Kinematics and Dynamics of Machinery Lab

685/MP/11: Yugal Raj Jain (9891866644) 658/MP/10: Sanjay Kumar Choudhary (9555707150) 659/MP/10: Saurabh Krishan (9717231661) MPAE 2, Section II, 2nd Year
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CONTENTS
S.No. 1 2 3 Experiment To study various inversions of four bar chain To trace the Involute gear teeth profile using rack cutter By the use of apparatus in the lab, perform the following experiments on Watt governor and obtain the following graphs: - Force v/s rotation of radius - Speed v/s sleeve displacement To plot d (follower displacement v/s angle of CAM) curve for given CAM and follower To study gyroscopic behaviour and verify gyroscopic couple due to load check To study the functions of a governor and the plot a graph between force and radius of rotation by using a Hartnell Governor To study damped and free oscillations of a pendulum; determine the radii of gyration, the time period for a beach ball, a helical spring, a Bi-Filer suspensions, and a compound pendulum, as required. To measure co-efficient of friction between pulley material and different belt material and to measure power transmitted with varied belt tension and plotting a graph of (T1-T2) vs (T1+T2)/2 i.e tension characteristics. To determine the torque distribution of epicyclic gear train and to study the functioning of the hand operated model. To study the balancing of rotary masses Page No. 3 7 13

4 5 6 7

17 23 27 30

36

9 10

41 45

Experiment 1

Aim: To study various inversions of four bar chain. Apparatus: Corresponding arrangements for various four bar mechanisms. Theory: Inversions of mechanisms is the method of obtaining different mechanisms by fixing different links in a kinematic chain.

1) BEAM ENGINE (CRANK AND LEVER MECHANISM): In this mechanism, link 2 is the crank and the link 4 is the lever. When the crank rotated about the fixed centre A, the lever oscillates about a fixed centre D. The end E of the lever CDE is connected to a piston rod which reciprocates due to the rotation of the crank. The purpose of this mechanism is to convert rotary motion into reciprocating motion.

Figure: Schematic diagram of beam engine mechanism

Figure: A Beam Engine

2) ACKERMAN STEERING GEAR MECHANISM: In this mechanism, the two short links AB, CD are equal in length, while the links AD, BC are unequal in length. When the cat is moving along a straight path, the mechanism takes up the position shown at (b) and the proportions of the links are so fixed that the axes of all four wheels intersect at the same point I. This ensures that the relative motion between the tyres and the road surface shall be one of pure rolling. Here, link 2 and link 4 oscillate and hence this mechanism is called as double lever mechanism. Link 1 is fixed and the link 3 is a coupler.

Figure: Ackerman steering gear mechanism

Figure: Taking a left turn

3) COUPLING ROD OF LOCOMOTIVE (DOUBLE CRANK MECHANISM): Coupled wheels of locomotive are example of a double crank mechanism. This mechanism consists of four links as shown in the figure. Coupled wheels of locomotive are meant for transmitting rotary motion of one wheel to another. In this mechanism, the links AB and CD (having equal length) act as crank and connected to the respective wheels. The link BC acts as a coupling rod and the link AD is fixed in order to maintain a constant centre to centre distance between them.

Figure: Coupled wheels of locomotive

4) ELLIPTICAL TRAMMEL (INVERSION OF DOUBLE SLIDER CRANK CHAIN MECHANISM): This instrument is used to draw ellipse. Here link 4 is a slotted bar which is fixed. Link 1 and 3 are known as slider and forms sliding pairs with link 4. Link 2 is a bar which forms turning pair with 1 and 3. When the slider slides along the groove any point say P on the slider traces an ellipse on the surface of link 4. A little consideration will show that AP and BP are semi-major and semi-minor axes respectively.

Figure: Elliptical trammel

Result: The various inversions of the four bar chain were studied. Precautions: 1) Handle the apparatus carefully 2) While studying the inversions, dont move the apparatus too quickly or strongly. It may foul the apparatus. Bibliography: 1) http://books.google.co.in/books?id=oCbM7kwNFtIC&pg=PA15&lpg=PA15&dq=beam+an

d+engine+mechanism&source=bl&ots=rmHq6FEEbD&sig=szjESNR0wc8CDiuQdwa5m6Cf gI4&hl=en&sa=X&ei=BQFjUYHiCM2srAexuYGoCw&sqi=2&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=be am%20and%20engine%20mechanism&f=false

2) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ackermann_steering_geometry

Experiment 2

Aim: To trace the Involute gear teeth profile using rack cutter Apparatus: Rack cutter, Plain sheet, Geometry box instruments, 3 polystyrene discs (P.C.D=200,300,450) Theory:

Figure: General gear nomenclature diagram

IMPORTANT NOMENCLATURE OF GEARS: Gear, wheel: The larger of two interacting gears or a gear on its own. Pinion: The smaller of two interacting gears. Path of contact: Path followed by the point of contact between two meshing gear teeth Pitch point: Point where the line of action crosses a line joining the two gear axes. Pitch circle, pitch line: Circle centered on and perpendicular to the axis, and passing through the pitch point. A predefined diametral position on the gear where the circular tooth thickness, pressure angle and helix angles are defined. Pressure angle: The complement of the angle between the direction that the teeth exert force on each other, and the line joining the centers of the two gears. For involute gears,

the teeth always exert force along the line of action, which, for involute gears, is a straight line; and thus, for involute gears, the pressure angle is constant Point of contact: Any point at which two tooth profiles touch each other Involute: An involute of a circle is a plane curve generated by a point on a tangent, which rolls on the circle without slipping or by a point on a taut string which is unwrapped from a reel. To understand what an involute is, consider a simple cylinder and a string as shown below. Wrap the string around the cylinder. While maintaining tension on the string, trace the path that the end of the string makes while un-wrapping it around the cylinder. This path is an involute curve.

