NTU50235100

PIEZOELECTRIC
TRANSDUCERS
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•Introduction

•Electrostatics

•Piezoelectricity

•Signal conditioning
Pierre and Jacques Curie (1880)

•Applications

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Introduction
•1880 Pierre and Jacques Curie: discovered the piezoelectric effect - mechanical
stress induces surface electric charges

•1881 Lippman: predicted the converse piezoelectric effect - electric field induces
mechanical deformation

•Lord Kelvin, Pockels, Duhem, Voigt, R. E. Gibbs, Max Born:

established theories and models

•Langevin: device for detecting submarines in World War I

•1917 A. M. Nicolson: loud speakers, microphones, phonograph pickups,

crystal oscillator

•1921 Cady: Quartz crystal oscillators (GT cut)

•1942 W. P. Mason: frequency filters

•1950s~1960s R. D. Mindlin, H. F. Tiersten: vibration of piezoelectric plates

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Eve

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• Comparison of sensing principles

Strain Sensitivity Span to threshold

Principle Threshold (µ*)
(V/µ*) ratio

Piezoelectric 5.0 0.00001 100.000.000

Piezoresistive 0.0001 0.0001 2.500.000

Inductive 0.001 0.0005 2.000.000

Capacitive 0.005 0.0001 750.000

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Applications
High-voltage sources
Spark source
Transformer

Sensors
Microphone
Contact microphone
Microbalance
Accelerometer
Hydrophone
Actuators
Loudspeaker
Ultrasonic
Acousto-optic modulator
Inkjet head
Fuel injector
Frequency standard
Quartz resonator

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Electrostatics

•Electric field
F: force
F = qE q: charge
E: electric field
- Coulomb’s law
x1 − x 2
F = kq1q2 3
x1 − x 2

- Electric field of a point charge

x − x1
E = kq1 3
x − x1

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- Electric field due to a charge density ρ ( x)

x − x′
E = k ∫ ρ (x′) 3
dx ′
x − x′
1 −7 2 N ⋅ m2 ⎞ 9⎛
k≡ = 10 c = 8.988 × 10 ⎜ 2⎟
4πε 0 ⎝ Coul ⎠
−12 ⎛ Coul 2 ⎞
ε 0 = 8.8542 × 10 ⎜ ⎟ : dielectric constant in vacuum
⎝ N ⋅ m2 ⎠

- Gauss’s law
1
∫ E ⋅ nds = ε0 ∫V ρ (x)dx
ρ
∇⋅E =
ε0

- Scalar potential
1 ρ (x′)
ϕ (x) =
4πε 0 ∫ x − x ′
E = −∇ϕ , dx ′ , ∇×E=0

ϕ : electrostatic potential
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- Poisson and Laplace equations

ρ
∇⋅E =
ε0
ρ In regions of space where there is no
∇ ⋅ ( −∇ϕ ) =
ε0 charge density
ρ
∇ 2ϕ = − : Poisson equation ∇ 2ϕ = 0 : Laplace equation
ε0

- Boundary conditions
Dirichlet B.C. ϕ specified

∂ϕ
Neumann B.C. specified
∂n

- Discontinuities in the field and potential

σ
( E2 − E1 ) ⋅ n = ; ϕ1 = ϕ 2
ε0
σ : surface - charge density ( Coul/m2 )
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- Conductors
Equipotential region, equipotential surface
E1 = 0 ; E 2 = −∇ϕ
∂ϕ ∂ϕ σ
∇ϕ ⋅ n = ; =−
∂n ∂n ε0

- Parallel-plate condenser
ϕ1 − ϕ 2 = V , V : " voltage"
σ Qd
V = Ed = d =
ε0 A ε0
Q Aε 0 ⎛ Coul ⎞
C= = , C: capatance ⎜ Farad= ⎟
V d ⎝ Volt ⎠

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- Electric dipole
p = qd : dipole moment
p=qd , d: points from − q to +q
1 p⋅R
ϕ (R ) = : dipole potential
4πε 0 R 3

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- Potential for lump of charges

Far field approximation, di << R
1 ⎛ Q p⋅R ⎞
ϕ (R ) = ⎜ + 3 +L⎟
4πε 0 ⎝ R R ⎠
Q = ∑ qi ; p = ∑ qi di

For a neutral object, Q = 0

1 p⋅R
ϕ (R ) = : dipole potential
4πε 0 R 3

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- Dielectrics
σ
V= ( d − b)
ε0
ε0 A
C=
d (1 − b / d )

The capacitance is increased.

Faraday discovered that the capacitance The net charge inside the surface must
is increased when an insulator is put ⇒ be lower than it woiuld be without the
between the plates. dielectric.

