lateral stability to the structure as a whole is
provided in that plane. A column should otherwise be considered as un-braced.
Global lateral stability is normally provided by means of shear walls or other bracing systems.
Such bracing systems should be sufficiently stiff to attract and transmit horizontal loads acting
on the structure to the foundations.
RecCol and Circol allow you to set independent bracing conditions for bending about the X
and Y-axis of rectangular columns.
Effective length of columns
The effective length or height of a column depends on its end conditions, i.e. the degree of
fixity at each end. Four end condition categories are defined in the design codes:
- End condition 1: The end of the column is connected monolithically to beams or slabs that
are deeper than the column dimension in the relevant plane.
- End condition 2: The end of the column is connected monolithically to beams or slabs
which are shallower than the overall column dimension in the relevant plane.
- End condition 3: The end of the column is connected to members that provide some
nominal restraint. In the context of this program, this condition is regarded as pinned.
- End condition 4: The end of the column has no lateral or rotational restraint, i.e. a free end
of a cantilever column. In the context of this program, this condition is regarded as free.
The various codes generally suggest effective length factor, , in line with the following:

End condition
at the top
End condition
at the bottom
(Effective
length factor)
Column in braced frame ( s 1.0)
Fixed
Fixed
Pinned
0.75 to 0.85
0.90 to 0.95
Pinned
Fixed
Pinned
0.90 to 0.95
1.00

Column Design 6-142
End condition
at the top
End condition
at the bottom
(Effective
length factor)
Column in unbraced frame ( > 1.0)
Fixed
Fixed
Pinned
1.2 to 1.5
1.6 to 1.8
Pinned
Fixed
Pinned
1.6 to 1.8
N.A.
Free Fixed 2.2

Note: The column design modules automatically calculate the effective length factors in
relation to the specified end conditions. You may however manually adjust the effective
length factors if necessary.
Short and slender columns
A column is considered to be short if the effects of its lateral deflection can be ignored.
Slenderness in a given plane is expressed as the ratio between the effective length and the
column dimension in that plane. The slenderness limits for short and slender columns set by
some of the supported codes of practice are:

Slenderness limit BS 8110 - 1997 SABS 0100 1992
Short
Braced
h
l
ex
and
b
l
ey
< 15
h
l
ex
and
b
l
ey
<
2
1
M
M
7 17
Column
Unbraced
h
l
ex
and
b
l
ey
< 10
h
l
ex
and
b
l
ey
< 10
Maximum
All l
o
s 60b
L
o
s 60b and b >
4
h

Slenderness
Cantilevers b 60
h
b 100
lo
2
s s l
o
s 25b and b >
4
h


Note: In the above expressions for maximum slenderness, h and b are taken as the larger
and smaller column dimensions respectively.


Column Design 6-143
Input
The column definition has several input components:
- Geometry and material properties.
- Bracing conditions and fixity at the column ends.
- Load cases.
Geometry input
The RecCol and CirCol modules have been simplified for the design of rectangular and
circular columns. Entering a column's geometry input in either of these modules is therefore
straightforward.

Tip: You can use the mouse to click on the column pictures and stretch certain dimensions,
e.g. the column length.

Column Design 6-144
General column geometry input
GenCol is used to design columns of any general shape and hence has a reasonably intricate
input procedure. A column section is entered as one or more shapes or polygons:
- The Code column is used for categorise the data that follows in the next columns:
+ : The start of a new polygon. An absolute reference coordinate must be entered
in the X/Radius and Y/Angle columns. If you leave either blank, a value of
zero is used.
: Start of an opening. An absolute reference coordinate must be entered in the
X/Radius and Y/Angle columns.
R : If you enter an 'R' or leave the Code column blank, a line is drawn using
relative coordinates, i.e. measured from the previous coordinate.
L : Enter an 'L' in the Code column blank to make the following coordinate
absolute.
A : To enter an arc that continues from the last line or arc. The arc radius and angle
are entered in the X/Radius and Y/Angle columns respectively. The angle is
measured clockwise from the previous line or arc end point.


Column Design 6-145
C : A circle with the radius entered in the X/Radius column.
B : A reinforcement bar with its diameter entered in the X/Radius column.
Note: Bar positions and diameters do not need to be entered when using RecCol and
CirCol.
- The X/Radius/Bar dia and Y/Angle columns are used for entering coordinates:
X : Absolute or relative X coordinate (mm or in). Values are taken positive to the
right and negative to the left.
Y : Absolute or relative Y coordinate (mm or in). Values are taken positive upward
and negative downward.
You do need to close the polygon the starting coordinate is automatically used as the ending
coordinate. If two polygons intersect, the geometry of the last polygon takes preference and the
previous polygon is clipped. A hole in a structure can, for example, be entered on top of
previously entered shapes.
Tip: You can leave blank lines between polygons/bars to improve readability.
If convenient, e.g. to simplify loading input, the column can be rotated by entering an angle.
Material properties input
The following material property values are required:
- Concrete cube strength, f
cu
(MPa or psi).
- Reinforcement yield strength, f
y
(MPa or psi).
- GenCol also requires a value for the modulus of elasticity of the reinforcement,
E
s
(GPa or ksi).
Specifying bracing and fixity conditions
Define the bracing and fixity conditions by making the appropriate selections. For an
explanation of the terms used, refer to page 6-141. The effective length factors are
automatically adjusted in relation to the specified bracing and end fixity conditions. If
necessary, you may manually edit the effective length factors.
Note: RecCol allows the bracing and end fixities to be set independently for bending about
the X and Y-axis.

Column Design 6-146
Loads input
More than one ultimate load case can be entered:
- Enter a case number and description for each load case.
- Axial load (kN or kip). A positive value denotes a compression force. The program does
not automatically include the self-weight of the column. The self-weight should be
calculated and manually included in the applied loads.
- Moment values (kNm or kipft). Use the same sign for the top and bottom moments about
an axis to define double-curvature about that axis.

Note: All entered loads should be factored ultimate loads.
You can use as many lines as necessary to define a load case all values applicable to a
specific load case are added together.

Column Design 6-147
Design
The column design modules follow different design approaches:
- RecCol and CirCol calculate the required reinforcement for the column.
- GenCol evaluates the column for the entered reinforcement or calculates a single bar
diameter to be used at each defined bar position.
Irrespective the approach followed, additional moments are calculated for slender columns and
automatically added to the applied moments. The design moment is taken to be equal to or
larger than the minimum moment set by the code.
Rectangular column design
The design procedure given in the codes is applied. The column is evaluated at the top, middle
and bottom and the critical section identified as the section requiring the greatest amount of
reinforcement.
The design procedure can be summarised as follows:
- Column design charts are constructed for bending about the X and Y-axis.
- If the column is slender, additional slenderness moments are calculated as required about a
single or both axes.
- For slender columns, the applied moments and additional moments are summed for each
axis.
- In the case of bi-axial
bending, the moments are
converted to an effective
design moment about a
single design axis.
- The reinforcement required
to resist the design moment
is read from the applicable
column design chart.
- Using the same procedure, a
design moment is derived
about the axis perpendicular
to the design axis.
Reinforcement resisting the
secondary design moment is
read from the relevant chart.

Column Design 6-148
Circular column design
The same simplified design
procedure as for rectangular
columns is used. The major and
minor column dimensions, h and
b, are both set equal to the
column diameter.
The column is evaluated at the
top, middle and bottom and the
critical section identified as the
section requiring the greatest
amount of reinforcement.


Note: The design procedure for bi-axially bent slender columns tend to be conservative due
to he codes' allowance for additional moment about both the X and Y axes.
General column design
GenCol designs columns that do not necessarily fall inside the scope of the code requirements.
The program therefore reverts to basic principles, e.g. strain compatibility and equilibrium, to
analyse columns. This is achieved using an automated finite difference analysis.
The following calculations are followed:
- The section properties are
calculated and the column
slenderness evaluated.
- For a slender column, the
additional slenderness
moment is calculated and
applied about the weak axis,
i.e. axis of lowest second
moment of inertia. The
output gives the X and
Y-axis components.
- The design moment and axis
are determined by taking the

Column Design 6-149
vector sum of the applied and additional moments.
- An iterative solution is obtained using strain compatibility and equilibrium as criteria. The
simplified rectangular stress block given by the codes is used.
Note: Given the differences in the design procedures described above, GenCol will not
yield identical results to RecCol and Circular Column Design modules when designing
simple rectangular or circular columns.

Column Design 6-150
Design charts
The column design charts can be displayed for the specified column geometry and material
properties:
- Rectangular columns: Separate charts are given for bending about the X and Y-axis for
various percentages of reinforcement.
- Circular columns: Due to axial symmetry, a single design chart is shown.
- General columns: Separate charts are given for bending about the X and Y-axis.

Displaying design charts about other axes
You can use Gencol to define a column and then rotate it about any angle. Design charts can
then be displayed for the resultant horizontal and vertical axes.

Column Design 6-151
Calcsheets
The column design output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad.
The different column design modules allow various settings, including design charts, tabular
design summaries and detailed design calculations.

Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
Recalling a data file
If you enable the Data File option before sending a calcsheet to Calcpad, you can later recall
the design by double-clicking the relevant object in Calcpad. A data file embedded in Calcpad
is saved as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the column design
module as well.

Column Design 6-152
Detailing
Reinforcement bending schedules can be generated for designed columns. Bending schedules
can be edited and printed using Padds.
Generating a bending schedule
Based on your initial input and the design results, initial values are chosen for the
reinforcement. Change the values to suit your detailing requirements.
Required information:
- Schedule file name: Name
of the Padds drawing and
schedule file.
- Main bars (high yield steel
is assumed):
- Rectangular columns:
Bar diameter for the
corner bars and the
number and diameter of
the intermediate bars in
the horizontal and
vertical faces of a
rectangular column, as
displayed on the screen.
- Circular columns: The
diameter and number of
main bars. It is
generally assumed good
practice to use at least
six bars.
- General columns: Main
bar diameters are
defined in the initial
input. The shape code
can be selected for each
individual bar.
- Lap length factor for
main bars.

Column Design 6-153
Note: To ensure that the amount of reinforcement supplied is not less than the amount
required, the relevant values are shown in a table.
- Level at the bottom of the column (m or ft).
- Level at the top of the column or, in the case of starter bars, at the top of the
base (m or ft).
- Links:
- Rectangular columns: Enter a link diameter and spacing, e.g. 'R10@200, and choose a
link layouts. Link type '2' should only be used with square columns.
- Circular columns: Enter a link diameter and spacing and choose between using
circular or spiral links.
- General columns: Select a shape code and follow the prompts to indicate the link
coordinates. Available shape codes include '35' (normally used for holding
intermediate bars in position), '60' or '61' (used to enclose four bars by a rectangular
link) and '86' or '87' (spiral bar for use with circular columns).
- Link type: Choose one of the displayed link layouts.
- Concrete cover on links (mm or in).
- Detailing style to use:
- First bar mark: Mark to use for the first main bar. You may use any alphanumeric
string of up to five characters, e.g. 'A', '01' or 'A01'. The mark is incremented
automatically for subsequent bars.
- Select a size for the sketch: If A4 is selected, the drawing is scaled to fit on a full page
and the accompanying schedule on a separate page. The A5 selection will scale the
drawing to fit on the same page with the schedule.
The following additional settings should be made:
- Column continuous: Enable this option to make the column bars continuous and have it
detailed with a splice at the top. If this option is disabled the column is detailed with bends
at the top to anchor it in a beam or slab.
- Starter bars only: If enabled, starter bars are generated instead of complete column bars.
- Double links at kinks: If enabled, a set of double links is provided at the position of the
main bar kinks. Circular columns are detailed with straight bars, removing the need for
this option.
Press Generate to create a Padds bending schedule with the entered settings. To discard all
changes you have made and revert to the default values for the designed column, press Reset.

Column Design 6-154
Editing and printing of bending schedules
Detailed editing and printing of bending schedules are done with Padds. For this, follow the
steps below:
- In Padds, choose Open on the File menu and double-click the relevant file name. The file
will be opened and displayed in two cascaded widows. The active windows will contain
the drawing of the column and the other window the bar schedule.
- Make any necessary changes to the drawing, e.g. editing or adding bars and adding
construction notes.
- Click on any visible part of the window containing the cutting list to bring it to the front.
Enter the following information at the relevant positions:
- Member description: Use as many lines of the Member column to enter a member
description, e.g. 'COLUMN TYPE 5'.
- General schedule information: Press PgDn to move to the bottom of the bending
schedule page and enter the detailers name, reference drawing number etc.
- Bending schedule title: Enter the project name and bending schedule title in the centre
block at the bottom of the bending schedule.
- Bending schedule number: The schedule number in the bottom right corner defaults to
the file name, e.g. 'COLUMN5.PAD'. The schedule number can be edited as required
to suit your numbering system, e.g. 'P123456-BS201'.
Note: The bottom left block is reserved for your company logo and should be set up as
described in the Padds User's Guide.
Finally, combine the column drawing and schedule onto one or more pages using the Title
Block and Print command on the bending schedule window.


Retaining Wall Design 6-155
Retaining Wall Design
The Retaining Wall Design module is used to analyse retaining walls for normal soil and
surcharge loads or seismic load conditions. Various types of walls can be considered, including
cantilever, simply supported and propped cantilever walls.
Padds compatible bending schedules can also be generated for designed walls.


Retaining Wall Design 6-156
Theory and application
The following text gives an overview of the application of retaining wall analysis theory. For
more detailed information, reference should be made to specialist literature.
Design scope
The program can design most conventional retaining walls, including cantilever, simply
supported and propped cantilever walls. Both static and seismic load conditions are supported.
Analyses are performed using either the Coulomb or the Rankine theory.
Walls can be made to slope forward or backwards and the wall thickness can vary with height.
Toes may optionally be included. Line loads, point loads and distributed loads can be placed on
the backfill. A water table can be defined behind the wall. If required, the soil pressure
coefficients can be adjusted manually.
Padds compatible bending schedules can be generated for designed walls.
Codes of practice
The following codes are supported:
- ACI 318 - 1999.
- ACI 318 - 2005.
- AS3600 - 2001.
- BS 8110 - 1985.
- BS 8110 - 1997.
- CP65 - 1999.
- Eurocode 2 - 1992.
- Eurocode 2 - 2004.
- HK Concrete - 2004.
- IS:456 - 2000.
- SABS 0100 - 2000.

Retaining Wall Design 6-157
List of symbols
Where possible, the same symbols are used as in the design codes.
Wall geometry
A
t
: Wall thickness at the top (m).
A
b
: Wall thickness at the bottom (m).
B : Horizontal base dimension in front of the wall (m).
C : Depth of the base (m).
D : Horizontal base dimension at back of the wall (m).
F : Depth of the shear key (m).
H
1
: Total wall height (m).
H
2
: Height of soil in front of the wall (m).
H
3
: Height from top of wall to soil level at back of wall (m).
H
r
: Height of the support point from the top of the wall for a simply supported or
propped cantilevered wall (m).
H
w
: Height of water table, measured from the top of wall (m).
x : Inclination of the wall (m).
x
f
: Position of the shear key, measured from the front of the base (m).
x
L
: Position of the line load, measured from the front edge of the wall (m).
x
P
: Position of the point load, measured from the front edge of the wall (m).
: Angle of soil behind wall ().
Material properties
f
cu
: Concrete cube compressive strength (MPa).
f
y
: Reinforcement yield strength (MPa).
o : Angle of friction between wall and soil (). Must be zero if Rankine theory is
specified.
| : Angle of internal friction ().
v : Poissons ration for the soil. The plane strain value should be used rather than
the triaxial value see geometry and loads input.