Figure: An Involute Curve

On an involute profile gear tooth, the contact point starts closer to one gear, and as the gear spins, the contact point moves away from that gear and toward the other. If you were to follow the contact point, it would describe a straight line that starts near one gear and ends up near the other. This means that the radius of the contact point gets larger as the teeth engage.

Figure: An Involute gear teeth profile picture

This given experiment is used to illustrate the process of cutting Involute gear teeth by use of rack cutter. A gear teeth profile can be traced out on a piece of paper placed between the disc and the rack cutter. An effect of interference and undercutting can be observed from the profiles traced.

Figure: Generation of Involute gear profile

Observations:

Roll No: 658/MP/10

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Result: Hence, an Involute gear teeth profile can be generated with the help of use of a rack cutter.

Precautions: 1) Fumbling of hands while tracing the profile can lead to faulty profiles of the Involute gear teeth. Care should be taken to avoid improper tracing of the gear teeth. 2) Handle apparatus carefully. 3) The circumference of the disc should just touch the depth line of the rack cutter that is marked. 4) The white paper should be adhered to the surface so that the profile can be traced easily without much movement. 5) Take the beginning and end markings on the rack cutter carefully.

Bibliography:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Involute_gear http://gearcutting.blogspot.in/2008/02/comparison-between-involute-and.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gear

Theory of Machines, RS Khurmi and JK Gupta, page 392

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Experiment 3

Aim: By the use of apparatus in the lab, perform the following experiments on Watt governor and obtain the following graphs: 1) Force & rotation of radius 2) Speed & sleeve displacement Apparatus: Speed selector, governor, DC motor, sleeve, V-belt, balls, and weights Theory: A governor, or speed limiter, is a device used to measure and regulate the speed of a machine, such as an engine. A classic example is the centrifugal governor, also known as the Watt or fly-ball governor, which uses weights mounted on spring-loaded arms to determine how fast a shaft is spinning, and then uses proportional control to regulate the shaft speed.

Figure: Detailed diagram of a governor

For instance, when the load on the engine increases, its speed decreases, therefore it becomes necessary to increase the supply of working fluids or vice-versa. The governor automatically controls the supply of fluids to the engine with varying load conditions & keeps the main speed within limits. The governors are broadly classified as: 1) Centrifugal governor 2) Inertia governor

CENTRIFUGAL GOVERNOR

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They are based on balancing of centrifugal force on the rotating balls by equal and opposite radial force called the controlling force. It consist of 2 balls of equal mass w/c is driven by the engine through bevel gears. The balls and the sleeve revolve with the spindle speed & fall when speed decreases. The sleeve is connected with ball crank lever. The supply of fluid decreases when speed rises & vice-versa. The load on the engine increases, the engine speed decreases. This operates the throttle valve at the other end of the ball crank lever. Watt Governor

Figure: A Governor

Its the simplest form of a centrifugal governor. Its a conical pendulum with links attached to a sleeve of negligible mass. The arms of the governor are connected to the spindle in the fall way. The point p is the offset from the spindle axis and the arm when produced nearest to o. Applications: It was commonly used to maintain the engines speed of trucks or other vech icles. It is still use in Ships and trains engine. They are seen on steam engines, internal combustion engines and variously fueled turbines We can use it on ac generators to maintain the electricity supply with the load increases on it.

Its assumed that the weight of the link, sleeve and arm are negligible as compared to balls

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1) Centrifugal force (Fc) acting on the balls 2) the tension t in the arm 3) weight w of the balls

EMo=0 Fc x h=w*x*r=m*g*r Mw^2r h=mgr H=g/w^2

Observations: WATT GOVERNOR: Length of link (I) = 125 mm Mass of each ball= 0.742 kg Height of governor (h)=ho-x/2 Radius of rotation (r)=100/2+ lsin<

SNo

Speed (N) Rpm

W (rad/sec)

Sleeve displacement (cm)

Radius (r) (cm)

W^2r

Centrifugal force(x 10^20)(N) 4882.1 7170.7 10709.7 13204.7 16084.6

1 2 3 4 5

196.62 234.68 280.69 308.23 338.95

20.57 24.50 29.39 32.26 35.47

5.2 7.1 10.2 12.3 13.4

15.55 16.10 16.71 17.10 17.23

6579.60 9664.03 14433.6 17796.10 21677.42

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For watt governor h is inversely proportional to n^2 therefore at high speed h is very small. At such speed the change in the value of h corresponding to a source change in

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speed is insufficient to enable a governor of this type to operate the machine to give necessary change in the first supply.

