Invitation to Biblical Interpretation: Exploring the Hermeneutical Triad of History, Literature, and Theology

PART 1

THE CONTEXT OF SCRIPTURE: HISTORY

CHAPTER 2 OBJECTIVES

To impress upon the student the crucial importance of understanding the historical-cultural background of a given biblical passage.

To assure the student of the trustworthiness of the biblical record.

To direct the student’s attention to the need for determining the author’s purpose regarding the specific details he has chosen to record.

To provide a set of interpretive guidelines for applying the principles embedded in the historical-cultural data of the Bible to contemporary social and political problems.

CHAPTER 2 OUTLINE

A. Introduction: History and Hermeneutics

B. Chronology

1. Old Testament Period

a. Primeval Period

b. Patriarchal Period

c. From the Exodus to the United Monarchy

d. Divided Monarchy

e. Exile and Return

f. The Writing Prophets

2. Second Temple Period

a. Babylonian and Persian Periods

b. Hellenistic Period

c. Maccabean Period

d. Roman Period

3. New Testament Period

a. Jesus

b. Early Church and Paul

c. Rest of the New Testament

C. Historical-Cultural Background

1. Primary Sources

a. Ancient Near Eastern Literature

b. Old and New Testament Apocrypha

c. Old Testament Pseudepigrapha

d. Dead Sea Scrolls

e. Other Relevant Primary Sources

2. Secondary Sources

D. Archaeology

1. Old Testament

2. New Testament

E. Conclusion

F. Sample Exegesis: Luke 2:1–20

G. Guidelines for Interpreting Biblical Historical-Cultural Backgrounds

H. Key Words

I. Study Questions

J. Assignments

K. Chapter Bibliography

Chapter 2

SETTING THE STAGE: HISTORICAL-CULTURAL BACKGROUND

INTRODUCTION: HISTORY AND HERMENEUTICS

IN ORDER FOR THE INTERPRETATION of Scripture to be properly grounded, it is vital to explore the historical setting of a scriptural passage, including any cultural background features. An informed knowledge of the historical and cultural background is imperative also for applying the message of Scripture. J. Scott Duvall and J. Daniel Hays put the issue well:

Since we live in a very different context, we must recapture God’s original intended meaning as reflected in the text and framed by the ancient historical-cultural context. Once we understand the meaning of the text in its original context, we can apply it to our lives in ways that will be just as relevant.¹

Emphasizing the importance of historical information, of course, does not mean that every available piece of background data will necessarily be germane for the interpretation of a given biblical passage. The relevance of a particular piece of background information must to be carefully weighed and assessed. Certainly, background information should never override what is stated explicitly in the text. In fact, lack of judiciousness in selecting background information has led some to disparage the use of historical-cultural data in scriptural interpretation altogether (surely an overreaction).

For our present purposes, the most important hermeneutical question relates to the relationship between history and literature, the first and second element in the hermeneutical triad. Literature, in the ancient Greek and Hebrew languages, immediately reinforces the notion of texts, different from our own, with unique historical and cultural development. These texts not only require translation into an understandable language (English) but also the study of historical-cultural aspects embedded within them since both the biblical languages and other parts of biblical culture and history are inextricably intertwined.

Indeed, it is commonly acknowledged that it is vital to study Scripture in its proper context, and that context, in turn, properly conceived, consists of both historical and literary facets; so there is no need to justify the necessity of responsible historical research as part of the interpretive process. Suffice it to say that the necessity of historical research underlies major reference works such as study Bibles, Old and New Testament introductions, commentaries, and other standard reference works.

However, historical research has been given a bad name by the practitioners of the historical-critical method, which has been largely undergirded by an anti-supernatural bias that has consistently cast aspersions on the historicity of much of the biblical material.² In reaction to the excesses of the historical-critical method, some have advocated a strict literary reading of Scripture while leaving aside the question of historical referentiality.³ While surmounting the difficulty of alleged historical discrepancies, this proposed method, too, is not without its problems, because it unduly severs the vital (in fact, inevitable) connection between the biblical texts and their historical-cultural embeddedness.⁴

What is more, postmoderns believe that impartial, objective history-writing is impossible. The view of history as events as they actually happened has given way to the realization that all historiography is of necessity subjective. In addition, postmodern critiques frequently lodge the charge that much of history is written by those who prevailed in the struggle for power and authority. Thus history-writing is often viewed as a tool of oppression wielded by the powerful against the disenfranchised. In this context, all historiography, including the biblical records, are viewed with suspicion, and widespread skepticism rules the day.⁵

Despite the views of postmoderns, history is here to stay.⁶ After all, Christianity is a historical religion, at whose heart is a historical event, the resurrection of Jesus Christ (see esp. Paul’s comments in 1 Corinthians 15). Unless Jesus rose from the dead historically, we are not saved but remain in our sin (1 Cor. 15:16–19). In a memorable interchange in the pages of the Trinity Journal, Carl F. H. Henry and Hans Frei debated this very question, and Frei, who espoused a focus on the text to the detriment of history in interpretation, found it difficult to affirm unequivocally that Jesus rose from the dead not merely textually, but historically.⁷