Retaining Wall Design 6-158
Applied loads
k
h
: Horizontal acceleration for seismic analysis (g).
k
v
: Vertical acceleration for seismic analysis (g).
L : Line load on or behind the wall (kN/m).
L
h
: Horizontal line load at top of wall (kN/m).
P : Point load on or behind the wall (kN).
W : Uniform distributed load behind the wall (kN/m
2
).
Design parameters
DL
fact
: Ultimate limit state dead load factor.
LL
fact
: Ultimate limit state live load factor.
P
max
: Design bearing pressure at serviceability limit state (kPa)
SF
Ovt
: Allowable safety factor for overturning at serviceability limit state.
SF
Slip
: Allowable safety factor for slip at serviceability limit state.
Design output
A
s1
: Flexural reinforcement in the wall (mm
2
).
A
s2
: Flexural reinforcement in the back part of the base (mm
2
).
A
s3
: Flexural reinforcement in the front part of the base (mm
2
).
A
c1
: Compression reinforcement in the wall (mm
2
).
A
c2
: Compression reinforcement in the back part of the base (mm
2
).
A
c3
: Compression reinforcement in the front part of the base (mm
2
).
D
s
: Density of soil (kN/m
3
).
K : Active pressure coefficient, including seismic effects.
K
a
: Active pressure coefficient.
K
p
: Passive pressure coefficient.
K
ps
: Passive pressure coefficient including seismic effects.
M
1
: Maximum ultimate moment in the wall (kNm).
M
2
: Maximum ultimate moment in back part of the base (kNm).
M
3
: Maximum ultimate moment in front part of the base (kNm).
P
fac
: Pressure factor used for Terzaghi-Peck pressure distribution diagram.

Retaining Wall Design 6-159
V : Shear force in wall at base-wall junction (kN).
v : Shear stress in wall at base-wall junction (MPa).
v
c
: Allowable shear stress in wall at base-wall junction (MPa).
: Friction coefficient between base and soil.
General assumptions
The following assumptions are applicable to the analysis:
- A unit width of the wall is considered.
- Predominantly active soil pressures are assumed to act on the right-hand side of the wall
- Predominantly passive pressures are present on the left-hand side of the wall.
- Soil pressure, soil weight and wall self-weight are taken as dead loads.
- Applied distributed loads, line loads and point loads are considered to be live loads.
- If a water table is specified behind the wall, a linear pressure distribution is used along its
depth. The pressure applied on the bottom of the base is varied linearly from maximum at
the back, to zero at the front.
- Point loads are distributed along the depth of the soil. In contrast, line loads are taken
constant in the transverse direction of the wall.
Application of Coulomb and Rankine theories
The program can analyse retaining walls using either the Coulomb wedge theory or the
Rankine theory.
Note: This manual does not attempt to explain the applicable theories in detail, but merely
highlights some aspects of their application. For more detail, reference should be made to
specialist literature.
Friction between the wall and soil
The higher the value of the angle of friction between the wall and soil, o, the greater the degree
of rotation of the system is implied. If the Coulomb theory is used, the friction angle should
preferable be set equal to the internal angle of friction, |. This will yield pressures that
correlate better with the Rankine theory, than would be the case if o is set equal to zero.
Active pressure on the shear key
Depending on its position, the shear key (if any) may be subjected to active pressure. The
program allows for active pressure to be included or excluded from the analysis.

Retaining Wall Design 6-160
Saturated and submerged soil
To keep input as simple as possible, the program does no provide an option to enter values for
specific gravity, void ratio, moisture content and degree of saturation. However, reasonable
modelling of saturated soil and submerged conditions is still possible:
- If no water table is present,
soil
should be taken as a value that includes moisture content
that can reasonably expected.
- If a water table is present, the portion of the soil above the water table will likely have a
degree of saturation close to unity. Using the wet density rather than the dry density should
yield reasonable results.
Point loads and line loads
Point loads and line loads behind the wall are incorporated using the Boussinesq theory. The
theory can be found in Foundation Analysis and Design by Joseph E Bowles, chapter 11-13,
published by McGraw Hill. It is recommended that the plane strain v be used instead of the
tri-axial v. Values of plain strain v versus tri-axial v can be found in the table below.

Tri-axial v 0.30 0.33 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.60
Plane strain v 0.42 0.50 0.54 0.67 0.82 1.00 1.50
Seismic analysis
The program uses the Okabe-Monobe equations, based on the Coulomb wedge theory, to
calculate revised active and passive pressure coefficients. The seismic portion of the active
pressure is assumed to act at 60% of the soil height behind the wall, effectively increasing the
lever arm of the soil pressure.
The densities of the materials are also adjusted by multiplying with (1-k
v
). An upward
acceleration therefore effectively decreases the stabilising effect of the wall and soil weight.
Live loads can be optionally included in a seismic analysis. If included, live loads are applied
with the same pressure coefficients as for dead loads.
Modelling of soil pressure behind rigid walls
The program suggests values for the active and passive pressure coefficients, K
a
and K
p
. These
values generally yield reasonable results for cantilever walls. However, simply supported and
propped cantilever walls tend to be very rigid. This means that the actual active soil pressures
could potentially rise well above the level normally assumed. The program therefore allows
uniform pressure distribution to be specified, i.e. F
active
= P
fac
H
wall

soil
K
a
. Typical values

Retaining Wall Design 6-161
for the uniform pressure coefficient, P
fact
, was determined by Terzaghi and Peck
*
. An average
value of 0.65 should yield reasonable results in most cases.
Seepage modelling
When a water table is modelled, seepage can optionally be allowed below the wall. If seepage
is allowed, hydrostatic pressure is modelled as follows:
- The pressure behind the wall is taken as zero on the level of the water table and then
linearly increased with depth.
- At the front of the wall, the pressure is taken as zero at ground level and linearly varied
with depth.
- The hydrostatic pressure below the base is varied linearly between the values calculated
behind and in front of the wall. If seepage is not allowed, the hydrostatic pressure in front
of the wall or below the base is taken as zero.

*
Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice, Third Edition, by Karl
Terszaghi, Ralph B. Peck and Gholamreza Mesri, published by Wiley-Interscience

Retaining Wall Design 6-162
Input
Use the input tables to enter the wall geometry, loading and general design parameters.
Geometry and loads input
When entering the dimensions and loads working on the wall, you should keep the following
in mind:
- Leave the value for F blank if a shear key is not required.
- The value for H
r
is only required for simply supported and propped cantilever walls.
- Leave the H
w
field blank if you do not want to define a water table. If you wish to design a
liquid retaining wall, you may set the water table above the soil level.
- All applied loads work downward. Point loads are distributed at 45 through the depth of
the soil. Line loads are applied uniformly along the width of the wall.


Retaining Wall Design 6-163
- Disable the option to allow seepage below the base if applicable, e.g. for liquid retaining
walls.
- Allow active pressure to be applied to the back of the shear key (if any) if applicable, e.g.
if it is positioned towards the back of the base with compacted backfill.
Note: For suggestions on modelling saturated soil and submerged conditions, refer to page
6-159.
Enabling seismic analysis
When enabling Seismic analysis, you should also enter the following analysis parameters:
- Enter the equivalent seismic accelerations in the horizontal and vertical directions.
- Optionally include live loads in the analysis.
Soils pressure coefficients
The program will calculate the soil pressure coefficients by default. To use your own
coefficients, select User defined design values:
- Active and passive
pressure coefficients,
K
a
and K
p
.
- Soil friction constant
below the base, .
- For simply supported
and propped
cantilever walls, you
can choose between
triangular or uniform
pressure
distributions. In the
case of rigid walls, a
uniform pressure
coefficient can also
be entered. See page
6-160 for more
detail.


Retaining Wall Design 6-164
Selecting a wall type
Choose one of the following wall types:
- Cantilever: The base is fixed against rotation with the wall cantilevering from it.
- Simply supported: The base has no fixity, i.e. free to rotate. The wall is supported
horizontally at the bottom and at the level defined by Hr.
- Propped cantilever: Fixed at the bottom and simply supported at the level defined by H
r
.
Selecting an analysis theory
Choose between the Column and Rankine analysis theories. The Rankine theory cannot be
used if the slope of the backfill is less than zero. Due to this and other limitations of the
Rankine theory, use of the Coulomb wedge theory is often preferred.


Retaining Wall Design 6-165
Design
You can design the entered wall configuration or use the optimisation functions to obtain a
more economic design.
Analysing the entered wall configuration
The analysis includes several ultimate and serviceability limit state checks.
Calculating the ultimate design loads
Loads due to soil pressure and all weights, including concrete and soil, are multiplied by the
dead load factor. Applied loads are considered to be live loads and are therefore multiplied
with the live load factor.
Additional checks for propped cantilever walls
In the case of a propped cantilever wall, the program checks whether fixity can be obtained at
the base. Fixity is attained by balancing loads such as own weight and soil weight plus the
pressure distribution under the base against the fixity moment. If the fixity moment attainable
is less than one and a half times the theoretical fixed moment, the fixity moment is reduced and
the bending moment diagram and soil pressures adjusted accordingly.
Checking stability
Stability against overturning of
the wall is checked by assuming
rotation about the lower front
corner of the base. If a shear key
is used and it is located within
one quarter of base width from
the front, the program also
checks for rotation about the
bottom of the shear key.
Design results
The design output gives the
following values at ultimate limit
state:
- Bending moment diagrams (kNm).
- Required reinforcement in the base and wall (mm
2
).
- Maximum shear stress in the wall, v, and concrete shear capacity, v
c
(MPa).

Retaining Wall Design 6-166
Note: The wall design does not include any axial effects due to friction or applied loads.
Results for serviceability limit state checks include:
- Safety factor for overturning.
- Safety factor for slip.
- Bearing pressure diagram below the base.

Optimising the wall dimensions
Optimise the wall using the following functions:
- Select B: Optimise the horizontal base dimension in front of the wall. The smallest value
of B is calculated to not exceed the allowable bearing pressure and safety factor for
overturning. A warning message is displayed if an appropriate value could not be
calculated.

Retaining Wall Design 6-167
- Select D: Optimise the horizontal base dimension behind wall. The smallest value of D is
calculated to satisfy the requirements set for the allowable bearing pressure and safety
factor for overturning.
- Select F: The value of F is optimised using the safety factor for slip as only criterion.
Note: None of the optimisation functions considers all design criteria. It is therefore
possible that after optimising the value of B, for example, the safety factor for slip is
exceeded. You may thus need to alternate optimisation functions to arrive at a workable
solution.

Retaining Wall Design 6-168
Calcsheets
The retaining wall design output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to
Calcpad. Various settings can be made with regards to the inclusion of design results and
pictures.

Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
Recalling a data file
If you enable the Data File option before sending a calcsheet to Calcpad, you can later recall
the design by double-clicking the relevant object in Calcpad. A data file embedded in Calcpad
is saved as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the wall design module
as well.

Retaining Wall Design 6-169
Detailing
Reinforcement bending schedules can be generated for designed retaining wall. Bending
schedules can be edited and printed using Padds.
Generating a bending schedule
Based on your initial input and the design results, initial values are chosen for the
reinforcement. Change the values to suit your detailing requirements.
Required information:
- Schedule file name: Name
of the Padds drawing and
schedule file.
- Wall and base reinforcement:
- Reinforcement is
generated at various
positions in the wall and
base using the
calculated ultimate
bending moments.
Change the diameters
and spacing as required.
- Bond stress: Allowable
stress for evaluating bar anchorage of the wall starter bars. If 90 bends proof
insufficient, the program automatically uses full 180 hooks. Bar spacing is also
reduced to lower bond stress.
- Detailing style to use:
- First bar mark: Mark to use for the first main bar. You may use any alphanumeric
string of up to five characters, e.g. 'A', '01' or 'A01'. The mark is incremented
automatically for subsequent bars.
- Select a size for the sketch: If A4 is selected; the drawing is scaled to fit on a full page
and the accompanying schedule on a separate page. The A5 selection will scale the
drawing to fit on the same page with the schedule.
Press Generate to create a Padds bending schedule with the entered settings. To discard all
changes you have made and revert to the default values for the designed retaining wall, press
Reset. Also press Reset if you have changed the reinforcement bond stress and want to
recalculate the reinforcement.

Retaining Wall Design 6-170
Editing and printing of bending schedules
Detailed editing and printing of bending schedules are done with Padds. For this, follow the
steps below:
- In Padds, choose Open on the File menu and double-click the relevant file name. The file
will be opened and displayed in two cascaded widows. The active windows will contain
the drawing of the retaining wall and the other window the bar schedule.
- Make any necessary changes to the drawing, e.g. editing or adding bars and adding
construction notes.
- Click on any visible part of the window containing the cutting list to bring it to the front.
Enter the following information at the relevant positions:
- Member description: Use as many lines of the Member column to enter a description,
e.g. 'WALL TYPE C'.
- General schedule information: Press PgDn to move to the bottom of the bending
schedule page and enter the detailers name, reference drawing number etc.
- Bending schedule title: Enter the project name and bending schedule title in the centre
block at the bottom of the bending schedule.
- Bending schedule number: The schedule number in the bottom right corner defaults to
the file name, e.g. 'WALLC'. The schedule number can be edited as required to suit
your numbering system, e.g. 'P123456-BS303'.
Note: The bottom left block is reserved for your company logo and should be set up as
described in the Padds User's Guide.
Finally, combine the beam drawing and schedule onto one or more pages using the Title Block
and Print button on the bending schedule window.


Column Base Design 6-171
Column Base Design
The Column Base Design module is used to design and optimise rectangular column bases.
Padds compatible bending schedules can be generated for designed bases.


Column Base Design 6-172
Theory and application
The following text gives an overview of the theory and application of the design codes.
Design scope
The program designs rectangular concrete column bases subjected to vertical force and bi-axial
bending moment. The program designs the base at ultimate limit state for bending moment and
shear.
The program also verifies the stability requirements for overturning and bearing pressure.
Stability checks can be performed at ultimate limit state or using the working force method.
Refer to page 6-176 for details.
Reinforcement bending schedules can be generated for designed bases. Schedules can be
opened in Padds, for further editing and printing.
Codes of practice
The following codes are supported:
- ACI 318 - 1999.
- ACI 318 - 2005.
- AS3600 - 2001.
- BS 8110 - 1985.
- BS 8110 - 1997.
- CP65 - 1999.
- Eurocode 2 - 1992.
- Eurocode 2 - 2004.
- HK Concrete - 2004.
- IS:456 - 2000.
- SABS 0100 - 2000.
Units of measurement
Both Metric and Imperial units of measurement are supported.

Column Base Design 6-173
List of symbols
The design code symbols are used as far as possible.
Geometry:
A, B : Horizontal and vertical base dimensions as shown on the screen (m or ft).
C, D : Horizontal and vertical column dimensions as shown on the screen (m or ft).
E, F : Horizontal and vertical column eccentricity as shown on the screen (m or ft).
X : Stub column height (m or ft).
X : Base thickness (m or ft).
Z : Soil cover on base (m or ft).
Rebar depth : Concrete cover plus half of the reinforcement diameter (mm or in).
Materials:
Density : Concrete and soil densities (kN/m or lb/ft).
Friction angle : Internal friction angle for calculating passive soil stress.
Friction constant : Coefficient for calculating horizontal friction between the base and soil.
f
ci
: Concrete cylinder strength of base and column (MPa or psi).
f
cu
: Concrete cube strength of base and column (MPa or psi).
f
y
: Reinforcement yield strength (MPa or psi).
Safety factors:
SF
over
: Safety factor for overturning.
SF
slip
: Safety factor for slip.
Loads:
H
x
, H
y
: Horizontal forces in X and Y direction (kN or kip).
LF
ovt
: Load factor to use for evaluating overturning stability.
LF
uls
: Load factor for ultimate limit state calculations.
M
x
, M
y
: Moment in X and Y direction (kNm or kipft).
P : Vertical load (kN or kip).