Precautions: 1) Assemble governor and fit properly. 2) Dont keep tools in range of governor. 3) Keep away body parts from the rotating governor. Bibliography: 1. http://babylon.acad.cai.cam.ac.uk/students/study/engineering/engineer03l/cefirs tctrleng.htm 2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor_(device)

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Experiment 4

Aim: To plot d (follower displacement v/s angle of CAM) curve for unit given pair. The plot can be used to find out the length of the stroke. Apparatus: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Auto-transformer Cam Follower arrangement Tachometer Dial gauge Spring Weights

Theory: A cam is a mechanical member used to impart desired motion to the follower by direct contact. Cam rotates or reciprocates whereas the follower may be rotating, reciprocating or oscillating. A cam follower, also known as a track follower is a specialized type of roller or needle bearing designed to follow cams. Cam followers come in a vast array of different configurations; however the most defining characteristic is how the cam follower mounts to its mating part; stud style cam followers use a stud while the yoke style has a hole through the middle. The first cam follower was invented and patented in 1937 by Thomas L. Robinson of the McGill Manufacturing Company. It replaced using just a standard bearing and bolt. The new cam followers were easier to use because the stud was already included and they could also handle higher loads.

CONSTRUCTION:

While cam and followers appear to be very similar to roller bearings in construction they have quite a few differences. Standard ball and roller bearings are designed to be pressed into a rigid housing, which provides circumferential support. This keeps the outer race from deforming, so the race cross-section is relatively thin. In the case of cam followers the outer race is loaded at a single point, so the outer race needs a thicker cross-section to reduce deformation. However, in order to facilitate this, the roller diameter must be decreased, which also decreases the dynamic bearing capacity.

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End plates are used to contain the needles or bearing axially. On stud style followers one of the end plates is integrated into the inner race/stud; the other is pressed onto the stud up to a shoulder on the inner race. The inner race is induction hardened so that the stud remains soft if modifications need to be made. On yoke style followers the end plates are peened or pressed onto the inner race or liquid metal injected onto the inner race. The inner race is either induction hardened or through hardened. Another difference is that a lubrication hole is provided to relubricate the follower periodically. A hole is provided at both ends of the stud for lubrication. They also usually have a black oxide finish to help reduce corrosion.

TYPES OF CAM AND FOLLOWER ARRANGEMENTS:

According to Surface in Contact

1. Knife Edge Follower :

As Shown in the figure, the contacting end of the follower has a sharp knife edge. Sliding motion takes between the contacting surface.

place

2. Roller Follower:
As shown on left corner, contacting end of the follower is a roller. Rolling motion takes place between surfaces. These are extensively used where more space is available such as stationary gas and oil engines and aircraft engines.

3. Flat Faced or Mushroom follower:

As shown on left corner contacting end of the follower is perfectly flat face. When the flat face follower is circular called mushroom follower. a its

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According to the motion of the follower:- :

1. Reciprocating or translating follower. When the follower reciprocates in guides as the cam rotates uniformly, it is known as reciprocating or translating follower. The followers as shown above are all reciprocating or translating followers.

2. Oscillating or rotating follower. When the uniform rotary motion of the cam is converted into predetermined oscillatory motion of the follower, it is called oscillating or rotating follower. The follower, as shown in left side is an oscillating or rotating follower.

According to the path of motion of the follower :-

1. Radial follower. When the motion of the follower is along an axis passing through the centre of the cam, it is known as radial follower. The followers, as shown in Fig. ( a) to (c), are all radial followers.

2.

Off-set follower.

When the motion of the follower is along an axis away from the axis of the cam centre, it is called off-set follower. The follower, as shown in Fig. below, is an off-set follower.

Terms Used in Radial Cams: 1. Base circle. It is the smallest circle that can be drawn to the cam profile. 2. Trace point. It is a reference point on the follower and is used to generate the pitch curve. In case of knife edge follower, the knife edge represents the trace point and the pitch curve corresponds to the cam profile. In a roller follower, the centre of the roller represents the trace point.

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3. Pressure angle. It is the angle between the direction of the follower motion and a normal to the pitch curve. This angle is very important in designing a cam profile. If the pressure angle is too large, a reciprocating follower will jam in its bearings. 4. Pitch point. It is a point on the pitch curve having the maximum pressure angle. 5. Pitch circle. It is a circle drawn from the centre of the cam through the pitch points. 6. Pitch curve. It is the curve generated by the trace point as the follower moves relative to the cam. For a knife edge follower, the pitch curve and the cam profile are same whereas for a roller follower, they are separated by the radius of the roller. 7. Prime circle. It is the smallest circle that can be drawn from the centre of the cam and tangent to the pitch curve. For a knife edge and a flat face follower, the prime circle and the base circle are identical. For a roller follower, the prime circle is larger than the base circle by the radius of the roller. 8. Lift or stroke. It is the maximum travel of the follower from its lowest position to the topmost position.