This shows how important it is not to unduly divide the historical and literary dimensions of Scripture but to keep them in proper balance, as is integral to the hermeneutical triad used in the present volume. The very fact that the triad consists of history, literature, and theology shows the need for historical research to be balanced by a proper focus on the text (literature) and sufficient attention being given to theology (that is, God’s self-revelation in the sacred, historically embedded text). Conversely, Bible students should avoid both the excesses of the historical-critical method and the reductionism of unmitigated literary approaches that set themselves over against historical research.⁸

CHRONOLOGY

Reading the Bible reveals the great distance in time between the events recorded in Scripture and today; in its pages are not only events of long ago but also customs that are quite foreign. In order to grasp their significance an understanding of the people, events, and customs of the Bible in their proper historical milieu is necessary.⁹ The remainder of the chapter provides surveys of biblical chronology, historical-cultural background, and archaeology, beginning with a general historical framework for biblical interpretation using biblical chronology.¹⁰

Old Testament Period

From the internal biblical data, we can establish dates for Old Testament chronology.¹¹ A key passage is 1 Kings 6:1, which mentions that construction of Solomon’s temple began in the 480th year of the era that started with the exodus.¹² Correlation of data from external sources with the biblical record places the start of construction of the temple in the spring of 967 B.C.

The date of 1446 B.C. for the exodus is derived from 1 Kings 6:1, where construction of Solomon’s temple is said to have begun in the 480th year of the ‘going-out’ (exodus) of the people of Israel from the land of Egypt. The year of the exodus marked a new era in Israel’s history, and that year was marked as year one of the new era. Events are dated in this way in Exodus 16:1 and 40:17, Numbers 1:1, 9:1, and 33:8, and this method of dating is implied in Exodus 19:1 and 40:1. The year of the going-out therefore represented a useful and exact calendar, much as we use the year of Our Lord (Anno Domini). The last recorded usage of this technical phrase is found in 1 Kings 6:1, showing that 479 years had passed from the exodus in the spring of 1446 B.C. to the start of temple construction in the spring of 967 B.C. A proper study of the original language and the literary convention applied in 1 Kings 6:1 therefore firmly dates the exodus to the spring of 1446 B.C.

Utilizing other biblical information, we can determine a rather well-established general chronology for the Old Testament, stretching from the birth of Abram in 2166 B.C. to the end of the Old Testament era in the closing decade of the fifth century B.C.¹³ An accurate chronology thus provides the interpreter with the necessary framework for interpreting a given Old Testament passage in its historical context.¹⁴

Primeval Period

Primeval history covers the period between Genesis 1–11, encompassing the time span between Creation to the birth of Abram. Despite the fact that we cannot determine with any degree of finality dates for primeval history, Genesis 1–11 is a crucial part of biblical history, reflecting not mere textual realities but historical realities that have served to shape the present world. The world in which we live is the one that God created as good, the one corrupted by the fall, the one in which God established his covenant with Noah, and the one in which God made his promise to Abraham. If these are not historical realities, then the Christian faith is merely one among many mythological understandings of the world. True faith is rooted in a text that reveals not merely literary but also historical reality.

Historical realities are communicated through a text, and by its very nature, a text is selective in what it records. For this reason, no full history of every incident exists. Rather, the biblical authors recorded the most significant historical events for understanding who God is, what he is doing in the world, and what he calls humanity to do in response. Thus, the biblical text provides the interpretive framework for understanding human history. What is more, the biblical story line focuses particularly on salvation history, that is, the record of God’s mission in carrying out his plan of redemption for sinful humanity in and through the Messiah. This section on chronology seeks to understand that history as given by the biblical text.

Though Genesis 1–2 as a narration of how God, as the Creator, fashioned the universe is doubtless a central part of the author’s purpose, the creation narrative is within the larger context of the purpose of the five books of Moses (the Pentateuch) as a whole. This purpose is to demonstrate to Israel that their covenant God, Yahweh, is also the Creator of the entire universe. In this context, locating the creation of the world at an exact point of time in the past is secondary to understanding the creation narrative in the context in which it was originally written, namely, the early stages of Israel being constituted as a nation as part of its relationship with Yahweh, the Creator and God who had established his covenant with, first Noah, then Abraham, and now Moses.

Subsequent to this creation is the fall of humanity into sin. Though God created all things as good, Adam’s sin brings death to all creation; yet God at once begins to make provision for overcoming death and restoring all things by speaking of the promised seed, a child from Eve who will end sin’s rule (Gen. 3:15). Despite God’s promise to end sin’s reign by crushing the head of the serpent, the primeval period demonstrates that humanity spiraled downward until the LORD saw how great the wickedness of the human race had become on the earth, and that every inclination of the thoughts of the human heart was only evil all the time (Gen. 6:5).