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- The polarization vector P

Q=0 Q=0
p=0 pi ≠ 0
∑ pi = 0

Q=0
Q=0 pi ≠ 0
p≠0 ∑ pi ≠ 0

Polarization P =
∑ pi : dipole moment per unit volume
Δv

If the field is not too enormous P ∝ E (or Pi = aij E j for anisotropic materials)

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- Polarization charges
p=ql : dipole moment per molecule
l : effective movement of positive charges w.r.t. negative charges

q: number of positive charges per molecule

number of molecules
N=
unit volume

Nq l ⋅ d S = N p ⋅ d S = P ⋅ d S : positive charges leave through dS

1. Surface polarization charge density

P ⋅ dS
σp = = n ⋅ P : surface polarization charge density
dS

On the interface of two materials

σ p = n ⋅ ( P1 − P2 )
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2. Polarization charge density

∫ P ⋅ dS : total positive charges leave volume V

= net negative charges in volume V
= − ∫V ρ p dV

ρ p : polarization charge density

∫ P ⋅ d S + ∫V ρ p dV = 0
∫V (∇ ⋅ P + ρ p )dV = 0 ρ p = −∇ ⋅ P

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- Inside dielectric
ρ f + ρp
∇⋅E = , ρ f : free charge density
ε0
ε 0∇ ⋅ E = ρ f + ρ p = ρ f − ∇ ⋅ P
or
∇ ⋅ ( ε 0E + P ) = ρ f

Define “electric displacement”

D = ε 0E + P

Governing equations
∇⋅D = ρf and

∇×E=0

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- Constitutive equation
Isotropic materials Anisotropic materials
P = χ e ε 0E Pi = ε 0 χij E j
D = (1 + χ e )ε 0E = ε r ε 0E = ε E Di = ε 0 (δ ij + χ ij ) E j = ε ij E j

χe : susceptibility Di = ε ij E j = − ε ijϕ , j
ε0 : permittivity of empty space
εr Governing equation
: dielectric constant (relative permittivity)
ε : permittivity Di ,i = ρ f
εijϕ , ji = − ρ f
- Boundary conditions
Boundary condition
σ f +σp
( E 2 − E1 ) ⋅ n =
ε0 ( Di ni ) 2 − ( Di ni )1 = σ f
ε 0 ( E 2 − E1 ) ⋅ n = σ f + (P1 − P2 ) ⋅ n
(εijϕ , j ni )1 − (εijϕ , j ni ) 2 = σ f
(D 2 − D1 ) ⋅ n = σ f
and ϕ1 = ϕ 2
∂ϕ1 ∂ϕ ϕ1 = ϕ 2
ε1 − ε2 2 = σ f and
∂n ∂n

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Piezoelectricity

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• Quartz

Photo Copyright © 2000 by John H. Betts.

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Potential is created

Quartz in rest state

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Temperature effect

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•Ferroelectric material:
PZT PZT unit cell above
PbTiO3, PbZrO3 the Curie temperature

PZT unit cell below

the Curie temperature

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Poling of piezoelectric ceramic

Electric dipoles in domains: (1) unpoled ferroelectric ceramic,

(2) during and (3) after poling

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• Constitutive equations
Tij = cijkl
E
Skl − ekij E k Tij : stress
Di = eikl Skl + εijS E j Skl : strain

• Alternate forms of constitutive equations

Sij = sijkl
E
Tkl + d kij E k Sij = sijkl
D
Tkl + g kij Dk Tij = cijkl
D
Skl − hkij Dk
Di = dikl Tkl + εikT E k Ei = − gikl Tkl + βikT Dk Ei = − hikl Skl + βikS Dk
• Governing equations

Tij , i = ρ u&&j
E
cijkl uk ,li + ekijϕ ,ki = ρ u&& j
⇒
Di ,i = 0 ekij ui , jk − εijSϕ ,ij = 0

• Boundary conditions
For a surface of discontinuity
ni TijI = ni TijII ni Tij = 0 for a traction free surface
u Ij = u IIj uj = 0 for a fixed surface
ni DiI = ni DiII ni Di = 0 at an air-dielectric interface
ϕ =0 short-circuited electrodes
ϕ I = ϕ II
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Material constants for PZT

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Signal Conditioning

• Piezoelectric transducers

field produced in direction 3 e /t

g33 ≡ = 0
stress applied in direction 3 f i / ( wl )

charge generated in direction 3 Q

d 33 ≡ =
force applied in direction 3 fi

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Charge generated by the crystal

q = Kq xi , xi :deflection

Current generated by the crystal

dq dx
icr = = Kq i
dt dt
icr = iC + i R

eo = eC = ∫ iC dt ∫ (icr − iR ) dt
=
C C

C ⎛⎜ o ⎞⎟ = icr − iR = Kq ⎛⎜ i ⎞⎟ − o
de dx e
⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ R

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Frequency response function

xi = X i exp(iω t )
eo = Vo exp(iω t )