Column Base Design 6-174
Sign conventions
The X and Y-axes lie in the horizontal plane. Using a
right-hand rule, the Z-axis points vertically upward.
The sign conventions applicable to forces and
moments are as follows:
- The vertical force, P, works downward.
- The horizontal forces H
x
and H
y
are applied
parallel to the X and Y-axes.
- The moments M
x
and M
y
are applied in the X
and Y-directions, i.e. about the positive Y and
negative X-axes respectively
Post-processing frame analysis results
Forces are usually obtained using the reaction values calculated by frame analysis. When
extracting frame analysis output, the differences in the sign conventions and axis systems used
should be kept in mind:

Frame Analysis Mode
Applied load in Column Base Design module
P H
x
H
y
M
x
M
y

Frame analysis reaction value to use
Plane Frame Analysis R
y
R
x
None M None
Grillage Analysis R
y
None None M
z
M
x

Space Frame Analysis R
y
R
x
R
z
M
z
M
x


Column Base Design 6-175
Input
The column base definition has several input components:
- Geometry and material properties.
- Load cases and stability criteria.
Geometry input
Enter the base and column dimensions, omitting the values for the either column if only one
column is used. A column is positioned at the centre of the base unless non-zero values are
entered for E and/or F.

Tip: You can use the mouse to click on the base pictures and stretch certain dimensions,
e.g. the base thickness and column sizes.

Column Base Design 6-176
Material properties input
You are required to enter the properties of the concrete and soil fill and also specify the
concrete cover to the reinforcement.
Setting the stability criteria
Relevant limits should be entered for checking overturning, slip and bearing pressure at
serviceability and ultimate limit state.
Modern design codes tend to consider stability checks like overturning at ultimate limit state.
Depending on your own preference, you can use the program to check stability at ultimate limit
state or using the older method of working loads (permissible working stress):
Checking overturning at ultimate limit state
The ratio of the cumulative effects of factored destabilising loads to the effect of the factored
stabilising forces should not exceed unity. In this ratio, all forces are multiplied by the
appropriate ULS factors that exceed unity and only the self-weight components of stabilising
forces by the minimum ULS load factor that does not exceed unity.
When using this approach in the program, you will likely want to set the load factors for
overturning for all stabilising components of self-weight to the minimum prescribed ULS dead
load factor, typically between 0.9 and 1.0. For all other loads, a ULS load factor of between 1.2
and 1.6 (depending on the relevant code) will be appropriate.
Checking overturning using working loads
The older method requires the ratio of the cumulative effects of destabilising loads to
stabilising loads to be greater than an appropriate safety factor, typically
1
/
0.7
or 1.5.
When using this approach, you should enter unity values for all load factors for overturning
and specify relevant safety factors for overturning.
Checking slip at ultimate limit state
The program uses the entered load factors for ultimate limit state, LF
uls
, to evaluate slip. The
safety factor for slip should thus normally be set to unity.
Loads input
Enter one or more load cases. The following should be kept in mind:
- All loads are applied at the centre of the columns. A column is positioned at the centre of
the base unless values for E and/or F are entered.

Column Base Design 6-177
- For the case of a concrete column extending to the slab above, no stub column should be
entered, i.e. the value for X should be left blank.
- For a steel base plate bearing directly on the base, enter the plate dimensions for the
column dimensions, C and D, and use zero for the stub column height, X.
- Seen in elevation, the horizontal forces H
x
and H
y
are applied at the top of the stub
column.
- All loads are entered un-
factored. The ultimate
design loads are obtained by
multiplying the entered
forces by the specified
load factor.
- A positive value of P
denotes a downward force.
Use a negative value for
uplift.
- Moments are applied in the
X and Y directions, rather
than about the X and
Y-axes.
For detail on the sign conventions used for loads, refer to page 6-174.
Load factors
Each load has two load factors:
- LF
ovt
: Load factor to use for overturning stability check.
- LF
ULS
: Load factor to use for calculating bending moment, shear and reinforcement at
ultimate limit state analysis.
Own weight of the base is considered as a separate load case. Load factors for own weight is
entered in the geometry input table.
Note: Although overturning is also considered an ultimate limit state, the ULS abbreviation
is used to designate the strength ultimate limit state.
For more detail on calculating the safety factor for overturning at ultimate limit state, refer to
page 6-178.

Column Base Design 6-178
Design
A column base is designed for compliance with ultimate limit state and serviceability limit
state conditions:
- The required reinforcement to resist ultimate moments is calculated.
- Linear and punching shear checks are performed.
- The stability of the base is evaluated at both ultimate and serviceability limit state.
Stability checks
Stability values for overturning, slip and bearing pressure are calculated at both ultimate limit
state and serviceability limit state. The following general principles apply:
- Overturning: When considering overturning at ultimate limit state, the applied loads are
multiplied by the entered load factors for overturning to calculate the ratio of destabilising
to stabilising effects. At serviceability limit state calculations are performed using the
entered un-factored working loads.
- Slip: At ultimate limit state, all forces are multiplied by their ULS load factors. The safety
factor for slip is calculated by dividing the resisting passive soil pressure and friction by
the horizontal forces causing slip. The same calculation is performed at serviceability limit
state using un-factored forces.
- Bearing pressure: Entered loads are multiplied by their respective ULS load factors before
calculating the bearing pressure. The un-factored loads are used at serviceability limit
state.
Note: With careful manipulation of the load factors for overturning, you can manipulate the
program to evaluate overturning stability at ultimate limit state or using the working loads
method. Refer to page 6-176 for more information.
Reinforcement calculation
The loads are multiplied by the specified load factor to obtain the ultimate design loads. The
design forces, including the base self weight and weight of the soil cover, are used to calculate
the ultimate bearing pressure below the base. The program calculates the bending moments in
the base and uses the normal code formulae to obtain the required reinforcement. Nominal
reinforcement is also calculated where applicable.

Column Base Design 6-179
Shear checks
The required reinforcement for bending is used to calculate the shear resistance, v
c
, in the X
and Y-directions. For punching shear, the value is based on the average required reinforcement
in the two directions.
Linear shear
When considering
linear shear, lines are
considered at a
distance equal to the
base depth in front of
each face of the
column. The
contribution of the
soil pressure block
outside the lines is
then used to calculate
the shear stress.
Punching shear
For punching shear, shear perimeters are considered at one and a half time the base thickness
from the column faces.
Various combinations as for internal, edge and corner columns are considered.
Design results
Results of stability checks:
- Bearing pressure beneath the base. The 3D pressure diagram is shown in elevation.
- Safety factor for overturning.
- Safety factor for slip.
Note: Stability checks are performed at ultimate limit state (modern limit state approach)
and serviceability limit state (older working load approach). Depending of your way of
working and the design code used, you may prefer to use only one or both sets of results.
Results of strength checks at ultimate Limit State:
- Design moments in the X and Y-directions in the bottom and top of the base (kNm or
kipft).
- The corresponding required reinforcement (mm or in)

Column Base Design 6-180
- Linear and punching shear stresses and allowable shear stresses (MPa or psi).

Optimising base dimensions
The base dimensions can be optimised using the following functions:
- Optimise A, B and Y: Calculate the optimum values for all the base dimensions. The
optimisation procedures take into account the specified material costs.
- Select B: Calculate the optimum value for the base dimension in the Y-direction. All other
dimensions are left unchanged.
- Select A: Calculate the optimum value for the base dimension in the X-direction. All other
dimensions are left unchanged.
Note: When optimising the base dimensions A and B, the base thickness is kept constant
and no shear checks are performed. Where necessary, the base thickness should be adjusted
manually.

Column Base Design 6-181
Calcsheets
The column base design output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to
Calcpad. Various settings can be made with regards to the inclusion of design results and
pictures.

Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
Recalling a data file
If you enable the Data File option before sending a calcsheet to Calcpad, you can later recall
the design by double-clicking the relevant object in Calcpad. A data file embedded in Calcpad
is saved as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the design module as
well.

Column Base Design 6-182
Detailing
Reinforcement bending schedules can be generated for designed columns. Bending schedules
can be edited and printed using Padds.
Generating a bending schedule
Based on your initial input and the design results, initial values are chosen for the
reinforcement. Change the values to suit your detailing requirements.
Required information:
- Schedule file name: Name
of the Padds drawing and
schedule file.
- Main reinforcement:
- Change the displayed
bottom and top steel in
the X and Y-directions
as necessary.
- Top steel will only be
given for bases thicker
than 600 mm, or where
tension reinforcement is
required.
- Column reinforcement:
- At each column portion used, specify whether a normal column, stub column or no
column should be detailed.
- Main bars: Diameter of column corner bars.
- Middle bars: The number and diameter of intermediate bars in the horizontal and
vertical column faces, as displayed on the screen.
- Lap length factor: Splice length to allow for column starter bars.
- Links: Diameter, dimensions and number of stirrups to hold column starter bars in
position.
- Detailing style to use:
- First bar mark: Mark to use for the first main bar. You may use any alphanumeric
string of up to five characters, e.g. 'A', '01' or 'A01'. The mark is incremented
automatically for subsequent bars.

Column Base Design 6-183
- Select a size for the sketch: If A4 is selected; the drawing is scaled to fit on a full page
and the accompanying schedule on a separate page. The A5 selection will scale the
drawing to fit on the same page with the schedule.
- Choose a configuration of bar shape codes to use for the bottom and, where
applicable, the top reinforcement.
Press Generate to create a Padds bending schedule with the entered settings. To discard all
changes you have made and revert to the default values for the designed column, press Reset.
Editing and printing of bending schedules
Detailed editing and printing of bending schedules are done with Padds. For this, follow the
steps below:
- In Padds, choose Open on the File menu and double-click the relevant file name. The file
will be opened and displayed in two cascaded widows. The active windows will contain
the drawing of the column base and the other window the bar schedule.
- Make any necessary changes to the drawing, e.g. editing or adding bars and adding
construction notes.
- Click on any visible part of the window containing the cutting list to bring it to the front.
Enter the following information at the relevant positions:
- Member description: Use as many lines of the Member column to enter a description,
e.g. 'BASE 6'.
- General schedule information: Press PgDn to move to the bottom of the bending
schedule page and enter the detailers name, reference drawing number etc.
- Bending schedule title: Enter the project name and bending schedule title in the centre
block at the bottom of the bending schedule.
- Bending schedule number: The schedule number in the bottom right corner defaults to
the file name, e.g. 'BASE6.PAD'. The schedule number can be edited as required to
suit your numbering system, e.g. 'P123456-BS206'.
Note: The bottom left block is reserved for your company logo and should be set up as
described in the Padds User's Guide.
Finally, combine the beam drawing and schedule onto one or more pages using the Title Block
and Print button on the bending schedule window.

Column Base Design 6-184


Section Design for Crack width 6-185
Section Design for Crack width
The Section Design for Crack width can be used to design reinforced concrete sections to
meet specific crack requirements. Both beam and slab sections can be designed for the
combined effects of axial tension, bending moment and temperature.


Section Design for Crack width 6-186
Theory and application
The following text gives an overview of the application of the theory.
Design scope
The program can determine reinforcement layouts to contain cracks. Both rectangular beam
and slab sections can be designed to resist the effects of axial tension, bending moment and
temperature and the combination thereof. Temperature effects are also included to evaluate
early cracking and long-term thermal cracking.
Shrinkage
Concrete shrinkage due to hydration is accounted for by a combination of the thermal
expansion coefficient and the restraint factor. The design method employed by the codes is
ideally suited for non-temperate regions like Europe.
Reinforcement type
Concrete cracking has traditionally been correlated with the prevailing tensile steel stress.
Eurocode 2 - 1984 also takes account of the type of reinforcement, i.e. bond between concrete
and reinforcement.
Codes of practice
Design calculations are done according to BS 8007 - 1987 and Eurocode 2 - 1992.
Units of measurement
Both Metric and Imperial units of measurement are supported.
List of symbols
The design code symbols are used as far as possible:
Section dimensions
b
t
: Width of the section (mm or in).
h : Overall height of the section (mm or in).
h
e
: Effective surface zone depth (mm or in).
Material properties
f
cu
: Concrete cube strength (MPa or psi).

Section Design for Crack width 6-187
f
y
: Main reinforcement yield strength (MPa or psi).
Applied loads
R : Restraint factor.
T
1
: Hydration temperature difference (C).
T
2
: Seasonal temperature variation (C).
o : Thermal expansion coefficient of concrete (m/m per C or in/in per C).
T
SLS
: The tensile force on the full section at serviceability limit state (kN or kip).
T
ULS
: The tensile force on the full section at ultimate limit state. (kN or kip).
M
SLS
: Serviceability limit state moment (kNm or kipft).
M
ULS
: Ultimate limit state moment (kNm or kipft).
Ro critical : The minimum percentage of reinforcement to be supplied.
Design output
A
st
: Area of suggested reinforcement layout. (mm or in).
f
st
: Tensile stress in reinforcement (MPa or psi).
M
u
: Ultimate moment capacity of section (kNm or kipft).
T
U
: Ultimate tensile capacity of surface zone (kN or kip).

Section Design for Crack width 6-188
Input
The section geometry and loading is entered using the single input table. The following points
require special attention.
- The program evaluates an effective surface zone where crack control would be effective,
rather than the complete section. The surface zone is normally entered as half the section
depth but not more than 250 mm.
- Because only a surface zone is considered, only half of the entered tensile forces
(applicable to the overall section) is used.
- Reinforcement is calculated for the surface zone. The same reinforcement should be
supplied in full in both faces of the section.
- Eurocode 2 requires additional information regarding the type of reinforcement bond
applicable i.e. high-bond or plain bars.
- Select Beam mode if you wish cracking to be evaluated at the section corners as well.
Tip: It is recommended that wide sections be designed using Slab mode.


Section Design for Crack width 6-189
- The hydration temperature, T
1
, is defined as the difference between the environmental
temperature and the peak temperature due to hydration. The value is used to evaluate early
thermal cracking. Typical values, taken from Table A.2 of the code, are given below.

OPC content (kg/m
3
)
Section
325 350 400 325 350 400
Thickness (mm)
Steel formwork 18 mm plywood formwork
300 11* 13* 15* 23 25 31
500 20 22 27 32 35 43
700 28 32 39 38 42 49
1000 38 42 49 42 47 56

* Generally a minimum value of 20C should be used.

- The seasonal temperature variation, T
2
, is used to calculate long term thermal cracking:
- If movement joints are provided as per Table 5.1 of the code, the seasonal variation
can normally be set equal to zero when considering early cracking only.
- The seasonal temperature variation should always be considered for long-term thermal
cracking in combination with the applied moments and tensile forces.

Section
OPC content (kg/m
3
)
Thickness (mm)
325 350 400
300 15 17 21
500 25 28 34

- The restraint factor describes the amount of restraint in the system. The factor varies
between 0.0 to 0.5. For more detail, refer to Figure A3 of the code.
Tip: A higher restraint factor generally gives rise to more severe cracking. Therefore, when
in doubt, use a restraint factor of 0.5.
- Enter a value for Ro critical, i.e. the minimum percentage of reinforcement to be supplied.
The value applies to the gross concrete section of the surface zone. The program gives a
default value of 100 f
ct
/ f
y
, where f
ct
is the three-day tensile strength of the immature
concrete. For more detail, refer to paragraph A.2 of the code.