Observations: Jump Speed () =

( + ) w.r

= angular velocity of cam w= weight of the follower assembly

s= spring

force (total

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compression of spring* stiffness of spring) r= stroke/2 Stiffness of spring= 5.5kg/cm

SNo

(Cam Rotation in degrees)

D(cm)

(Degrees)

D( in cm)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

0.05 0.08 0.14 0.19 0.25 0.27 0.37 0.48 0.89

200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360

0.68 0.60 0.44 0.18 0.14 0.09 0.05 0.02 0.00

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Conclusion: Cams are widely used for operating the inlet & exhaust valves of internal combustion engines, feed mechanism of automatic lathes etc. Knife edge followers are used because the small area of contacting surface results in excessive wear. In roller follower wear is greatly reduced due to rolling motion between cam and follower surfaces. The follower must be constrained to follow the cam. This is done by springs, gravity or hydraulic means. d- graph: Since the follower moves with uniform velocity during its rise and return stroke, hence the slope of the curve must be constant. The follower remains at rest during part of the cam rotation & this period is called dwell period. The sound corners of the displacement diagram are parabolic because parabolic motion results in very low acceleration of the follower weight are increased the pump speed decreases.

Precautions:

1. The rotating parts should be well lubricated. 2. Dial gauge should be fixed tightly at zero level. 3. The cam has to be firmly held whole taking rotations at dial gauge.

Bibliography: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cam_follower http://www3.ul.ie/~kirwanp/disccamwithknifeedgefollowe.htm http://www.google.co.in/search?q=knife+edge+follower&hl=en&tbm=isch&tbo=u&sourc e=univ&sa=X&ei=cD1hUfifFMKmrAe2r4GwBQ&ved=0CC0QsAQ&biw=1304&bih=683#hl =en&tbm=isch&sa=1&q=roller+follower&oq=roller+follower&gs_l=img.3..0l2j0i5l2j0i24l 2.444524.447689.0.448121.18.13.0.0.0.2.218.1744.4j6j3.13.0...0.0...1c.1.8.img.qmcxh 3DgQOE&fp=1&biw=1304&bih=683&bav=on.2,or.r_qf.&cad=b&sei=X6hhUY_RI8XrAeD14HoDA&imgrc=_gjkPHmevzDdmM%3A%3B3yipGQIVusXP4M%3Bhttp%253A%252 F%252Fwww3.ul.ie%252F~nolk%252F3D%252520cam%252B%252520roller.gif%3Bhtt p%253A%252F%252Fwww3.ul.ie%252F~nolk%252Fcams.htm%3B624%3B358

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Experiment 5 Aim: To study gyroscopic behaviour and verify gyroscopic couple due to load check Apparatus: 1) 2) 3) 4) Autotransformer Gyroscope Allotted weights Stop Watch

Theory:

Figure: A gyroscope

Gyroscope: A gyroscope is a body while spinning about an axis is free to rotate in other directions under the action of external forces . Angular velocity of the rotating body is given in magnitude and direction by the length of the vector and by drawing the vector parallel to the axis of the rotor. Examples where gyroscopes are used: locomotives, automobiles and aeroplanes making turns. In certain the gyroscopic forces may be undesirable but in the other cases, they

may be desirable.

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Figure: Basics part of a gyroscope

Axis of spin: If a body is revolving about an axis, the latter is known as axis of spin Axis of couple: The axis about which a couple is applied is known as axis of couple Axis of precession: The third axis that is perpendicular to both the axis of couple and that of spin is known as axis of precession

Figure: Working and principle of a gyroscope

Principle of operation: If we change the direction of angular velocity by keeping the magnitude constant, angular acceleration is produced. To cause the angular acceleration, a couple or torque is produced. OX is axis of spin, OY is axis of precession, Oz is axis of gyroscopic couple YOZ is plane of spin, YOX is plane of couple, XOZ is plane of precession, ab is applied torque /couple,ab is reaction couple. The change in angular momentum is represented by vector ab but change in angular momentum can result from the application of couple to rotor. C=(I)/ t (I)=ab=a X time T= a X / t gyration =I /t I=moment of inertia of disc,I=angular momentum =angle in radian travelled by the axis of spin in

=IXWp

(i=mk^2,w=2N/60),k=radius of

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Applications: Applications of gyroscopes include inertial navigation systems where magnetic compasses would not work (as in the Hubble telescope) or would not be precise enough (as in ICBMs), or for the stabilization of flying vehicles like radiocontrolled helicopters or unmanned aerial vehicles. Due to their precision, gyroscopes are also used to maintain direction in tunnel mining.

Observation tables and Calculations: Mass of rotor (m)= 5.858 Kgs Rotor Diameter= 291mm K=145.5mm (K= Radius of Gyration)

SNo Speed (N) Rpm 1 2700 2 2700 3 2700 4 5 6 7 8 9 2700 2700 2700 2700 2700 2700

Mass (k.g.) 0.508 0.508 0.508 0.792 0.792 0.792 1.780 1.780 1.780

Angle of Rotation 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

Time 16 15 16 11 10 11 5.5 5 5.5

Torque 0.1169

Torque Applied=W*l 0.093

0.1700

0.146

0.3394

0.3284

W= 2*pi*n/60 = 2*3.14*2700/60= 282.8 rad/sec

Wp = dO/dt = (pi/6)*(1/T) dO/dt1=0.032 dO/dt2=0.047 dO/dt1=0.095

I= m*k2

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= 5.858*(0.14450)2/9.81 =0.0126417 Kgm

T= W*l = 0.058*0.1845 = 0.093

Result: Hence, the gyroscopic behaviour was studied and the gyroscopic couple was verified. Precautions: 1) 2) 3) 4) Speed should be measured accurately Speed should be measured only when it has become constant Handle apparatus carefully Dont increase the speed beyond a certain limit