V0 ( K q / C )i ω iτω ( Kq / C )
= =
X i iω + (1 / CR ) iτω + 1
τ = CR

Step response
xi = A for 0 < t < T
xi = 0 for T < t
Kq A
eo = exp( − t / τ ) 0< t < T
C
Kq A
eo = [exp( − T / τ ) − 1]exp[ − ( t − T ) / τ ] T< t
C

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Use series resistor

- sacrifices sensitivity

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• Charge Amplifiers

Output voltage change

− Vc ΔC
Δvo =
Cf
or Sensor
− ΔQ
Δvo =
Cf
Lower cutoff frequency (-3dB)

1
f cp1 =
2πR f C f
Upper cutoff frequency (-3dB)
1
f cp 2 =
2πR1C
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Example 1: Piezoelectric Transducer Charge Amplifier

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Spice simulation 1

Sensor

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Spice simulation 2

Sensor

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Example 2

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Example 3

Alessandro Gandelli & Roberto Ottoboni, 1993

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• Impedance converter

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Applications
• Piezoelectric accelerometers

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Model (Single axis or triaxial) Single axis linear

Range g ±2000
Sensitivity pC/g -10.000
Frequency Range Hz 5...10000
Resolution, Threshold mgrms 1
Transverse Sensitivity % 1.5
Non linearity % FSO ±1
Shock g 5000
Temp. coef. of sensitivity %/°C 0.13
Operating temperature range °C -70...250
Housing/Base stainless steel
Sealing hermetic (IP68)
Ground isolation No
Mass g 14.5
Connector 10-32 neg.
Diameter mm 16
Height mm 12.19
Mounting stud/wax
Mounting thread 10-32 UNF x 3,3
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• Quartz torque sensor

The torque sensor consists of two steel disks, between which a ring is fitted which
contains several shear-sensitive quartz plates. The crystal axes of the quartz plates
are oriented tangentially to the peripheral direction and therefore yield a charge
exactly proportional to the applied torque.

Application examples
• Adjusting torques of pneumatic screw-drivers
• Testing of screw connections
• Calibration measurements
of manual torque wrenches
• Testing torsion of springs
• Measurements of friction clutches
• Measuring starting torques, variations in
synchronization and torsional vibrations of
fractional horsepower and stepping motors.
• Testing of rotary switch

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The torque sensor must be mounted under elastic preload as the torque must be
transmitted by static friction onto the front parts of the sensor.

Testing of rotary switch

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• Quartz Load Washers

The force to be measured acts through the cover
and base of the tightly welded steel housing on the
quartz sensing elements. Quartz yields an electric
charge proportional to the mechanical load.

Application examples
• forces in spot welding
• forces in presses
• force variations in bolted connections under
high static preload
• shock and fatigue resistance
• cutting and forming forces
• forces in railroad brakes
• impact forces

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Mounting
The load washers must be installed between two plane-parallel, rigid and
fine-machined (preferably ground) faces. This is necessary to achieve a
good load distribution on one hand and a wide frequency response on the
other hand. The load washers should always be installed under preload.

Preloading screw

Centering clip

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• 3-Component Quartz Crash Force Elements

Specification

Measuring Range Fx kN 0...500

Fy, Fz kN ±100

Non linearity % FSO <±0.5

Natural Frequency fnx kHz ≈4

fny, fnz kHz ≈1.7

Operating temperature range °C 0...50

Sealing IP65

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Application

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• Piezoelectric pressure sensors

Specification
Type 6005
Measuring range bar 0...1000
Overload bar 1500.0
Sensitivity pC/bar 10
Natural Frequency kHz ≈140
Non linearity % FSO <±0.8
Operating temperature range °C -196...200
Acceleration sensitivity bar/g <0.001
Thread Without thread

Cooling not cooled

Diameter mm 5.5
Length mm 6
Connector M4x0,35 neg.

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• Dynamometer
- Cutting force measurement Calibration calibrated
Measuring Range Fx, Fy kN ±20
Fz kN ±30
Mz N·m ±1100
Speed 1/min max.5000
Sensitivity Fx, Fy mV/N ≈-0.5
Fz mV/N ≈-0.33
Mz mV/N· ≈9
m
Natural Frequency kHz ≈1
Operating °C 0...60
temperature
range
Diameter mm 156
Height mm 55
Mass kg 7.5
Connection Non-contacting
Sealing welded/epoxy (IP67)

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• Torque Wheel-Sensor

Model Piezoelectric
Measuring My kN·m ±3
Range
Natural fny kHz 1.1
Frequency Natural Frequency fny: free
Mass kg 4.4

Maximum r.p.m. 1/min 2200

Max. speed ≈250 km/h
Crosstalk Fy → My N·m/kN <±2
Offset/Variation Fz → My N·m/kN <±2
Non linearity % FSO <±1

Diameter mm 289

Hysteresis % FSO ≤1

Sealing IP65

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• Hydrophone

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