Section Design for Crack width 6-190
Design
The following checks are considered for each load case at serviceability limit state:
- The combined effect of bending moment, tensile force and the seasonal temperature
variation, i.e. M
SLS
+ T
SLS
+ T
2
.
- Early thermal movement, T
1
only.
- Early thermal movement and seasonal variation combined, i.e. T
1
+ T
2
.
- The section is also evaluated at ultimate limit state by considering the combined effect of
bending moment and tensile force, i.e. M
ULS
+ T
ULS
.

Up to four sets of bars are calculated for slab sections. Each set has a different diameter and
spacing to comply with the crack width requirements. A fifth column is provided where you
could enter a bar configuration of choice.
For beams, up to four sets of bars are calculated. Each set of bars consists of a number of bars
of not more than two different diameters. The bar diameters are chosen to not differ by more
than one size.

Section Design for Crack width 6-191
Calcsheets
The crack width design output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to
Calcpad. Various settings can be made with regards to the inclusion of design results and
pictures.

Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
Recalling a data file
If you enable the Data File option before sending a calcsheet to Calcpad, you can later recall it
by double-clicking the relevant object in Calcpad. A data file embedded in Calcpad is saved
as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the design module as well.

Section Design for Crack width 6-192




Concrete Section Design 6-193
Concrete Section Design
The Concrete Section Design module is a simple utility for designing concrete sections for
combined bending, shear and torsion. Rectangular and T-sections are accommodated.


Concrete Section Design 6-194
Theory and application
The following text gives an overview of the application of the theory.
Design scope
The program performs reinforced concrete design of rectangular and T-sections to resist
bending moment, shear and torsion.
Codes of practice
The following codes are supported:
- ACI 318 - 1999.
- ACI 318 - 2005.
- AS3600 - 2001.
- BS 8110 - 1985.
- BS 8110 - 1997.
- CP65 - 1999.
- Eurocode 2 - 1992.
- Eurocode 2 - 2004.
- HK Concrete - 2004.
- IS:456 - 2000.
- SABS 0100 - 2000.
List of symbols
The design code symbols are used as far as possible:
Section dimensions
B : Width of the web (mm).
B
f
: Width of the flange (mm).
D
ct
, D
cb
: Distance from the top or bottom face to the centre of the steel (mm).
H : Overall height of the section (mm).
H
f
: Depth of the flange (mm).

Concrete Section Design 6-195
Material properties
f
cu
: Concrete cube strength (MPa).
f
y
: Main reinforcement yield strength (MPa).
f
y
: Shear reinforcement yield strength (MPa).
Design output
A
s
: Bottom steel required for bending (mm
2
).
A'
s
: Top steel required for bending (mm
2
).
A
nom
: Nominal flexural reinforcement (mm
2
).
A
sv
: Required shear reinforcement (mm
2
/mm).
A
svn
: Nominal shear reinforcement (mm
2
/mm).
M
u
: Ultimate moment capacity for bottom reinforcement only (kNm).
v : Shear stress (MPa)
v
c
: Allowable shear stress (MPa).
v
t
: Torsional shear stress (MPa).
Calculation of flexural reinforcement
The normal code formulae apply when calculating flexural reinforcement for rectangular
sections and for flanged sections where the neutral axis falls inside the flange. If the neutral
axis falls outside the flange, the section is designed as two separate sub-sections:
- The first sub-section consists of the flange without the central web part of the section and
the remaining central portion defines the second sub-section.
- By considering the total section, the moment required to put the flange portion in
compression can be calculated using the normal code formulae. This moment is then
applied to the flange sub-section and the required reinforcement calculated using the
effective depth of the total section.
- The same moment is then subtracted from the total applied moment, the resulting moment
applied to the central sub-section and the reinforcement calculated.
The tension reinforcement for the actual section is then taken as the sum of the calculated
reinforcement for the two sub-sections. If compression reinforcement is required for the central
sub-section, it is used as the required compression reinforcement for the entire section.

Concrete Section Design 6-196
Calculation of shear reinforcement
The program assumes that shear is resisted by the web portion of the section only. Shear
stress, v, is therefore calculated using the web area and checked to not exceed the ultimate
allowable shear stress given in the code. The shear capacity, v
c
, is calculated using the required
bending reinforcement, A
s
, and the shear reinforcement calculated using the normal code
formulae.
Calculation of torsion reinforcement
Depending on the option chosen, torsion can be resisted by the section as a whole or by the
web portion only. For flanged beams, the torsion is calculated separately for the flange and
web along the guidelines given in the code. The torsional shear stresses are checked so as not
to exceed the ultimate allowable shear stress. Reinforcement requirements are also evaluated
separately for the flange and web using the normal code formulae.

Concrete Section Design 6-197
Input
The section geometry and ultimate loading are entered using the single input table. The
following should be kept in mind:
- If the values for B
f
and H
f
are left blank, a rectangular section is assumed.
- A positive moment is assumed to cause compression in the top flange.
- The program puts the flange at the top. To model the case where the flange is at the bottom
or where the flange is in tension, enter a rectangular section without a flange. The effects
of bending and shear will still be evaluated correctly. In the absence of a flange, the
torsion checks will however be conservative.

Tip: You can use the mouse to click on the picture and stretch certain section dimensions,
e.g. flange width or overall depth.

Concrete Section Design 6-198
Design
Press Analyse to design the section for the entered moment, shear and torsion. The following
results are given:
- The moment capacity of the section using tensile reinforcement only. The tabled flexural
reinforcement values are the required values at the top (compression) and bottom (tension)
and the nominal reinforcement.
- Shear stress in the web and the shear capacity of the section together with the required and
nominal shear reinforcement.
- For torsion in the web and flanges, values are tabled for the torsional shear stress and
required shear and longitudinal reinforcement.
Some reinforcement configurations are also suggested:
- Number and diameters of
reinforcement bars to resist
bending only.
- Links to resist shear only in
the web.
- Links to resist torsion only
in the web and flange.
- Longitudinal reinforcement
bars to resist combined
bending and torsion in the
web. The bottom and top bar
configurations are chosen to
exceed the required flexural
reinforcement at that
position plus half the total
longitudinal torsional reinforcement.
Note: The suggested reinforcement configurations are given as guidelines only. You can use
the tabled values for required reinforcement to determine rebar layouts more suitable to your
requirements.


Concrete Section Design 6-199
Calcsheets
The section design output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad.
Various settings can be made with regards to the inclusion of design results and pictures.

Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
Recalling a data file
If you enable the Data File option before sending a calcsheet to Calcpad, you can later recall it
by double-clicking the relevant object in Calcpad. A data file embedded in Calcpad is saved
as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the design module as well.

Concrete Section Design 6-200
Detailed calculations
The detailed calculations page displays the complete step-by-step calculations for the section.


Punching Shear Design 6-201
Punching Shear Design
The Punching Shear Design module designs flat slabs for punching shear at edge, corner or
internal columns. Only reinforced concrete slabs are designed to design pre-stressed concrete
slabs for punching shear, use the Pre-stressed Beam/Slab Design module, Captain, instead.


Punching Shear Design 6-202
Theory and application
The following text gives an overview of the theory and application of the design codes.
Design scope
The program designs reinforced concrete flat slabs for punching shear at edge, corner and
internal columns.
Codes of practice
The following codes are supported:
- ACI 318 - 1999.
- ACI 318 - 2005.
- AS3600 - 2001.
- BS 8110 - 1985.
- BS 8110 - 1997.
- CP65 - 1999.
- Eurocode 2 - 1992.
- Eurocode 2 - 2004.
- HK Concrete - 2004.
- IS:456 - 2000.
- SABS 0100 - 2000.
Units of measurement
Both Metric and Imperial units of measurement are supported.
List of symbols
The design code symbols are used as far as possible:
Slab geometry
A : Horizontal column dimension, as shown on the screen, or diameter of circular
column (mm or in).
B : Vertical column dimension, as shown on the screen (mm or in).

Punching Shear Design 6-203
D
eff
: Average effective depth of the slab (mm or in).
X : Horizontal distance from the column centre to the slab edge (mm or in).
Y : Vertical distance from the column centre to the slab edge (mm or in).
Material properties
f
cu
: Concrete cube compressive strength (MPa of psi).
f
y
: Yield strength of flexural reinforcement (MPa or psi)
f
yv
: Yield strength of shear reinforcement (MPa or psi).
Slab reinforcement
A
sx1-4
: Average area of main steel parallel to the X-axis crossing each of the four
perimeters (mm or in). The first perimeter denotes the innermost perimeter.
A
sy1-4
: Average area of main steel parallel to the Y-axis crossing each of the four
perimeters (mm or in).
Design output
A
sv
: The total area of stirrups to be provided within 1.5D
eff
inside a perimeter (mm
or in).
U
crit
: Length of critical perimeter (mm or in).
v
c
: Allowable punching shear stress (MPa or kip).
V
c
: Shear force capacity at a stress of v
c
(MPa of psi).
V
eff
: The effective shear force as a function of V
t
, M
tx
and M
ty
(kN or kip).
Applied loads
M
tx
: Ultimate bending moment about the X-axis (kNm or kipft).
M
ty
: Ultimate bending moment about the Y-axis (kNm or kipft).
V
t
: Ultimate vertical load on column (kN or kip).
Effective shear force
The effective shear force, V
eff
, is calculated using the code formulae. The following minimum
values are assumed:
- Internal columns: 1.15V
t
.
- Edge columns: 1.25V
t
, irrespective of the direction the column is bent.
- Corner columns: 1.25V
t
.

Punching Shear Design 6-204
Edge, corner and internal columns
The following rules are used to determine whether a column should be considered an internal,
edge or corner column:
- If one edge is closer than five times the effective slab depth, i.e. 5 D
eff
, from the column
centre, the column is considered to be an edge column.
- If two edges are closer than five times the effective slab depth from the column centre, the
column is taken to be a corner column.
- If all edges are further than five times the effective slab depth from the column centre, the
column is analysed as an internal column.
Reduction of design moments
The program assumes that the design forces are obtained from an equivalent frame analysis
that incorporates pattern loading. As allowed for by the codes, the values of the ultimate
moments, M
tx
and M
ty
, are subsequently reduced by 30% prior to calculating the effective
shear force, V
eff
.
Shear capacity
The program calculates the shear capacity in the X and Y-directions, v
cx
and v
cy
, based on the
main reinforcement in those directions and the average effective depth. The design shear
capacity, v
cx
, is then taken as the average of the values in the X and Y-direction.
Circular columns
Given modern design trends, e.g. the approaches by ACI 318 - 1995 and Eurocode 2 - 1992,
the use of circular perimeters seems a more rational approach to evaluating punching shear for
circular columns. The program recognises this and uses the following design approach for
checking punching by circular columns:
- As in the case of a rectangular column, the shear capacity v
c
is taken as the average of v
cx

and v
cy
. Put differently, one could consider an imaginary square shear perimeter when
determining v
c
.
- The shear force capacity, V
c
, is calculated using the actual circular perimeter. The shorter
circular perimeter (compared to a rectangular perimeter) yields a lower (conservative)
shear force capacity.

Punching Shear Design 6-205
Input
The slab geometry and loading is entered using the single input table. The following
parameters may require special attention:
- The reinforcement values A
sx
and A
sy

represent the minimum amount of main
reinforcement crossing each perimeter in
the X and Y-directions. For a perimeter
edge on both side if the column, e.g. y
1
in
the sketch, you should use the minimum
of the amount of reinforcement crossing
the left edge and the amount crossing the
right edge. For a perimeter edge on one
side only, e.g. y
2
in the sketch, use the
amount of reinforcement crossing that
single edge.
- By careful choice of the values for X and
Y, you can force a column to be
considered as an edge, corner of internal
column. See page 6-204 for detail.
- The program assumes pattern loading and
subsequently reduces M
tx
and M
ty
by 30%.
Note: If the ultimate moments, M
tx
and M
ty
, do not incorporate pattern loading, their values
should be increased by 30% to ensure a correct analysis.

Punching Shear Design 6-206
Design
The design procedure includes the following steps:
- The effective shear force, V
eff
, is calculated. See page 6-203 for an explanation of the
assumptions that apply.
- The program chooses four shear perimeters. The first perimeter is taken a distance
1.5 D
eff
away from the column face. Subsequent perimeters are spaced at 0.75 D
eff
. The
perimeters are chosen to be as short as possible, extending to the slab edge when
necessary.

- For each perimeter, the allowable stress, v
c
, is taken as the weighted average of the values
calculated for the X and Y-directions, using the flexural reinforcement ratio for the
respective directions. Refer to page 6-204 for more detail.
- The required shear reinforcement for each perimeter is then calculated using the normal
code formulae. The calculated reinforcement should be supplied within a distance
1.5 D
eff
inside the relevant perimeter.

Punching Shear Design 6-207
Calcsheets
The slab design output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad.
Various settings can be made with regards to the inclusion of design results and pictures.

Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
Recalling a data file
If you enable the Data File option before sending a calcsheet to Calcpad, you can later recall
the design by double-clicking the relevant object in Calcpad. A data file embedded in Calcpad
is saved as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the design module as
well.

Punching Shear Design 6-208
Detailed calculations
The detailed calculations page displays the complete step-by-step calculations for the section.


Timber Design 7-1
Chapter
7
Timber Design
The timber design module can be used to design timber members in frames and trusses.

Timber Design 7-2
Quick Reference
Timber Design using PROKON 7-3
Timber Member Design 7-5

Timber Design using PROKON 7-3
Timber Design using PROKON
The PROKON suite includes a module that is suitable for design of timber members in frames
and trusses. A suite of timber connection design modules is planned.
Timber Design using PROKON 7-4
Timber Member Design 7-5
Timber Member Design
The timber member design module, Timsec, is used to check and optimise timber members
subjected to a combination of axial and biaxial bending stresses, e.g. beams, frames and
trusses.
The program primarily acts as a post-processor for the frame analysis modules. It also has an
interactive mode for the quick design or checking of individual members without needing to
perform a frame analysis.