Bibliography: Lab Manual, Kinematics and Dynamics of Machinery Lab Theory of Machines, RS Khurmi and JK Gupta http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyroscope

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Experiment 6 Aim: To study the functions of a governor and the plot a graph between force and radius of rotation by using a Hartnell Governor Apparatus:

1) 2) 3) 4)

Speed selector Governor DC motor Weights

Theory: A governor, or speed limiter, is a device used to measure and regulate the speed of a machine, such as an engine. A classic example is the centrifugal governor, also known as the Watt or fly-ball governor, which uses weights mounted on spring-loaded arms to determine how fast a shaft is spinning, and then uses proportional control to regulate the shaft speed. A HARTNELL GOVERNOR is a spring loaded governor as shown. It consists of two bell crank levers pivoted at the points O,O to the frame. The frame is attached to the governor spindle and therefore rotates with it. Each lever carries a ball at the end of the vertical arm OB and a roller at the end of the horizontal arm OR. A helical spring in compression provides equal downward forces on the two rollers through a collar on the sleeve. The spring force may be adjusted by screwing a nut up or down on the sleeve.

Figure: Hartnell Governor The Hartnell Governor Stationary steam engines, traction engines, portable and semiportable engines all require some method of steam regulation to enable the operator to maintain adequate control over the machine. A device known as a governor is the piece

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of equipment used for this purpose. Numerous types of governors have been designed and put into use.

Figure: setup for the experiment

APPLICATIONS: Car Speed limiters: Governors can be used to limit the top speed for vehicles and for some classes of vehicle such devices are a legal requirement. They can more generally be used to limit the rotational speed of the internal combustion engine or protect the engine from damage due to excessive rotational speed Aircraft: Aircraft propellers are another application; The governor senses shaft rpm, and adjusts or controls the angle of the blades to vary the torque load on the engine. Thus as the aircraft speeds up (as in a dive) or slows (in climb) the RPM is held constant.

Observations and calculations: HARTNELL GOVERNOR (LIGHT SPRING) N rpm W=3.14*N/30 Rad/sec Sleeve disp. X cm 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.7 Radius of rotation W^2rg Weight of rotating mass w kg 0.76 0.76 0.76 0.76 0.76 Centrifugal force F=w/g W^2r Newton 40.09 47.75 54.73 62.24 66.30

168 182 194 206 212

17.59 19.05 20.31 21.57 22.20

17.3 17.45 17.60 17.70 18.2

5275 6284 7202 8190 9723

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centrifugal force(in N)
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 centrifugal force(in N)

Sleeve displacement -------- (in cms) Result: Sleeve v/s displacement graph comes out to be a straight line for light spring. Precautions: 1) Handle apparatus carefully 2) Do not revolve the Governor at very high speeds 3) Close all machinery after use

Bibliography: http://murdochsite.tripod.com/Hartnell.pdf http://elearning.vtu.ac.in/17/e-Notes/10ME54/Unit6-BS.pdf http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor_(device) Lab Manual, Kinematics and Dynamics of Machinery Lab Theory of Machines, RS Khurmi and JK Gupta

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Experiment 7 Aim: To study damped and free oscillations 1) To verify the relation L T = 2( ) g where L = length of the pendulum (cm) and T = time period for a beach ball 2) To determine the radius of gyration of the given pendulum and verify the relation K2 + (OG)2 T = 2( ) g(OG) T = periodic time in seconds K = radius of gyration about CG (cm) OG = Distance of CG of rod from support L = total length of the pendulum (cm) 3) To determine the radius of gyration of the given bar by using By-filer suspension 4) To study the longitudinal vibrations of a helical spring Apparatus: Beach ball, pendulum rod, stop watch, By-filer suspension, weights, thread, metre scale, helical spring Theory: A pendulum is a weight suspended from a pivot so that it can swing freely. When a pendulum is displaced sideways from its resting equilibrium position, it is subject to a restoring force due to gravity that will accelerate it back toward the equilibrium position. When released, the restoring force combined with the pendulum's mass causes it to oscillate about the equilibrium position, swinging back and forth. The time for one complete cycle, a left swing and a right swing, is called the period. A pendulum swings with a specific period which depends (mainly) on its length.

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Figure: Simple pendulum The simple gravity pendulum is an idealized mathematical model of a pendulum. This is a weight (or bob) on the end of a massless cord suspended from a pivot, without friction. When given an initial push, it will swing back and forth at a constant amplitude. Real pendulums are subject to friction and air drag, so the amplitude of their swings declines.

Figure: Time period of a pendulum The period of swing of a simple gravity pendulum depends on its length, the local strength of gravity, and to a small extent on the maximum angle that the pendulum swings away from vertical, 0, called the amplitude. It is independent of the mass of the bob. If the amplitude is limited to small swings, the period T of a simple pendulum, the time taken for a complete cycle, is:

where L is the length of the pendulum and g is the local acceleration of gravity.

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Figure: the setup for the experiment

APPLICATIONS OF PENDULUMS: 1) The human body.