In the midst of this world of sin, God keeps a remnant of people who are faithful to him. In the flood narrative, all flesh is destroyed, except for Noah’s family (Genesis 6–9); thus, the promise of the seed endures. Following the flood, the Noahic covenant confirms that God will sustain the natural cycle in order to set a firm stage for the redemption of all things by the promised seed (Genesis 9). The story of the tower of Babel serves to show the need for the redemption of all nations (Genesis 10–11). The answer for creation’s plight and the nations’ deliverance will come through God’s covenant with Abraham.

Patriarchal Period

Most of the patriarchal period is set in the archaeological era known as the Middle Bronze Period (c. 2000–1600 B.C.).¹⁵ In the biblical literature, the patriarchal period begins in Genesis 12 with God’s calling of and covenant with Abram and carries through the lives of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph until the end of Genesis (2091–1876 B.C.). Much of the biblical literature, including the material covering the patriarchal period, is written to demonstrate God’s faithfulness to the promises he made to Abra(ha)m in Genesis 12, 15, and 17.

The Hebrew people, and therefore God’s covenant promises and the deliverance of all that God had created, face a great challenge through the people’s sojourn in Egypt (1867–1446 B.C.). The book of Exodus opens up with the Hebrews growing so numerous that the Egyptian pharaoh decrees the slaughter of all the newborn male children, and thus the promise of the seed is threatened. Yet God heard their groaning, and he remembered his covenant with Abraham, with Isaac and with Jacob (Exod. 2:24).

From the Exodus to the United Monarchy

God remembers the covenant through the exodus of the Hebrew people from Egypt, arguably the most important event for the constitution of the nation of Israel (1446 B.C.).¹⁶ Through the exodus and the Mosaic covenant established at Sinai, God calls Israel into being as a nation set apart for him. God then continues to be faithful to his covenant promises by taking the people across the Jordan to settle the land that he promised Israel’s forefathers (1406 B.C.).¹⁷ The period of the judges ensues as God continually raises up leaders to bring Israel back to faithfulness to the covenant (c. 1360–c. 1060 B.C.).¹⁸ The united monarchy then begins with the anointing of Saul as king (1051 B.C.) and consists of the reigns of Saul, David, and Solomon.¹⁹ With regard to biblical literature, this time period proved to be significant because the Psalms and wisdom literature flourished during this time period as David and Solomon became the archetypal psalmist and embodiment of wisdom, respectively.

The period of the united monarchy also proved to be significant with respect to the covenant promises of God. God made a covenant with David, saying,

When your days are over and you rest with your ancestors, I will raise up your offspring to succeed you, your own flesh and blood, and I will establish his kingdom. He is the one who will build a house for my Name, and I will establish the throne of his kingdom forever. (2 Sam. 7:12–13)

This covenant with David continued God’s faithfulness to his prior covenants, specifying that the promised seed, God’s Messiah, would come in and through the line of David (see Matt. 1:1–17). Later, Solomon builds the temple as the place where God has chosen to make his name dwell (967–961 B.C.).²⁰ After Solomon’s death, the nation is divided into the northern and the southern kingdoms, called Israel and Judah.

Divided Monarchy

The era of the divided monarchy encompasses the period from the death of Solomon until the collapse of the northern and southern kingdoms in 723/22 B.C. and 587 B.C., respectively.²¹ This is a lively time in the history of the ancient Near East, which sees the ascendancy of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (745–612 B.C.), the rise of the Neo-Babylonian (or Chaldean) Empire (626–539 B.C.), and a brief resurgence of Egypt (664–525 B.C.). Israel’s location in the midst of these competing powers provides frequent pressure upon the twin kingdoms. That pressure will lead to Israel and Judah’s breaking of the covenant and her spiritual apostasy and worship of other gods. Breaking the covenant, in turn, means that Israel and Judah incur the curse of the Mosaic covenant—exile from the promised land (587–533 B.C.).²²

Exile and Return

As mentioned, the northern kingdom (Israel) is exiled by the Assyrians in 723/22 B.C., and the southern kingdom (Judah) follows suit when it falls into Babylonian captivity. If the exodus serves as the paradigmatic event of redemption, the exile represents the paradigmatic event of judgment. Though it is Israel’s—not God’s—unfaithfulness that issues in divine judgment, now that the Jews have gone into exile they question God’s faithfulness to his covenant. God promised that Israel would be in the land permanently, that his name would dwell in the temple indefinitely, that David would have a son on the throne forever, and that all nations would be blessed through Israel. Yet, other nations took Israel captive in judgment and destroyed the temple. Nevertheless, in spite of Israel’s failure to fulfill her side of the covenant arrangement, God would prove faithful.

In due course, God calls the Persian ruler, Cyrus, to defeat the Babylonians who captured Israel (Isaiah 44:24–45:7), and he issues a decree to bring God’s people back to the Promised Land (538 B.C.). Subsequently, the people begin to rebuild the temple in 532 B.C.²³ Under the ministries of Ezra and Nehemiah, the temple is completed in 515 B.C. God proves faithful, and the people are restored from exile. Though the temple is rebuilt, however, it is not as glorious as Solomon’s temple, nor does the glory of God descend to take up his presence there again. God’s fulfillment of his promises awaits a future