Timber Member Design 7-6
Theory and application
A brief background is given below regarding the application of the design codes.
Design scope
The timber member design module can design timber and glued laminated timber load bearing
members. Timsec currently has the following limitations:
Only rectangular sections bent about their major or minor axes can be designed.
Design of tapered and haunched sections is not supported.
Design codes
The program designs timber members according to the following allowable stress design
codes:
BS 5268 - 1991.
SABS 0163 - 2001.
Units of measurement
Timsec supports Metric units of measurement only.
Symbols
Where possible, the same symbols are used as in the design codes:
Dimensions
B : Section breadth (mm).
D : Section depth (mm).
L/r : Slenderness ratio.
L
eff
: Effective length (m).
Design parameters
K
e
: Factor with which the member length is multiplied to obtain the effective
length for lateral torsional buckling. Refer to page 7-8 for detail.
K
x
: Factor with which the member length is multiplied to obtain the effective
length for buckling about the x-x axis of the member. Refer to page 7-9 for
more detail.
Timber Member Design 7-7
K
y
: Factor with which the member length must be multiplied to obtain the effective
length for buckling about the local y-y axis of the member.
Modification factors
k
1
to k
5
: Stress modification factors for SAB 1063 - 1989.
K
1
to K
14
: Stress and dimensional modification factors for BS 5268. Refer to page 7-11
for detail.
Stresses
f
b
: Allowable bending stress (MPa).
f
c
: Allowable compression stress (MPa).
f
t
: Allowable tension stress (MPa).
s
b
: Actual bending stress (MPa)
s
c
: Actual compression stress (MPa)
s
t
: Actual tension stress (MPa)
Sign conventions
Member design is done in the local element axes. Bending about the x-x axis corresponds to
strong axis bending and bending about the y-y axis to weak axis bending.
Axial force and moment
The local axes system and force directions are defined as follows:
Axial force: The local z-axis and axial force is
chosen in the direction from the smaller node
number to the larger node number. A positive
axial force indicates compression and a
negative force tension.
Bending: Moments about the x and y-axes
represent bending about the section's strong
and weak axes respectively. Positive moments
are taken anticlockwise in all diagrams.
Timber Member Design 7-8
P-delta effects
Trusses are normally not sensitive to sway. However, in any structure, if you judge P-delta
effects to be an important part of the analysis, you should perform a second order frame
analysis.
Design parameters
Different design parameters can be set for each group of elements designed:
Effective length factors beams
The lateral torsional stability of a beam depends on the degree of restraint to be expected at
each end of the beam and of the compression edge along the length of the beam.
The codes treat lateral buckling by limiting section dimensions and specifying effective length
factor, K
e
:
BS 5268: To ensure there is no risk of lateral buckling of beams, limiting depth to breadth
rations are given in clause 14.8, Table 19.

Degree of lateral support Maximum
D:B ratio
No lateral support 2
Ends held in position 3
Ends held in position and members held in line at centres not
more than 30 times the breadth of the member, e.g. by purlins
or tie rods
4
Ends held in position and compression edge held in line, e.g.
direct connection of sheathing, deck or joists
5
Ends held in position and compression edge held in line, e.g.
direct connection of sheathing, deck or joists, together with
adequate bridging or blocking spaced at intervals not
exceeding 6 times the depth
6
Ends held in position and both edges held firmly in line 7

Timber Member Design 7-9
SABS 0163: Lateral stability of beams is treated in clause 6.2.3.2. The laterally
unsupported should be multiplied with the effective length factor given in Table 11:

Type of beam span Position of applied load
Effective length
factor, K
e

Single span beam
Concentrated at centre 1.61
Uniformly distributed 1.92
Equal end moments 1.84
Cantilever beam
Concentrated at unsupported end 1.69
Uniformly distributed 1.06

The effective length factor may conservatively be taken as 1.92 for all situations.

Effective length factors for struts and ties
The effective length factors depend on the degree of restraint to be expected at each end of
compression members. Guidelines are given in the codes:
BS 5268: Refer to clause 15.3, Table 21.
SABS 0163: Compression members are discussed in clause 6.4.3, Table 12
Timber Member Design 7-10
Effective length factors of compression members are summarised below:

End condition
Effective
length factor
Fully restrained at both ends in position and direction 0.7
Restrained at both ends in position and one end in
direction
0.85
Restrained at both ends in position only 1.0
Restrained at one end and in position and direction
and at the other end in direction only
1.5
Restrained at one end in position and direction and
free at the other end
2.0
Considering a typical plane timber truss, the effective length L
x
relates to in-plane buckling. For
struts where rotational fixity is provided by the connection, e.g. two or more fasteners, a value
between 0.70 and 0.85 is usually appropriate. Where rotation at the joints are possible, e.g. single
bolted connection, a value of 1.0 would normally be applicable.
For a typical plane truss, the effective length L
y
relates to buckling out of the vertical plane.
This phenomenon can often govern the design of the top and bottom chords of a truss that can
buckle in a snakelike 'S' pattern, giving an effective length equal to unrestrained length. Lateral
restraints are normally provided to reduce this effective length. For example, with braced
purlins connected to the top chord of the truss, the effective length could be taken equal to the
purlin spacing.
The effective length L
e
relates to lateral torsional buckling of a member about its weak axis.
The length depends on the spacing and type of restraint of the member's compression edge.
Using an effective length factor K
e
of 1.92 would be conservative for all cases.
Timber Member Design 7-11
Stress modification factors
The codes list several stress and other modification factors, not all of which are applicable to
Timsec. Some factors are not covered by scope of the program and other are supported
indirectly only by modification of other factors or design parameters.

BS 5268 1991:
K
1
: Modification factor by which the geometrical properties of timber in the dry
condition should be multiplied to obtain values for the wet exposure condition.
If applicable, you should manually adjust section sizes for the wet exposure
condition.
K
2
: Modification factor to be applied to dry stresses and moduli (Tables 9 through
13 and 15 of the code) to obtain values for the wet exposure condition. The
same K
2
factor is applicable to bending and tension while a different factor is
applicable to compression.
K
3
: Modification factor for duration of loading. Values from Table 17 of the code
are summarised below:

Duration of load K
3

Long term, e.g. dead and permanent
imposed loads
1.00
Medium term, e.g. snow and temporary
imposed loads
1.25
Short term, e.g. temporary imposed loads 1.50
Very short term, e.g. wind loads 1.75

Note: Since load duration factor may differ for different loads on the structure, you should
divide the relevant loads with this factor at the analysis stage.
K
4
: Modification factor for bearing stress. Not applicable.
K
5
: Shear strength factor to allow for notches. Not applicable.
K
6
: Form factor for solid non-rectangular sections. Not applicable.
Timber Member Design 7-12
K
7
: Multiplication factor for grade bending stresses for members graded to
BS 4978, BS 5756 or "NGLA and NGRDL Joist and Plank rules". Likewise
grade tension stresses can be multiplied with K
14
. The factors K
7
and K
14
are
depended on the section dimensions and are automatically calculated during
the design process if required.
K
8
: Factor for load sharing by members connected in parallel. All grade stresses
are multiplied by this factor.
Tip: You may use the factor for load sharing to include any other modification factors
that are not applicable to standard timber sections, e.g. factors applicable to glued
laminated timber.
K
9
: Load sharing factor for calculating deflections. Not applicable.
K
10
, K
11
: Size factor for modification of grade compression stresses and moduli of
elasticity for members graded in accordance with North American NLGA and
NGRDL rules. If applicable, the K
10
and K
11
modification factors can be
included by adjusting the grade stresses.
K
12
: Factor for allowable compression stress due to slenderness. This factor is
automatically calculated during the design process.
K
13
: Modification factor for the effective length of spaced columns. Instead of using
this factor, you should adjust the effective length factors K
x
, K
y
and K
e
if
required.
K
14
: See K
7
.
SABS 0163:
k
1
: Load duration factor. Since load duration factor may differ for different loads
on the structure, you should divide the relevant loads with the C
r
factor at the
analysis stage. Load division coefficients are given in Table 9 of the code and
summarised below:

Duration of load C
f

Longer than three months, e.g. dead and
permanent imposed loads
1.0
Medium term (one day to three months),
e.g. snow and temporary imposed loads
0.8
Short term (less than one day), e.g. wind
loads and infrequently imposed loads
0.66
Timber Member Design 7-13

k
2
: Factor for load sharing by members connected in parallel. All grade stresses
are multiplied by this factor.
Tip: You may use the factor for load sharing to include any other modification factors
that are not applicable to standard timber sections, e.g. factors applicable to glued
laminated timber.
k
3
: Stress modification factor for the type of structure. The value may be taken as
1.10 where the consequences of failure are small. For other structures a value
of unity should be used.
k
4
: Modification factor for quality of fabrication. If the fabricated member
complies with an SABS specification, the value may be taken as 1.05.
k
5
: Stress modification factor for moisture content. If the moisture content in a
compression member may occasionally exceed 20%, use a value of 0.75.
Slenderness limits
BS 5269 (clause 15.4) and SABS 0163 (clause 6.4.4) specify similar slenderness ratios for
members in compression. The slenderness limit for compression is taken as 180 in most cases.
For tension members, a maximum slenderness ratio of 250, as specified by BS 5268, is
generally used.
When launching Timsec, the slenderness limits given by the selected design code will be used by
default. You are free to alter the maximum slenderness ratio for each individual load case or
combination if required. For example, in the case where a member is carrying self-weight and
wind load only, the codes allow the maximum slenderness ratio for compression members to be
increased to 250.
Timber Member Design 7-14
Member design techniques
The programs have two basic modes of operation:
Read and post-process the frame analysis results.
Alternatively, you can do an independent interactive design of one or more members.
The following text gives details of the design techniques and also explains how the database of
timber grades and sections sizes can be customised.
Limitations of the timber member design module
Timsec can be used to design timber members subjected to any combination of axial force,
uni-axial and biaxial bending moment. The program cannot design non-rectangular sections or
members of varying section.
Reading and post-processing frame analysis results
Working through the input and design pages, the frame design procedure can be broken up into
the following steps:
The Input page: Defining design tasks by choosing a design approach, selecting members
to be designed, setting the design parameters and selecting load cases and slenderness
limits. The concept of tasks is described in detail on page 7-18.
The Members page: Define internal nodes and enter effective lengths. Refer to page 7-24
for detail.
The Design page: Evaluating the design results. See page 7-26 for detail.
The Calcsheet page: Accumulate design results. See page 7-28 for detail.
Re-analysis of the frame
Having evaluated the various member sizes, you may find it necessary to return to the original
frame analysis and make some changes to section sizes. Before exiting the member design
module, first save the task list using the Save command on the File menu. After re-analysing
the frame, you can return to the member design module and recall the task list to have the
modified structure re-checked without delay.
Note: For a task list to be re-used with a modified frame, a reasonable degree of
compatibility is required. Tasks that reference specific laterally supported nodes, for
example, will require modification if relevant node numbers have changed.
Timber Member Design 7-15
Interactive design of members
As an alternative to the above procedure, individual members can be designed without needing
to perform a frame analysis. To enable the interactive design mode, select 'Interactive input of
data' on the Input page.
Design steps
Working through the input and design pages, the interactive design procedure can be broken up
into the following steps:
The Input page: Choose a design approach, set the design parameters and enter the
element loads.
The Design page: Evaluate the design results. More detail is given on page 7-26.
The Calcsheet page: Accumulate design results to print or send to Calcpad. See page 7-28
or detail.
Modifying timber grades and sections
Depending on the selected design codes, the program uses the relevant timber grades and
nominal rough-sawn dimensions, i.e. as typically available in the United Kingdom or South
Africa. You can customise the default grades and sections to include grades and sections
readily available in your country.

Timber Member Design 7-16
To add, delete or modify grade properties or section sizes:
Use the Edit Timber Grades (F5) function on the Input page to display the database of
grades and sections. Refer to page 7-15 for details.
Edit the properties on the Timber Grades page as required. Note that each grade requires
a size number.
On the Section Sizes page, enter available section dimensions for each size number used
on the Timber Grades page.
Press OK to permanently save your changes.
Use Save as Default and Load Defaults to record your preferred grades and sections
independent from the selected design code.
Timber Member Design 7-17
Tasks input
On entering Timsec, it defaults to reading the last compatible frame analysis for post-processing.
You can then choose to:
Read and post-process the frame analysis results: Define one or more design tasks by
grouping members with relevant design parameters.
Interactive design: Ignore the frame analysis and interactively input and design members.
The text that follows describe the use of the programs for reading and post-processing frame
analysis results. Information regarding interactive design is given on page 7-21.


Choosing the data input and design mode
The appearance of the Input page determined by your selection of the mode of operation:
If you choose to read and post-process the results of the frame analysis modules, you will
use the Input page to define design tasks.
Timber Member Design 7-18
However, if you opt for interactive design of members, the Input page displays a table for
entering member geometry and loading.
Reading frame analysis output files
You can select another frame output file or view the current file:
Read data from: Use this option to load the output of a different frame module than the
one displayed. Click the box and select the relevant file from the list or enter a file name.
View output: To display the current frame analysis output file.
Defining design tasks
Central to the process of post-processing frame analysis results, are design tasks. By grouping
selective members with their relevant design parameters into one or more design tasks, you
should find it easy to manage the vast amount of frame analysis data generated for larger
frames.
The design of a frame should be simplified by breaking it into one or more manageable tasks.
Each task then defines a group of members to be designed together with the relevant design
parameters to be used, e.g. timber grade, section sizes and load cases considered.
Once you have defined one or more design tasks, the Design page is enabled viewing that
page automatically performs all design tasks.
After having carefully defined a number of tasks, you can save the task list to disk for later
re-use. This means that you can return to the relevant frame analysis module, make some
changes to the structure, re-analyse it and then repeat the previous design tasks by simply
reloading the task list.
Defining tasks
To define design tasks, you have to select or enter the following information:
1. Select the timber grade to use
2. Select the members to be designed.
3. Enter the design parameters and select the section dimensions to use.
4. Select the load cases to be considered and enter the maximum slenderness ratios.
To save a task, enter a Task title and click Add task. Once added to the task list, a task will be
automatically performed when you go to the Calcsheet page. Define as many tasks as
necessary to design the frame in the required detail.
Timber Member Design 7-19
Modifying design tasks
To modify an exiting task:
1. Click Task title to display a list of defined tasks.
2. Select the task you want to modify.
3. Make the necessary changes to the selected members, design parameters etc.
4. Click Update task to save the changes.
Deleting tasks
To remove a task from the list, first select the task and then click Delete task. To save the
complete task list to disk, use the Save commands on the File menu.
Note: Saving the task list with File | Save also saves the intermediate nodes and effective
lengths entered in the Members page.
Selecting a design code
The current selected design code is displayed in the status bar. To select a different design
code, use the Code of Practice command on the File menu or click the design code on the
status bar.
Choosing a design approach
Depending on what you would like to achieve, e.g. preliminary sizing or final design checks, you
can choose between the following design approaches:
Select lightest sections: Elements can be optimised for economy using mass as the
criterion. You can optimise the section breadth and height separately or simultaneously by
setting the respective values to 'Auto'.
Evaluate specific sections: To check specific section sizes, select the required sized for
breadth and depth.
Selecting the timber grade
Select the required timber grade from the list. To modify the grade properties, add a new grade or
delete existing grades, use Edit Timber Grades (F5). Refer to page 7-15 for details.
Selecting members for design
Use the Element groups (F6) function to select one or more element groups from the list or by
clicking members in the picture. A lateral supports is assumed at each node. If certain internal
Timber Member Design 7-20
nodes are not laterally supported, you can indicate them on the Members page. Refer to page 7-
24 for detail.
Note: To modify the available section sizes for the selected timber grade, click Edit Timber
Grades (F5). Refer to page 7-15 for details.
Setting the design parameters
Use the Design parameters (F8) function to enter appropriate design parameters and material
properties. You can select a different set of design parameters with each task.
Refer to page 7-7 for a discussion of the K-factors for modifying stress and other parameters.
Note: Effective length factors are entered on the Members page.
Selecting load cases and limiting slenderness ratios
When loading the last frame analysis results, the program automatically displays a list of all
load cases and combinations that can be designed and also the default slenderness limits for
struts and ties. In the Maximum L/r ratios (F9) table, you can exclude any load case or
combination from the design by clicking its right-most column.
Tip: In the frame analysis modules you can also select to analyse load combinations only.
The analysis output will then be more compact due to the omission of individual load case
results.
You are free to modify the slenderness limit for each individual load case or combination as
required. In the case where uplift due to wind is dominant, for example, you may be able to set
a higher slenderness limit. Refer to page 7-11 for more detail.
Controlling design output
The amount of information that will be added to the
Calcsheet page can be controlled using the Settings
function on the Input page. You can choose
between showing detailed calculation with or
without diagrams or a tabular summary of results.
The option to add the Timsec Data File to the output
on the Calcsheet page, allows you to later recall the
design tasks by double-clicking the data file object
in Calcpad.
Timber Member Design 7-21
Interactive input
The interactive design mode offers an alternative method of designing members. Instead of
performing a frame analysis and then and post-processing the results, you can enter member
length and forces and design them interactively.
To enable the interactive design mode, select 'Interactive input of data' on the Input page.
The pages that follow describe the use of the programs for interactive member design. The
procedure to reading and post-processing frame analysis results is explained on page 7-14.