Walking is often likened to the motion of two coupled pendula where the supported leg is analogous to an inverted pendulum with the suspension point on the ground and the swinging leg analogous to a damped pendulum. As humans learn to walk, control of this system is developed and research suggests that individuals favour a step frequency and step length which minimises their expenditure of energy. The variables of step length and frequency are essentially parameters of the modelled system. Although such a model is a significant simplification of human motion, the pendulum remains the fundamental mechanism in walking. 2) Rocket Science.

When a space rocket is launched, in order to control its trajectory, the rocket itself must be kept accurately balanced in line with the direction of thrust. This is typically implemented using a thrust vector control system whereby corrective bursts are fired during the ascent from a set of gimballed control thrusters at the base of the rocket. This system is analogous to a forced pendulum in three-dimensional space. The explicit forcing, a physical external force exerted on the system, is provided by the set of control thrusters that stabilise the pendulum in the inverted position. Again, this is a simplification of the entire dynamics of a space shuttle launch, but the classical engineering problem of balancing an inverted pendulum plays a key role in controlling the rocket. 3) Seismometers A pendulum in which the rod is not vertical but almost horizontal was used in early seismometers for measuring earth tremors. The bob of the pendulum does not move when its mounting does, and the difference in the movements is recorded on a drum chart Observations and Calculations: 1) Beach Ball S.No. Mass of the ball (gm) L (cm) No of oscillations (n) Time for n oscillations, t (seconds) 1 2 3 150 150 150 17.8 19.4 22.3 10 10 10 9.3 9.8 10.3 Texp (t/n) (seconds) 0.93 0.98 1.03 Ttheoretical from formula (seconds) 0.84 0.88 0.94

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Example, Ttheoretical = 2(L/g) = (2/3.132)(L) = 2L approximately = 0.84 seconds

Graph

2) Compound pendulum S.No. L (cm) OG (cm) No of oscillations (n) 1 2 3 80 80 80 28.7 38.9 23.75 10 10 10 Time for n oscillations, t 13.3 13.8 17.1 T = t/n Kexp (m) Ktheo (m)

1.33 1.38 1.71

0.2145 0.18 0.34

0.23 0.23 0.23

(kexp2 + og2) Example, T = (2)( ) g(OG)

Kexp1 = 0.2145 approximately

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3) Helical Spring S.No. Wt attached, W (kg) No of oscillations, n Time for n oscillations, t (seconds) 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 20 20 20 20 20 4.6 6.1 6.0 7.0 7.5 0.46 0.61 0.60 0.70 0.75 T = t/n (seconds)

4) BI-FILER SUSPENSION

S.No.

L (cm)

a (cm)

No of oscillations, n

Time for n oscillations, t (seconds)

T = t/n (seconds)

Kexp (m)

1 2 3 4

22.5 24.5 27.0 31.0

22.7 22.7 22.7 22.7

10 10 10 10

4.6 5.1 5.6 6.2

0.46 0.51 0.56 0.62

0.436 0.46 0.48 0.50

Example, T =

K (L/g) 2a

K = 0.436 etc

Result: The respective radii of gyration were found out, the relation was verified and the longitudinal vibrations in helical spring were studied.

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Precautions: 1) Handle apparatus carefully 2) Dont give extremely large deflections to the spring, pendulum, beach ball and the bi-filer suspension 3) Note down the time for each reading carefully Bibliography:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pendulum http://www.enm.bris.ac.uk/teaching/projects/2005_06/ao2924/applications.html
Lab Manual, KDM Lab, NSIT

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Experiment 8 Aim: i) ii) To measure co-efficient of friction between pulley material and different belt material. To measure power transmitted with varied belt tension and plotting a graph of (T1-T2) vs (T1+T2)/2 i.e tension characteristics.

Apparatus: D.C. Motor - 1 HP, 1500 RPM, variable speed, driving & Driven pulleys of equal diameters, Brake drum along with spring balance , flat belt of fixed length of following materials -Fabric Belt, Canvas Belt, Belt tightening arrangement, Speed Controller unit, two Channel digital RPM Indicator. DESCRPTION: The apparatus consists of a variable speed D.C. Motor, Driving pulley and Driven pulley of equal diameter. The pulleys are mounted on input shaft (Motor shaft) and output shaft. The driven pulley can slide on the base with bearing block to change initial tension in belt. Brake drum is mounted on output shaft helps to measure power output. The motor speed is varied by dimmer stat. A two channel RPM Indicator is provided to measure speeds of driven and driving pulleys respectively. Theory:

Figure: The setup for the experiment A belt is a loop of flexible material used to mechanically link two or more rotating shafts. Belts may be used as a source of motion, to transmit power efficiently, or to track relative movement. Belts are looped over pulleys.

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In a two pulley system, the belt can either drive the pulleys in the same direction, or the belt may be crossed, so that the direction of the shafts is opposite. As a source of motion, a conveyor belt is one application where the belt is adapted to continuously carry a load between two points.