Selecting a design code
The current selected design code is displayed in the status bar. To select a different design
code, use the Code of Practice command on the File menu or click the design code on the
status bar.
Choosing a design approach
Depending on what you would like to achieve, e.g. preliminary sizing or final design checks, you
can choose between the following design approaches:
Select lightest sections: Elements can be optimised for economy using mass as the
criterion. You can optimise the section breadth and height separately or simultaneously by
setting the respective values to 'Auto'.
Timber Member Design 7-22
Evaluate specific sections: To check specific section sizes, select the required sized for
breadth and depth.
Setting the design parameters
Use the Effective lengths (F6) function to enter effective length factors. Use Design
parameters (F8) to enter appropriate design parameters. All members designed in a particular
interactive session use the same set of design parameters.
Refer to page 7-6 for a discussion of the K-factors for modifying stress and other parameters.
Effective length factors
Specify the effective length factors to be used for bending about the major and minor axes and
for lateral torsional buckling. For more detail on the code requirements regarding effective
length factors, refer to page 7-8.
Specifying slenderness limits
Use the Maximum L/r ratios (F9) function to enter appropriate maximum allowable
slenderness ratios for compression and tension.
Entering member lengths and forces
One or more lines of information can be entered for each member. The program automatically
accumulates multiple lines of loads for the same member. The following input data is required:
Name: A descriptive name for each member.
L: Length of the member (m).
F: Axial force with compression being positive (kN).
X/Y: Axis of bending relating to the values that follow next. Use as many lines as
necessary to define the loading on the member about the x-x and y-y axes.
M
1
: Moment applied at the left end (anti-clockwise positive) about the X or Y-axis (kNm).
M
2
: Moment at the right end (anti-clockwise positive) (kNm).
W
1
: Distributed load at the left end. The load works over the whole length of the member
load and varies linearly between the left and right ends (downward positive) (kN/m).
W
2
: Value of distributed load on right side (kN/m).
P: Point load applied on the member (downward positive) (kN).
A: Position of the point load, measured from the left end (m).
Timber Member Design 7-23
Note: For allowable stress design with BS 5268 or SABS 0163, you should enter working
loads.
The profile of the members to evaluate is chosen using the Profile (F5) function. On opening
the Design page, the lightest section will be chosen for each member. Lighter or heavier
sections of the same profile can then be browsed as required.
Viewing design results
The design results are presented on the Design page. Refer to page 7-26 for detail.
Timber Member Design 7-24
Member definition
Internal nodes and effective lengths are defined on the Members page. The data entered on the
Members page are applicable to all design tasks defined on the Input page.


Defining internal nodes
An internal node is defined as a node in-between the end nodes of a member. When you add
internal nodes, the program joins relevant members to allow for easy input of effective lengths
Adding an internal node
You can add internal as follows:
Enter internal node numbers in the table or click them with the mouse.
Use the Auto Select function to let the program detect all internal nodes.
Timber Member Design 7-25
Removing an internal node
You can remove an internal node by deleting it form the list or by clicking it again in the
picture.
Consolidation of members
With the addition of each internal node, the relevant node is 'removed' by joining the two
adjacent members into a single member. The table of members is continuously updated to
show the new member layout.
The program uses the following guidelines to when joining members at an internal node:
For the automatic selection of internal nodes, adjoining members must have the same
section.
Only members with an included angle greater than 100 (where 180 corresponds to a
perfectly straight member) are joined.
Where members of different sections intersect, the larger section defines the main member
that should be joined.
Where two or more members intersect, the internal node is taken to belong to one of the
intersecting members only. The chosen member will be the straightest member or, if the
same, the first in the table of members.
Entering effective lengths
Enter effective length factors as follows:
Apply the same value of K
x
, K
y
or K
e
to all members by clicking the Kx, Ky and Ke
buttons in the table heading.
Enter the effective length factors for individual elements.
Note: The list of internal nodes and effective length factors are automatically saved when
you save the task list. See page 7-18 for detail.

Tip: You can quickly find a member in the table by pressing Ctrl+F. Enter the member
name by referring to one or both of its end node numbers.
Timber Member Design 7-26
Design results
Select the Design page to perform all design tasks and display the design results. All specified
load cases and combinations are considered for each member designed. Unless a very large
number of elements and load cases are involved, the design procedure will normally be
completed almost instantaneously.
By default, the results for the design task active on the Input page are displayed. The results of
any other design task can be displayed by selecting the task from the list (see description below).
If an interactive member design was performed, the displayed results will be for the interactive
design task instead.


The design criteria
The following criteria are used in the design:
The interaction formulae given by the relevant design code are used to evaluate the
combined effect of axial stress and bending stress. In calculating the allowable stresses, the
program takes account of the member slenderness.
Timber Member Design 7-27
The slenderness ratio checked against the specified maximum allowable slenderness ratio
for compression and tension.
Viewing results
The complete interaction formulae are displayed for the critical load case of the first member of
the first design task. Individual calculations have 'OK' and 'FAIL' remarks to indicate success or
failure.
To view the results of another task, member, section or load case:
Use the Up and Down buttons to move up or down the list of available options. Tasks and
load cases are listed in the order of definition. Sections are ordered by mass. Alternatively
click the item, i.e. sections, and use the Up and Down arrow keys.
Alternatively click the relevant input box and select an item from the list that drops down.
Adding results to the Calcsheet page
The following options are available when adding design results to the Calcsheet page:
Member to Calcsheet: Add the current displayed member only. This option is not
available when the design results are set to include only a tabular summary.
Task to Calcsheet: Add the design results of all members in the current task, including
those members not currently displayed.
All tasks to Calcsheet: Add all members of all tasks. This option is not available in the
interactive design mode because only a single design task, i.e. the interactive design task,
is involved.
Note: The level of detail of the information added to the Calcsheet can be set using the
Settings function on the Input page. Refer to page 7-20 for detail.
Timber Member Design 7-28
Calcsheet
The design results of all tasks are grouped on the Calcsheet page for sending to Calcpad or
immediate printing.
Use the Output settings function on the Calcsheet page and Settings function on the Input
page for the following:
Embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
Clear the Calcsheet page.


Recalling a data file
If you enable the Data File option (Settings function on the Input page) before sending a
calcsheet to Calcpad, you can later recall the design tasks by double-clicking the relevant
object in Calcpad. A data file embedded in Calcpad is saved as part of a project and therefore
does not need to be saved in the member design module as well.


General Applications 8-1
Chapter
8
General Applications
The general analysis modules can be used to calculate section properties, wind pressures on
buildings and evaluate drainage systems of building roofs.


General Applications 8-2
Quick Reference
General PROKON Analysis Tools 8-3
Section Properties Calculation 8-5
Wind Pressure Analysis 8-19
Gutter and Down pipe Design 8-27

General Applications 8-3
General PROKON
Analysis Tools
The PROKON suite includes a number of simple analysis tools to simplify everyday
calculations. These include:
Section Properties Calculation: For the calculation of bending and torsional properties of
any generalised section.
Wind Pressure Analysis: For determining the free stream velocity pressure on a building.
Gutter Design: Use this module to design a drainage system for a roof by sizing a gutter,
outlet and down pipe.
General Applications 8-4








Section Properties Calculation 8-5
Section Properties Calculation
You can use the Section Properties Calculation module, Prosec, to calculate the bending,
shear and torsional properties of any arbitrary section. The section can be solid or have one ore
more openings. A section is assumed to be made of one material; for a composite section, you
have to enter equivalent sizes based on modular ratios.


Section Properties Calculation 8-6
Theory and application
An overview is given below regarding the theories used to calculate section properties.
Scope
Prosec can be used to calculate the properties of any arbitrary section. The section can be solid
or have openings. For bending property calculation, the program uses a simple technique of
division into smaller trapezoidal sub-sections, and adding up the properties of all the sub-
sections. The program uses the Prandtl membrane analogy to determine the shear and torsional
section properties, including the shear centre, St. Venant torsional constant and torsional
warping constant.
Sign convention
A simple Cartesian sign convention applies:
X-coordinates are taken positive to the right and negative to the left.
Y-coordinates are taken positive upward and negative downward.
Angles are measured clockwise.
Units of measurement
All input and output values are used without a unit of measurement. Whether you define a
section using sizes for millimetres, metres, inches or feet, the output will effectively be given
in the same unit of measurement.
You can optionally specify a unit of measurement using the Analysis Settings option on the
Input page, and that unit will then be used in the output.
List of symbols
Below is a list of symbols used for the bending and torsional section properties:
Bending properties
A : Area of the cross section.
I
xx
, I
yy
: Second moment of inertia about X and Y-axis.
I
xy
: Deviation moment of inertia.
I
uu
, I
vv
: Second moment of inertia about major axis and minor axis.
I
r
: Polar moment of inertia

Section Properties Calculation 8-7
Ang : Anti-clockwise angle from the X-axis to the U-axis.
Z
xx
: Elastic section modulus in relation to the top or bottom edge.
Z
yy
: Elastic section modulus in relation to the left or right edge.
Z
uu
: Minimum section modulus in relation to the U-axis.
Z
vv
: Minimum section modulus in relation to the V-axis.
Z
plx
, Z
ply
: Plastic modulus about X and Y-axis.
X
c
: Horizontal centroid position measured from the leftmost extremity of the
section.
Y
c
: Vertical centroid position measured from the bottom most extremity of the
section.
r
x
, r
y
: Radius of gyration about the X or Y-axis.
r
u
, r
v
: Radius of gyration about the U or V-axis.
X
pl
: Horizontal distance from leftmost extremity to centre of mass.
Y
pl
: Horizontal distance from topmost extremity to centre of mass.
Perim : Outside perimeter
V : Void ratio = 1 - A / (width depth)
: Section efficiency factor = I
xx
/ (A y
t
y
b
)
Torsional properties
: Shear stress.
A
shear
: Effective shear area in X or Y direction
X : Horizontal position of shear centre from the leftmost extremity of the section.
Y : Vertical position of shear centre from the bottom of the section.
J : St. Venant torsional constant.
Shear centre : X and Y coordinates of shear centre, x
o
and y

x
: Mono-symmetry constant
x
= 1/I
xx
(x
2
y + y
3
)dA - 2y
o

Z
t
: Torsional modules.
C
w
: Warping torsional constant.

Section Properties Calculation 8-8
Input
To define a section, enter one or more shapes (polygons) that define its outline and any
openings.
Entering a section
The Code column is used for categorise the data that follows in the next columns:
'+' : The start of a new polygon or circle. An absolute reference coordinate must be
entered in the X/Radius and Y/Angle columns.
'' : Start of an opening. An absolute reference coordinate must be entered in the
X/Radius and Y/Angle columns.
'R' : Indicates a line drawn with relative coordinates.
'L' : Indicates a line drawn with absolute coordinates.
'A' : An arc that continues from the last line or arc. The arc radius and angle are
entered in the X/Radius and Y/Angle columns respectively. The angle is
measured clockwise from the previous line or arc end point.
'C' : A circle with the radius entered in the X/Radius column.
'B' : Bulge altitude to apply to the previous line, changing it to an arc segment.
Enter the bulge altitude in X/Radius column. A positive bulge value
corresponds to an upward bulge for a line drawn from left to right.
Tip: If the Code column is left blank, relative coordinates are used.
The X/Radius and Y/Angle columns are used for entering coordinates, radii and angles:
X : Absolute or relative X-coordinate. Values are taken positive to the right and
negative to the left.
Radius : Radius of a circle or an arc.
Y : Absolute or relative Y-coordinate. Values are taken positive upward and
negative downward.
Angle : Angle that an arc is extending through.
Note: If the X/Radius or Y/Angle column is left blank, a zero value is used.

Section Properties Calculation 8-9
Anatomy of a section
A section comprises one or more shapes that define its outline and any openings. Any shape is
a polygon, and has two basic components:
A reference coordinate, which gives the starting point of a polygon or the centre of a
circle.
One or more entries defining the polygons coordinates of lines and arcs or a circles
radius.
After entering each coordinate, the image of the polygon updated.
Note: The starting point of a polygon is also used as the ending point and the polygon is
closed automatically. It is therefore not necessary to re-enter the starting coordinate to close
a polygon.
Entering the reference coordinate
Every polygon has a start point and every circle has a centre point. These points are called
reference points and are entered as absolute coordinates:
In the Code column, enter either a '+' or '' to indicate the start of a new shape. Entering a
'+' means that the shape will be added to the section. Likewise, a '' means that the shape
will be subtracted, e.g. an opening.
Enter the absolute values of the reference coordinate in the X/Radius and Y/Angle
columns.
Entering the polygon coordinates
Given a reference coordinate, two or more additional coordinates are required to define the
shape of a polygon. In the case of a circle, only a reference coordinate and radius is required.
A coordinate may be entered using absolute or relative values:
If the Code column is left blank, the coordinate is taken relative from the last point
entered.
Set the Code to 'L' if you want to enter an absolute coordinate.
The coordinate values are entered in the X/Radius and Y/Angle columns. A negative X or
Y-coordinate must be preceded by a minus sign. The plus sign before a positive X or Y-
coordinate is optional.
A circular arc is defined by setting the Code to 'A' and entering the radius in the X/Radius
column. The arc is then taken to extend from the end point of the last line or arc, starting at
the angle that the previous line or arc ended and extending through the angle specified in
the Y/Angle column.

Section Properties Calculation 8-10
Define a circle by setting the Code to 'C' and entering the coordinate for the centre point.
On the next line, enter the radius in the X/Radius column.
To define a bulge between two points, enter a line segment and then apply the bulge in the
next input line. Enter 'B' in the Code column and the bulge altitude in the X/Radius
column. The bulge altitude is defined as the from the centre point of the line segment, and
perpendicular to it to the circular arc. A positive bulge value corresponds to a clockwise
rotation from the start to end point of the line segment.

Rotating a section
To rotate an entered section by a set angle, click on Settings.
Note: The torsional properties can only be calculated for a single contiguous section. You
may use several shapes to define an outline and one or more openings for the section, but
the section must be contiguous if you require torsional analysis results.

Section Properties Calculation 8-11
Procedures for entering shapes
Step-by-step procedures for entering typical section Codes are given below:
Entering a polygon comprising straight lines
A polygon is defined by entering a start point followed by a few lines of additional coordinates.
The polygon can be defined using relative or absolute coordinates or both.
Using relative coordinates:
Define the start position of the polygon by setting the Code to '+' and entering the absolute
coordinate in the X/Radius and Y/Angle columns.
Next, leaving the Code column blank, enter the consecutive corner points of the polygon
in the X/Radius and Y/Angle columns. By leaving the Code column blank, the entered
coordinates are set to relative coordinates.
Using absolute coordinates:
Define the start position of the polygon by setting the Code to '+' and entering the absolute
coordinate in the X/Radius and Y/Angle columns.
For each following coordinate, enter an L in the Code column and enter the absolute
coordinate values in the X/Radius and Y/Angle columns.
Entering a polygon comprising lines and arcs
A polygon with one or more arcs is defined in a similar way as a normal polygon:
Define the start position of the polygon by setting the Code to '+' and entering the absolute
coordinate in the X/Radius and Y/Angle columns.
Define straight lines by entering the consecutive corner points using relative or absolute
coordinates.
For an arc, set the Code to A and enter its radius and angle in the X/Radius and Y/Angle
columns. The arc will be taken to extend from the previous line/arc through the specified
angle. A positive angle is taken as a clockwise rotation and a negative angle as an anti-
clockwise rotation.
Tip: If an arc is to start at a certain angle, simply precede it with a short line at that angle.
Entering a circle
A circle is defined by entering the centre point followed by its radius in the next line:

Section Properties Calculation 8-12
Define the centre point of the circle by setting the Code to '+' and entering the absolute X
and Y-coordinates. If you leave either of the coordinates blank, a value of zero is used.
On the next line, set the Code to C and enter the radius of the circle in the X/Radius
column.
Note: A circle should be considered as a complete shape. If a circle has to be incorporated
in another shape, a polygon with arcs should be used.
Entering an opening
An opening is defined exactly like any other shape, with the exception that it is entered as a
negative shape:
Define the start position of the polygon by setting the Code to '' and entering the absolute
coordinate in the X/Radius and Y/Angle columns.
Define lines, arcs or a circle by entering the relevant points as described in the examples
above.
Examples
A number of examples are available on the Help menu to illustrate the input functions:
Simple square rectangular section
T-section that shows the use of relative X and Y-coordinates.
Circular tube that illustrates the use of circles and entering an opening.
Bridge deck with two openings.
Rail section that uses several circular arcs.
Section Input using CAD
You can convert CAD drawings to Prosec sections using Padds. For complex sections, this is
often the preferred way of creating input for Prosec:
Import a DWG or DXGF drawing into Padds, or draw the section in Padds.
On the Macro menu, use the Generate Input file to create input for Prosec. Follow the
prompts to select the lines and arcs that form the section outline, and select any openings.

Section Properties Calculation 8-13



Section Properties Calculation 8-14
Analysis
To calculate the bending section properties, or shear and torsional section properties, display
the Properties or Shear and torsion page respectively.
To calculate the bending properties, or shear and torsional section properties, click the
Bending Properties or Torsion Properties buttons respectively.
Analysis settings
Click Settings to adjust the analysis settings applicable to the bending and torsional analyses:
Rotation angle: Enter an angle
if you wish to calculate the
bending properties for a rotated
section.
Poisson ratio: The ratio
influences the torsional shear
stress distributions in a section.
It therefore also has an effect on
the position of the shear centre
and warping torsion constant.

Material Poisson Ratio
Aluminium 0.16
Concrete 0.20
Steel 0.30

Number of equations: For determination of the torsional section properties, the finite
difference mesh is sized to yield approximately the specified number of equations. More
equations will take longer to solve, but may yield better accuracy, especially when
analysing thin-walled sections.
Units: Entering the units of measurement is optional the calculated section properties are
always given in the same units as the input. However, when you do enter the units of
measurement, relevant units will be displayed in the output. This may be useful to interpret
the order of unit of a specific section property, e.g. mm
3
versus mm
4
.

Section Properties Calculation 8-15
Calculating bending section properties
The bending section properties are calculated using a simple method of division into sub-
sections:
Circles and arcs are first converted to polygons with approximately the same shapes. The
program uses lines at 30 angle increments for this purpose.
The section is then sub-divided into a series of trapeziums and the properties are calculated
for each trapezium.
The global section properties are finally calculated through summation of the values
obtained for each trapezium.


Section Properties Calculation 8-16
Calculating torsional section properties

For calculating the shear and torsional section properties, the program uses a finite difference
analysis method:
The analysis routine uses Prandtl membrane analogy for determining the Y and X-shear
stresses and J, the St. Venant torsional constant.
The shear stress distributions in the Y and X-directions are determined for a unit load
applied in the Y-direction. The shear centre is then calculated by considering the moment
of shear stresses about the centre of mass.
The torsional constant, J, is taken as twice the volume below the membrane. The
maximum slope of the membrane then gives the torsional modulus. The maximum
torsional shear stress is obtained by dividing the torsional moment with the torsional
modulus Z
t
.
Warping torsion is evaluated by using the relationship between shear and axial
deformation from classical elastic theory. The shear deformation is obtained from the pure
torsion analysis. The warping constant, C
w
, is then determined from the longitudinal
displacements.

Section Properties Calculation 8-17
Note: The number of equations has an effect on the accuracy of the torsional analysis. More
equations typically yield better results, especially for thin-walled sections, but take longer to
solve. To set the number of equations, adjust the Analysis Settings.

Calculating shear area
Strain energy density for shear stress
1
:
2
2
1
0
xy
G
U (1)
Internal strain energy:
dA U Ui .
0

(2)
External work
2
:

s
e
GA
V
U
2
2

(3)
From 1 and 2:
dA
G
U
xy
i .
2
1
2


(4)
From 3 and 4:

dA
As
xy.
1





1
Stresses In Plates and Shells, by Ansel Ugural, published by McGraw-Hill
2
Theory of Elasticity, by Stephen P. Timoshenko and J.N. Goodier, published by
McGraw-Hill

Section Properties Calculation 8-18
Calcsheet
The section property calculations can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to
Calcpad. Various settings can be made with regards to the inclusion of design results and
pictures.

Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
Recalling a data file
If you enable the Data File option before sending a calcsheet to Calcpad, you can later recall
it by double-clicking the relevant object in Calcpad. A data file embedded in Calcpad is saved
as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the analysis module as well.




Wind Pressure Analysis 8-19
Wind Pressure Analysis
Wind Pressure Analysis calculates free stream velocity pressures, wind loads on various
building geometries, and frictional effects on cladding materials.


Wind Pressure Analysis 8-20
Theory and Application
A brief summary is given below with respect to the supported design codes and symbols used.
Scope
The program calculates the free stream velocity pressure applicable to a building structure, and
then considers the internal and external pressure coefficients for the given building geometry to
calculate the design wind loads on the walls and roof.
Design codes
The following codes of practice are supported:
CP3 - 1972.
SABS 0160 - 1989.
Units of measurement
The program support metric and imperial units of measurement.
List of symbols
The code symbols are used as far as possible:
k : Pressure coefficient that depends on altitude.
C
pe
: External pressure coefficient
C
p,
: Internal pressure coefficient
Q
z
: Free stream velocity pressure (kPa).
V : Regional wind speed (m/s).
v
z
: Characteristic wind speed at a height z (m/s)

Wind Pressure Analysis 8-21
Input
Define the building and wind loading condition to be analysed:
Environmental and general geometric parameters.
Building geometry.
Wall permeability.
Environmental parameters
Enter the following parameters to define the environment:
Mean return period: A return period to indicate the importance of the structure.

Return Period Description
100 High risk buildings, e.g. hospitals and
communication centres
25 Low risk structures, e.g. farm
outbuildings
5 Temporary structures
50 Most other structures
Terrain category: An indication of the likely exposure of the structure to wind loading. A
higher value denotes increased shielding and lower wind pressures.

Terrain
Category
Description
1 Open terrain
2 Outskirts of towns
3 Built-up and residential areas
4 City centres
Regional wind speed: The design wind speed for a fifty-year return period for the location
of the building (m/s or ft/s). Refer to the relevant design code for regional values.

Wind Pressure Analysis 8-22
Class of structure: The class of structure quantifies the importance of the analysis:

Class Description
A Structural component
B Structure as a whole
C For checking structural stability

Altitude: Height above sea level (m or ft).
Roof cladding type: A description of the surface profile of the material used to clad the
building, affecting friction. Choices include ribs, corrugations, and smooth.
Building geometry
Enter the following parameters to define the building geometry:
Type of roof: Double-pitched or mono-pitched roof.
Plan dimensions: Building length and width (m or ft).
Wall dimensions: Eaves and apex heights (m or ft).
Wind direction to consider for analysis: 0, 90 or 180.
Wall permeability
Define the wall permeability (for calculation of internal pressure coefficient C
pi
) by selecting
the option that best describes the permeability of the wall. Alternatively enter a custom C
pi

value.

Wind Pressure Analysis 8-23
Wind Profile
Display the free stream wind profile for the building location.


Wind Pressure Analysis 8-24
Wind Pressures
Display the calculated wind pressures on the walls and roof of the building.


Wind Pressure Analysis 8-25
Calcsheet
The Calcsheets page assembles the analysis results for printing and sending to Calcpad. Use
the Options button to select the information to be displayed.

Recalling a data file
The Data File is automatically included when sending a calcsheet to Calcpad. You can later
recall the data file by double-clicking the relevant object in Calcpad. A data file embedded in
Calcpad is saved as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the Wind
Pressure Analysis module as well.

Wind Pressure Analysis 8-26





Gutter and Down pipe Design 8-27
Gutter and Down pipe Design
The Gutter Design module analyses gutters and down pipes to drain roof of building
structures for specified rain intensities and durations.


Gutter and Down pipe Design 8-28
Theory and application
Below is a brief summary of the application scope and symbols used.
Scope
The program can evaluate roof drainage systems subjected to intense short duration rains. It
takes into account the shape of the gutter, the outlet into which the gutter discharges and the
pipe-work that conveys the flow to below.
Note: Gutters and down pipes may normally be omitted for roofs with area of 6 m
2
or less
and no other area drains onto it (clause NC.5).
Design code
The program is based on the requirements of BS 12056-3 - 2000.
Units of measurement
The program supports both Metric and Imperial units of measurement.
List of symbols
The code symbols are used as far as possible:
B : Width of the gutter at its top (mm or in).
B
r
: Width of roof from gutter to ridge (m or ft).
B
s
: Width of the gutter at its base (mm or in).
H : Overall gutter depth (mm or in).
H
r
: Height of roof from gutter to ridge (m or ft).
L
r
: Length of roof to be drained at the position of the gutter (m or ft).
T
x1
: Horizontal offset the start of the ridge of the roof (m or ft). Leave blank or
enter zero for a rectangular roof area.
T
Lr
: Length of the roof at the ridge (m or ft). Enter the same value as for L
r
for a
rectangular roof area.
x
1
: Position of the start of the gutter along the length of the roof (m or ft).
x
2
: Position of the gutter end (m or ft).
y
d
: Sloped depth of a trapezium-shaped gutter (mm or in).

Gutter and Down pipe Design 8-29
Input
Define the drainage system and storm to be drained:
Storm characteristics
Gutter geometry
Outlet and down pipe definition.
Storm characteristics
Enter the following parameters to define the storm:
Return period (years): This parameter is used as a measure of the security of an
acceptable degree of damage. A return period of between five and fifty years is normally
used for typical situations. For higher risk scenarios, a value of one and a half times the
expected life of the building and higher should be used. Refer to the code for detail.
Two minute M5 rainfall (mm): This quantity is defined as the expected rainfall in a two
minute period during a one in five year storm. Press 2 Minute M5 Rainfall Constants to
display regional data for the United Kingdom and South Africa. Refer to the code or other
relevant hydrological data for regions not listed.

Design duration (1 to 10 minutes): The M5 rainfall is adjusted for the actual duration in
accordance with Table NB.1 of the code.

Gutter and Down pipe Design 8-30
Gutter geometry
You can define rectangular and
trapezium-shaped gutters:
Width at the top of the gutter, B.
Gutter base width, B
s
. Set the
value equal to the top width for a
rectangular gutter.
Overall gutter depth, H.
Sloped depth, y
d
of a trapezium
shaped gutter, enter the depth in
which the gutter slopes outward
from the base. Leave this input
blank or zero for a rectangular
gutter.
Roof layout
Define the roof layout by entering the
roof and downpipe dimensions.
Roof dimensions
The roof being drained can have a rectangular or trapezoidal layout:
Width of roof from gutter to ridge, B
r
.
Length of roof to be drained at the position of the gutter, L
r.

Horizontal offset the start of the ridge of the roof. Leave blank or enter zero for a
rectangular roof area, T
x1.

Length of the roof at the ridge. Enter the same value as for L
r
for a rectangular roof
area, T
Lr

Height of roof from gutter to ridge, H
r.

Gutter and wind characteristics
Position of the start of the gutter along the length of the roof, x
1
. Leave blank or enter zero
if the gutter extends for the whole length of the roof.
Position of the gutter end, x
2
. Enter the same value as for L
r
if the gutter extends for the
whole length of the roof.

Gutter and Down pipe Design 8-31
The wind characteristics determine whether there will be increased water flow compared
to the case where rain is falling vertically:
Driven: The rain is driven unto the roof (at an angle of 26) resulting in increased
water flow due to rain on sloping roofs. This is accounted for in the analysis by
increasing the impermeable area of the roof (Table 3 of the code).
Perpendicular: The impermeable area of the roof is calculated using T
r
, the distance
from the gutter to the ridge measured along the slope of the roof.
None: Rain is falling vertically, and the impermeable roof areas is calculated using the
horizontal distance from the gutter to the ridge, B
r
.


Downpipes
Define one or more downpipes using the following parameters:
Position of the downpipe from, measured from the edge of the roof (m or ft).
The type of outlet influences the flow collected from the gutter (code clause 5.4). The
following types of outlets can be specified:

Gutter and Down pipe Design 8-32
Type 1: Outlet with sharp corners.
Type 2: Outlet with rounded corners.
Type 3: Outlet with tapered edges not exceeding 45 with the vertical.
Breadth to width ratio: Use a unity value for square and circular down pipes.
Width: The larger dimension of the down pipe. Use the diameter in the case of a circular
down pipe.
Rectangular: Indicate if the downpipe is rectangular or circular.
Drop box: Indicate if the downpipe has a box receiver or sump increases the drainage
capacity before overtopping.
Additional inflow
If draining one or more other roofs into this gutter, enter the location (measured from the
start of the roof) (m or ft) and the equivalent drainage areas (m
2
or ft
2
) for each.

Gutter and Down pipe Design 8-33
Design
The Design page gives a graphic summary of the drainage catchments and gutter draining.


Gutter and Down pipe Design 8-34
Calcsheets
The Calcsheets page displays the design calculations. The program evaluates the following
three components of the drainage system:
The gutter that collects the flow from the roof.
The outlet into which the flow from the gutter discharges.
The pipe-work that conveys the flow from the outlet to a lower drainage system.

Recalling a data file
The Data File is automatically included when sending a calcsheet to Calcpad. You can later
recall the data file by double-clicking the relevant object in Calcpad. A data file embedded in
Calcpad is saved as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the Gutter
Design module as well.


Masonry Design 9-1
Chapter
9
Masonry Design
The masonry design section contains modules for the analysis of reinforced masonry beams
subjected to pure bending and unreinforced masonry walls subjected to axial compression and
out of plane bending about two axes.



Masonry Design 9-2
Quick Reference
Masonry Design using PROKON 9-3
Masonry Section Design 9-5
Masonry Wall Design 9-15

Masonry Design using PROKON 9-3
Masonry Design using
PROKON
The masonry section design module, MasSec, is mainly used for the design
of members such as lintels and masonry that span large openings in walls.
MasWall, on the other hand is ideally suited for the design of wall panels and
bearing walls.
Code of practice support is currently limited to SABS 0164-1992.
Characteristic compression strengths for masonry units are calculated based
on unit geometry, nominal strengths and tables in the abovementioned code
of practice.
All the masonry modules provide a detailed Calcsheet on design
methodology and results, i.e. a complete record of the design is generated
automatically.
Masonry Design using PROKON 9-4
Masonry Section Design 9-5
Masonry Section Design
The masonry section design module, MasSec, determines the resistance of a
reinforced masonry section loaded in pure bending.
The module is standalone, i.e. it does not post process results from any of the
analysis modules.