Figure: a flat belt

Figure: a pair of Vee belts

When power is to be transmitted between two shafts which are some distance apart, a belt or rope drive is used. In such drives, the power transmitted depends on the friction between the ropes which is in contact with the pulley. In case of belts, friction between the belt and pulley is used to transmit power. In practice, there is always some amount of slip between belt and pulleys, therefore, exact velocity ratio cannot be obtained. That is why belt drive is not a positive drive. Therefore, the belt drive is used where exact velocity ratio is not required. POWER TRANSMISSION: Belts are the cheapest utility for power transmission between shafts that may not be axially aligned. Power transmission is achieved by specially designed belts and pulleys. The demands on a belt drive transmission system are large and this has led to many variations on the theme. They run smoothly and with little noise, and cushion motor and bearings against load changes, albeit with less strength than gears or chains. However, improvements in belt engineering allow use of belts in systems that only formerly allowed chains or gears. Power transmitted between a belt and a pulley is expressed as the product of difference of tension and belt velocity:

where, T1 and T2 are tensions in the tight side and slack side of the belt respectively. They are related as:

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where, is the coefficient of friction, and is the angle subtended by contact surface at the centre of the pulley. PROS AND CONS: Belt drive is simple, inexpensive, and does not require axially aligned shafts. It helps protect the machinery from overload and jam, and damps and isolates noise and vibration. Load fluctuations are shock-absorbed (cushioned). They need no lubrication and minimal maintenance. They have high efficiency (90-98%, usually 95%), high tolerance for misalignment, and are inexpensive if the shafts are far apart. Clutch action is activated by releasing belt tension. Different speeds can be obtained by step or tapered pulleys. The angular-velocity ratio may not be constant or equal to that of the pulley diameters, due to slip and stretch. However, this problem has been largely solved by the use of toothed belts. Temperatures ranges from 31 F (35 C) to 185 F (85 C). Adjustment of center distance or addition of an idler pulley is crucial to compensate for wear and stretch. MATERIALS USED FOR BELTS: The belts materials should be strong, flexible, durable and must have a high coefficient of friction. a) leather belts b) cotton or fabric belts c) rubber belts d) balata belts Observations: alpha=80 degree=1.4 radian

I)

Coefficient of friction, T1 (kg) 1.7 2.2 T2 (kg) 0.5 0.70 0.3895 0.3645 mean 0.377

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II) S.No. 1 2 3

A) Canvas Belt T1 5.2 4.5 3.8 B) Fibre Belt T2 2.2 2.0 1.8 N1 865 770 790 N2 860 760 780 T1-T2 2.1 2.5 2.0 (T1+T2)/2 3.7 3.25 2.8

S.No. 1 2 3

T1 1.4 1.8 5.5

T2 3.5 5.0 1.5

N1 855 990 1150

N2 840 980 1140

T1-T2 2.1 2.6 4.0

(T1+T2)/2 2.45 3.0 3.5

Graph

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Result: The co-efficient of friction was found out and the graph was plotted. The coefficient of friction is 0.377 approximately. Precautions: 1) Handle apparatus carefully 2) Lubricate to reduce friction. 3) Connections should be tight Bibliography: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belt_(mechanical) Lab Manual, KDM Lab, NSIT Theory of Machines, RS Khurmi and JK Gupta

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Experiment 9 Aim: To determine the torque distribution of epicyclic gear train and to study the functioning of the hand operated model Apparatus: The equipment consists of broadly 3 parts: 1) The basic frame & mechanical setup, 2) The electrical control panel, 3) The hand operated model of holding torque apparatus. Theory:

Figure: A gear train

GEAR TRAIN: Any combination of gear wheels employed to transmit motion from one shaft to the other is called as Gear Train. The Gear Train may be broadly classified into following categories 1. Simple Gear train of gears- Two circles of gears with more than two bevel gears wheels constitute a simple train of gears. One is driver and another is driven gear.

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2. Compound trains of gears- Simple train of gear in which first & the last fear is on the same axis.

3. Reverted trains of gear A reverted train are one in which first & the last gear is in the same axis.

4. Epicycle train of gears So far we have seen the trains in which the gears as moving around the fixed axes. An Epicyclic gear train is one in whch the axes of some of the gears may have motion.

EPICYCLIC GEAR TRAIN: use-automatic transmission,

Figure: Epicyclic gear train

Epicyclic gearing is used here for increasing output speed. The planet gear carrier (green) is driven by an input torque. The sun gear, in the center, but almost hidden, has a prominent yellow shaft which provides the output torque, while the ring gear (pink) is fixed. Note the red marks both before and after the green input drive is rotated 45 clockwise.

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Epicyclic gearing or planetary gearing is a gear system consisting of one or more outer gears, or planet gears, revolving about a central, or sun gear. Typically, the planet gears are mounted on a movable arm or carrier which itself may rotate relative to the sun gear. Epicyclic gearing systems also incorporate the use of an outer ring gear or annulus, which meshes with the planet gears. Planetary gears (or epicyclic gears) are typically classified as simple and compound planetary gears. Simple planetary gears have one sun, one ring, one carrier, and one planet set. Compound planetary gears involve one or more of the following three types of structures: meshed-planet (there are at least two more planets in mesh with each other in each planet train), stepped-planet (there exists a shaft connection between two planets in each planet train), and multi-stage structures (the system contains two or more planet sets). Compared to simple planetary gears, compound planetary gears have the advantages of larger reduction ratio, higher torque-to-weight ratio, and more exible congurations. The three basic components of the epicyclic gear are: Sun: The central gear Planet carrier: Holds one or more peripheral planet gears, all of the same size, meshed with the sun gear Annulus: An outer ring with inward-facing teeth that mesh with the planet gear or gears.