Masonry Section Design 9-6
Theory and application
A brief background is given below regarding the application of the design
codes.
Design scope
The masonry section design module verifies the resistance of a reinforced
masonry beam at a critical section. It is assumed that the loads imposed on
the beam causes uniaxial bending and a shear force only.
The following limitations apply:
No direct support for composite action, e.g. masonry beam and
prestressed a lintel.
No support for doubly reinforced sections.
Design codes
The program designs masonry sections according to the following codes of
practice:
SABS 0164 - 1992.
Units of measurement
MasSec supports both Metric and Imperial units.
Symbols
Where possible, the same symbols are used as in the codes of practice:
Dimensions
b : Section breadth (mm).
d : Effective depth, i.e. distance from the compression face to the
tension steel centroid (mm).
z : Moment lever arm (mm).



Masonry Section Design 9-7
Design results
M
r
: Moment resistance (kNm).
M
u
: Applied ULS moment (kNm).
V
r
: Shear resistance (kN).
V
u
: Applied ULS shear (kN).
a : Shear span (m), or unit correction factor (unitless).
Design parameters
A
s
: Tension steel area (mm).

mm
: Partial material safety factor for the masonry unit.

ms
: Partial material safety factor for the reinforcement.
L
max1,2
: Limiting lengths due to stability considerations (m).
Stresses
f
y
: Ultimate tensile strength of the tension steel (Mpa).
f
yy
: Ultimate tensile strength of the shear steel (Mpa).
f
nom
: Nominal compression strength of the masonry unit (MPa).
f
k
: Characteristic compression strength of the masonry unit
(MPa), i.e. the strength of the unit in a beam or wall,
dependence on unit aspect ratio removed.
f
v
: Shear stress due to V
u
(MPa).
f
v
: Adjusted shear stress (MPa), modified based on the shear
span.
f
br
: Bond resistance (MPa).
f
bu
: ULS bond stress due to V
u
(MPa).

Design parameters
Tension steel area
As MasSec only verifies the resistance of a section, the diameter and number
of bars are required parameters during the input stage.
Masonry Section Design 9-8
Physically, the tension reinforcement is usually either conventional bars, as
used for concrete, or hard drawn wires. The conventional bars are used with
special concrete block masonry units which have voids specifically intended
for reinforcement. These voids are then filled with concrete after steel
placement to form a solid, reinforced unit.
Wires are placed in bedding joints, and as such, are suitable for use with
standard format brickwork.
Partial material safety factors
The safety factors for masonry units have a fairly wide range, due to the wide
range of materials and the measure of control during manufacturing and
construction. See the applicable code of practice for details.
Stresses
Manufacturers usually quote a nominal compression strength for the masonry
units that they provide. This nominal strength is derived from a simple
crushing test.
Due to the variability in masonry unit dimensions, this nominal strength
cannot be used as the actual crushing strength of the unit. Values from
crushing tests are very sensitive to aspect ratio and this dependence must be
removed from the strength parameter.
This can be by testing a small, standard, wall panel to failure and using
equations provided in the applicable code of practice to determine
characteristic compression strength for the unit.
Alternatively, most codes of practice also provide tables of characteristic
strengths versus aspect ratio and nominal strengths.
In MasSec, any one of the two approaches can be used.




Masonry Section Design 9-9
Input
Design input comprises two steps:
General: Parameters concerning materials and masonry unit.
Geometry and loads: Parameters concerning the beam and loading.
General input

The masonry unit to be used in the beam is completely defined by the first
table on this page. The three available unit types and associated input
parameters are tabulated below:
Solid unit Width, Length, Height, Joint size
Hollow unit
Width, Length, Height, Joint size
Shell thickness*, % solid material
Hollow grouted unit
Width, Length, Height, Joint size
Shell thickness*, % solid material
*This parameter is only used for the graphical output.
Masonry Section Design 9-10
Percentage solid material refers to the area perpendicular to the loading in the
crushing test, usually this would be width x length. The percentage solid
material would then be (total area void area) as a percentage of the total
area.
Masonry unit sizes are based on the modular concept, i.e. any dimension of
the unit added to a joint thickness of 10mm yields a multiple of 100.
The table below indicates the recommended nominal unit dimensions
applicable to South Africa.
Burnt clay
190 x 90 x 90 mm
290 x 90 x 90 mm
390 x 90 x 190 mm
390 x 190 x 190 mm
Calcium silicate
190 x 90 x 90 mm
290 x 90 x 90 mm
390 x 90 x 190 mm
390 x 100 x 190 mm
Concrete
190 x 90 x 90 mm
290 x 90 x 90 mm
390 x 90 x 190 mm
390 x 190 x 190 mm
The second table on this page contains the parameters pertaining to material
strengths and reinforcement position. If the masonry units have been tested to
failure as specified by the applicable code then f
k
can be entered directly in
this table. If only nominal strengths are available, enter the nominal strength
and MasSec will calculate f
k
.
Masonry Section Design 9-11
The table below lists the available nominal strengths available in
South Africa:
Burnt clay
3.5 MPa
7 MPa
10.5 MPa
14 MPa
17 MPa
Calcium silicate
7 MPa
14 MPa
21 MPa
35 MPa
Concrete
3.5 MPa
7 MPa
10.5 MPa
14 MPa
21 MPa
Steel strength, positioning and type, as well as mortar class must be chosen in
this table as well.
Geometry and loads input
The first table on this page defines the type and geometry of the masonry
beam.
The following beam types are supported:
Single leaf - Single leaf of masonry
Collar jointed - Double leaf of masonry, where the small void between
the two leaves of masonry is filled with mortar or concrete
Grouted cavity - Double leaf of masonry, where the larger void between
the two leaves is filled with concrete with strength of at least fk.
Masonry Section Design 9-12
The dimensions of the beam section, the clear span and the type of support
are also chosen on this table.
The second table provides parameters for the steel as well as a load distance
parameter and a bearing length. The load distance is the distance of the
critical section from the left hand support the resulting shear enhancement
is allowed in certain cases. The last table requires the input of ULS loads on
the critical section.
Masonry Section Design 9-13
Design
The design page provides a tabular and diagrammatic summary of the design.

Two cases of bending failure are presented on the diagram and the minimum
chosen as the section strength in bending:
1) Compression failure Over-reinforced beam, masonry ruptures in
compression before the steel yields.
2) Tension failure Under-reinforced beam, steel yields before the masonry
ruptures in compression.
Other design checks are tabulated with action effect (loading) versus the
resistance effect (strength). Steel required and provided is tabulated in the left
bottom corner of the tab.





Masonry Section Design 9-14
Calcsheets


The Calcsheet provides a fully annotated design document which can be
printed or sent to the CalcPad for permanent storage.
Display settings for the Calcsheet are controlled by the output settings button,
on the left bottom corner of the page.
Note: The Calcsheet is not saved with the rest of the input when the file is
saved. All changes to the Calcsheet will then be lost. To edit the Calcsheet
output, send it to the CalcPad where it can be edited and saved.












Masonry Wall Design 9-15
Masonry Wall Design
The masonry wall design module, MasWall, determines the resistance of an
unreinforced masonry wall axially loaded in its plane or loaded out of plane.
The module is standalone, i.e. it does not post process results from any of the
analysis modules.


Masonry Wall Design 9-16
Theory and application
A brief background is given below regarding the application of the design
codes.
Design scope
The masonry wall design module verifies the resistance of an unreinforced
masonry wall, subjected to one of the following loads:
In plane axial loading (Bearing walls)
Out of plane loading, causing biaxial plate bending (Wall panels)
The following limitations apply:
Currently no support for combined loading, i.e. bending and
compression.
No support for reinforced walls.
Design codes
The program designs unreinforced masonry walls according to the following
codes of practice:
SABS 0164 - 1992.
Units of measurement
MasSec supports both Metric and Imperial units.
Symbols
Where possible, the same symbols are used as in the codes of practice:
Dimensions
t : Wall thickness (mm).
h : Wall height (mm)
e
x
: Calculated or actual eccentricity (mm).

Design results
Masonry Wall Design 9-17
M
r
: Moment resistance (kNm).
M
cr
: Cracked moment resistance (kNm).
M
u
: Applied ULS moment (kNm).
C
r
: Axial resistance (kN/m).
C
u
: Applied ULS axial force (kN/m).
q
lat
: Lateral pressure resistance, assuming a three pin arch
collapse mechanism. (kN/m)
Design parameters

mm
: Partial material safety factor for the masonry unit.
R : Slenderness ratio
Z : Section modulus (mm)
e
a
: Additional eccentricity due to slenderness (mm).
e
t
: Total eccentricity (mm).
e
m
: Design eccentricity (mm), maximum of e
t
and e
x
.
: Capacity reduction factor
t
eff
: Effective wall thickness (mm)
h
eff
: Effective wall thickness (mm)
Stresses
f
nom
: Nominal compression strength of the masonry unit (MPa).
f
k
: Characteristic compression strength of the masonry unit
(MPa), i.e. the strength of the unit in a beam or wall,
dependence on unit aspect ratio removed.
f
kx perp
: Flexural tensile strength perpendicular to the bedding joints
(MPa).
f
kx par
: Flexural tensile strength parallel to the bedding joints (MPa).



Masonry Wall Design 9-18
Design parameters
Eccentricities
Actual load eccentricity is assumed to vary from e
x
at the top of the wall to
zero at the bottom, subject to additional eccentricity due to slenderness
effects.
Partial material safety factors
The safety factors for masonry units have a fairly wide range, due to the wide
range of materials and the measure of control during manufacturing and
construction. See the applicable code of practice for details.
Stresses
Manufacturers usually quote a nominal compression strength for the masonry
units that they provide. This nominal strength is derived from a simple
crushing test.
Due to the variability in masonry unit dimensions, this nominal strength
cannot be used as the actual crushing strength of the unit. Values from
crushing tests are very sensitive to aspect ratio and this dependence must be
removed from the strength parameter.
This can be by testing a small, standard, wall panel to failure and using
equations provided in the applicable code of practice to determine
characteristic compression strength for the unit.
Alternatively, most codes of practice also provide tables of characteristic
strengths versus aspect ratio and nominal strengths.
In MasWall, any one of the two approaches can be used. Similarly flexural
tensile resistances parallel and perpendicular to the bed joints can be
specified or left to MasWall for calculation.




Masonry Wall Design 9-19
Input
Design input is divided into two steps:
General: Parameters concerning materials and masonry unit, as well as
wall design type.
Wall geometry: Parameters concerning the wall type and dimensions.
General input

The masonry unit to be used in the beam is completely defined by the first
table on this page. The three available unit types and associated input
parameters are tabulated below.
Solid unit Width, Length, Height, Joint size
Hollow unit
Width, Length, Height, Joint size
Shell thickness*, % solid material
Hollow grouted unit
Width, Length, Height, Joint size
Shell thickness*, % solid material
*This parameter is only used for the graphical output.
Masonry Wall Design 9-20
Percentage solid material refers to the area perpendicular to the loading in the
crushing test, usually this would be width x length. The percentage solid
material would then be (total area void area) as a percentage of the total
area.
Masonry unit sizes are based on the modular concept, i.e. any dimension of
the unit added to a joint thickness of 10mm yields a multiple of 100.
The table below indicates the recommended nominal unit dimensions
applicable to South Africa.
Burnt clay
190 x 90 x 90 mm
290 x 90 x 90 mm
390 x 90 x 190 mm
390 x 190 x 190 mm
Calcium silicate
190 x 90 x 90 mm
290 x 90 x 90 mm
390 x 90 x 190 mm
390 x 100 x 190 mm
Concrete
190 x 90 x 90 mm
290 x 90 x 90 mm
390 x 90 x 190 mm
390 x 190 x 190 mm
The second table on this page contains the parameters pertaining to material
strengths. If the masonry units have been tested to failure as specified by the
applicable code then f
k
can be entered directly in this table. If only nominal
strengths are available, enter the nominal strength and MasWall will
calculate f
k
.
Masonry Wall Design 9-21
The table below lists the available nominal strengths available in
South Africa.
Burnt clay
3.5 MPa
7 MPa
10.5 MPa
14 MPa
17 MPa
Calcium silicate
7 MPa
14 MPa
21 MPa
35 MPa
Concrete
3.5 MPa
7 MPa
10.5 MPa
14 MPa
21 MPa
Similarly values for flexural tensile resistances should be available in the
applicable code of practice.
The design type should be chosen on this page:
Vertical loads axially loaded bearing walls
Lateral loads on panels design for biaxial plate bending
The layout of subsequent pages in the input process will vary according to
the design type chosen.
Wall geometry input Vertical loads
The table on this tab defines the type, geometry and stiffeners (if any) of the
masonry wall.
The following wall types are supported:
Single leaf - Single leaf of masonry
Collar jointed - Double leaf of masonry, where the small void between
the two leaves of masonry is filled with mortar or concrete
Masonry Wall Design 9-22
Cavity - Double leaf of masonry, with a void between the two leaves.
Wall height, length and cavity size (if required) can be entered on this page.
Possible values for the horizontal restraint are: (Refer to SABS 0164 for
details)
Simple No rotational fixity at the top of the wall.
Enhanced Partial rotational fixity at the top of the wall.

Similar rotational fixities can be specified for the vertical edge(s) of the wall.
MasWall also supports vertical stiffeners between the wall edges. These
stiffeners can be either piers (small columns) or intersecting walls. Once
vertical stiffeners have been selected, they need to be dimensioned as well.

Masonry Wall Design 9-23
Wall geometry input Lateral loads on panels

The table on this page defines the type, geometry and edge restraint of the
masonry wall panel.
The following wall types are supported:
Single leaf - Single leaf of masonry
Collar jointed - Double leaf of masonry, where the small void
between the two leaves of masonry is filled with mortar or concrete
Cavity - Double leaf of masonry, with a void between the two
leaves.
Wall height, length and cavity size (if required) can be entered on this page.
Edge restraints can be specified for each edge individually as free, simple or
fixed.
Loads input Vertical loading
For this loading type, axial forces and eccentricity with respect to the wall
centreline can be entered on this page. Multiple load cases are supported.
Note that all loads should be ULS loads.
Masonry Wall Design 9-24
Loads input Lateral loads on panels
For this loading type, moments parallel and perpendicular to the bedding
joints can be entered directly. A dead load pressure on the level of moment
parallel to the bedding joints is required to calculate the cracked moment
resistance.
Alternatively the moment calculator button can be
used to calculate moments based on a lateral
pressure.
This calculation makes use of the moment tables in
the code of practice which are in turn derived from
yield line equations.

Masonry Wall Design 9-25
Design

This page provides a tabular and diagrammatic summary of the design. The
two resistance moments are shown on the diagram.
Other design checks are tabulated with action effect (loading) versus the
resistance effect (strength).




Masonry Wall Design 9-26
Calcsheets


The Calcsheet provides a fully annotated design document which can be
printed or sent to the CalcPad for permanent storage.
Display settings for the Calcsheet are controlled by the output settings button,
on the left bottom corner of the page.
Note: The Calcsheet is not saved with the rest of the input when the file is
saved. All changes to the Calcsheet will then be lost. To edit the Calcsheet
output, send it to the CalcPad where it can be edited and saved.

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