Figure: Setup for the experiment

The hand operated holding torque apparatus is the demonstration model of the cycloidal gear box. We can see the driver gear, Cycloidal gear & output gear also in this. We measure the input & output ratio also, simple by marking the initial, position of the handle & the output shaft.

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Observations and Calculations: Sno. Gear Spring Balance (Kg/cm) 0.25 0.2 0.2 0.5 0.7 Pulley Spring Balance (Kg/cm) 3.5 3.8 3.8 4.6 4.6 Voltage (V) Current (A) N1 (rpm) N2 (rpm) Ti Th To

1 2 3 4 5

31 42 48 63 74

2.51 3.01 3.42 4.05 4.8

150 220 270 390 520

20 40 60 70 100

0.493 0.551 0.584 0.628 0.656

0.0375 0.03 0.03 0.075 0.105

0.53 0.57 0.57 0.66 0.69

Where Ti is Input Torque Th = R*spring balance reading difference of gear box R=

Th = Torque at gear train T0 = r* Spring balance reading difference of output pulley r=

2

To= Output Torque = Ti + Th = To

Result: The output torque for the Epicyclic gear train was found out. Precautions: 1) Handle apparatus carefully . 2) Do not use the motor at very high RPM values because it can be dangerous 3) Avoid parallax error while taking readings Bibliography: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicyclic_gearing Lab Manual, KDM Lab, NSIT

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Experiment 10 Aim-To study the balancing of rotary masses. Apparatus: Static and Dynamic Balancing Apparatus (Balancing weights,4 discs with angular scale, Linear scale to measure the relative distance between the discs, a motor to rotate the shaft) Theory: The apparatus consists of four circular discs mounted on a shaft. The discs are grooved for the attachment of weights at a specific radius. The disc also can be clamped at a specific angular position and also at a particular position along the length of the shaft. This attachment enables us for testing static as well as dynamic balancing. The whole test section is hanged to a rigid channel with the help of a chain.

Figure: The setup for the experiment

Balancing is a process of attempting to improve the mass distribution of a body so that it rotates in its bearings without unbalanced centrifugal forces. It is an essential technique applied to mechanical parts of rotational functionality (wheels, shafts, flywheel), in order to eliminate the detected irregularities found within it, and that may cause excessive vibrations during operation, and act as undesirable disturbances on the system being in use. Such irregularities may rise due to the inhomogeneous distribution of material within the part, bending and deflection of rotating shafts, and eccentricity of mass from the axis of rotation of the rotating disks and rotors.

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These irregularities lead to small eccentric masses that disturb mass distribution of the part, and the last generate centrifugal forces when the part is in rotation; the magnitude of these forces increases rapidly with speed of rotation, and enhances vibrations level during operation, and cause serious problems. STATIC BALANCINGStatic balance occurs when there is no resultant centrifugal force (centrifugal couple) and the centre of gravity is on the axis of rotation To avoid the stress upon the bearings caused by the centrifugal couple, counterbalancing weights must be added. The unbalancing weights are an idealization, of course. For example, in the case of an automobile tire the imbalance is due to imperfections of manufacture that make the tire composition inhomogeneous. Center of mass must lie on the axis of rotation. DYANAMIC BALANCINGA system of rotating mass is in dynamic balance when there does not exist any resultant centrifugal force as well as resultant couple. Dynamic Balancing differs from static balancing in that the mass distribution of the part is detected in all directions, and not only about the central axis; and so, not only the magnitude of the unbalanced mass and its distance from the axis of rotation are to be determined, but also its position in the axial (longitudinal) direction of the rotational part.Algebraic sum of the moments about any point in the plane must be equal to zero

Rotating shaft unbalanced by two identical attached weights, which causes a counterclockwise centrifugal couple Cd that must be resisted by a clockwise couple F =Cd exerted by the bearings. The figure is drawn from the viewpoint of a frame rotating with the shaft, hence the centrifugal forces. UNBALANCED SYSTEMS-There are many disadvantages to unbalanced systems. When a system is rotating with unbalanced masses unnecessary vibration occurs, further it may generate unwanted noise, excessive stresses in machine elements and reduce the reliability for all the parts associated with the rotating system. If a rotating system is not in balance, due to the unbalanced couple high bearing thrusts are generated. This will cause failure in bearings in short time periods. Shafts with unbalanced masses can be easily bent and fatigue failure may occur in particular number of cycles. When a system

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is rotating two rotors, although the system is in static balance, always there exists a couple relative to a one rotor. This unbalanced couple will generate a dynamic force couple in the two bearings which is known as rocking couple. APPLICATIONS1) Explanation and determination of unbalance 2) Investigation of static, dynamic and basic unbalance 3) To minimize vibrations, noise etc. which in turn improves the machine life and

reduces operator fatigue.

4) To minimize the dynamic stressing and fatigue, which leads to reduced sizes of

machine elements & necessary foundations. 5) To reduce power losses, as vibrating systems absorb energy due to the damping factor present in the system. 6) To avoid inaccuracy & improper functioning of adjacent machinery due to transmission of vibrations.

Result: The balancing of rotary masses was studied.

Bibliography: http://www.finemarketingindia.com/metallography_testing.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balancing_of_rotating_masses http://www.slideshare.net/markgilsapid/static-and-dynamic-balance

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