ISSN 1392-3730

Vilnius Gediminas Technical University Lithuanian Academy of Sciences

Journal of Civil Engineering

and Management
2004, Vol X, Supplement 1

Vilnius „Technika“ 2004

 EDITORIAL BOARD
Editor-in-Chief
Prof Edmundas K. ZAVADSKAS, Lithuanian Academy of Sciences,
Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, Saulëtekio al. 11, LT-10223 Vilnius-40, Lithuania
Editors
Building Materials and Structural Mechanics and Physics, Construction Technology and
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Saulëtekio al. 11, Saulëtekio al. 11, Saulëtekio al. 11,
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Vienna University of Technology, Karlsplatz 13, A-1040
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University, Saulëtekio al. 11, LT-10223 Vilnius-40, Lithuania Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, Saulëtekio al. 11,
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versity, Saulëtekio al. 11, LT-10223 Vilnius-40, Lithuania Prof Romualdas MAÈIULAITIS, Vilnius Gediminas Techni-
Assoc Prof Juozas DELTUVA, Kaunas University of Tech- cal University, Saulëtekio al. 11, LT-10223 Vilnius-40,
nology, Studentø g. 48, LT-3028 Kaunas, Lithuania Lithuania
Prof Romualdas GINEVIÈIUS, Vilnius Gediminas Technical Prof Gediminas J. MARÈIUKAITIS, Vilnius Gediminas Tech-
University, Saulëtekio al. 11, LT-10223 Vilnius-40, Lithuania nical University, Saulëtekio al. 11, LT-10223 Vilnius-40,
Lithuania
Prof Arvydas JUODIS, Kaunas University of Technology,
Studentø g. 48, LT-3028 Kaunas, Lithuania Prof Josifas PARASONIS, Vilnius Gediminas Technical Uni-
versity, Saulëtekio al. 11, LT-10223 Vilnius-40, Lithuania
Prof Pranciðkus JUÐKEVIÈIUS, Vilnius Gediminas Techni-
cal University, Saulëtekio al. 11, LT-10223 Vilnius-40, Prof Vytautas STANKEVIÈIUS, Lithuanian Academy of
Lithuania Sciences, Lithuanian Institute of Architecture and Building
Construction, Tunelio g. 60, LT-3035 Kaunas, Lithuania
Prof Rimantas KAÈIANAUSKAS, Lithuanian Academy of Sci-
ences, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, Saulëtekio al. Prof Vytautas J. STAUSKIS, Vilnius Gediminas Technical
11, LT-10223 Vilnius-40, Lithuania University, Saulëtekio al. 11, LT-10223 Vilnius-40, Lithuania
Prof Gintaris KAKLAUSKAS, Vilnius Gediminas Technical
University, Saulëtekio al. 11, LT-10223 Vilnius-40, Lithuania
 3

ISSN 1392–3730
JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT
http:/www.vtu.lt/english/editions

2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 3–9

RESISTANCE OF MASONRY WALL PANELS TO IN-PLANE SHEAR AND

COMPRESSION

Piotr Aliawdin1, Valery Simbirkin2, Vassili Toropov3

1University of Zielona Góra, Poland. E-mail: P.Aliawdin@ib.uz.zgora.pl
2Belarussian Research Institute for Construction (BelNIIS), Minsk, Belarus. E-mail: simbirkin@hotmail.com
3Altair Engineering, Coventry, UK. E-mail: toropov@altair.com

Received 30 Apr 2004; accepted 7 June 2004

Abstract. The paper presents results of large-scale tests carried out on masonry wall panels made of perforated bricks.
The specimens were subjected to in-plane: lateral loading combined with different levels of axial compression; concen-
trated compressive load applied to the wall top at different distances from the wall edge. Relationships between shear
strength and deformability of masonry and compressive stresses perpendicular to the shear plane have been found. An
evaluation of strength of masonry under local compression is given depending on the position of the concentrated load
relative to the wall edge. Analysis of test results and comparison of calculation techniques adopted in different design
codes is performed. Behaviour of the test specimens is modelled using the finite element method.
Keywords: masonry structures, full-scale tests, shear, compression, strength, deformations.

1. Introduction 2. Properties of masonry and masonry materials

By the present time, an extensive theoretical and The following materials were used for producing the
experimental research has been carried out on the test specimens:
behaviour of masonry structures made of solid clay • Clay bricks (length 250 mm, width 120 mm, height
bricks, for instance [1–5]. However, there are a few test 88 mm) with vertical holes. Each brick had 21 holes
results for masonry structures made of perforated bricks whose cross-sections were square-shaped, 20x20 cm
that are widely used in practice and have a number of (volume of holes is 28 % of the gross volume). Brick
advantages. grade M150.
This study presents an experimental and analytical • Dry pre-packed mortar mix, grade M100: Portland
research into the behaviour of masonry wall panels made cement of grade 500ÄÎ – 180 kg/t, lime – 50 kg/t,
of perforated clay bricks. The test specimens were sub- sand – 770 kg/t, water-retaining agent Valotsel
jected to in-plane 1) local compressive force, and 2) rack- 45000 – 0,3 κg/t.
ing shear force combined with vertical compression. The strength properties of the brick and mortar were
For each loading type, two test series have been determined experimentally. Their mean values are pre-
devised. In the local compression tests, position of the sented in Table 1.
applied force was changed. In the shear tests, lateral force
was combined with different levels of axial compression. Table 1. Brick and mortar strengths
In the first case, vertical kinematic restraints were in-
stalled on the wall top to prevent in-plane rotation of the Brick strength, MPa
walls. The vertical pressure arising in this case varied
Compressive (b y British Tensile (b y testing b ricks
during the loading process and had the minimum value.
Standard BS 3921 [6], for b ending)
In the second case, the lateral load was combined with appendix D)
the given vertical compression.
31,6 2,3
The loading of the specimens was increased mono-
tonically up to the total failure of the specimens. The Mortar strength, MPa
resistance of the masonry walls to the predominant ac-
tion was evaluated with reference to the strength and Compressive (b y testing Shear (b y testing a masonry
cub es of side 70,7 mm) fragment of three b ricks)
deformability.
9,9…12,7 0,23

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4 P. Aliawdin, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 3–9

Strength and deformative properties of the masonry The initial modulus of elasticity of the masonry is
under short-term compression were determined by tests computed according to [7] using the following logarith-
of five prismatic specimens having dimensions mic stress-strain relation proposed by L. I. Onistchik:
lxhxt = 380×490×250 mm. On all four vertical sides of
each specimen, displacement transducers were installed µσult  σ 
ε=− ln 1 −  , (1)
over a gauge length of 200 mm. They measured longitu- E0  µσult 
dinal (vertical) and lateral (horizontal) deformations of where:
the masonry. The strains measured in this way were used σ is the mean compressive stress in the test speci-
to calculate the deformation modulus and the Poisson’s mens;
ratio of the masonry. ∑ is the mean experimental value of strains obtained
While testing the specimens, the mortar compres- under stress σ;
sive strength was checked. Its mean value was 9,9 MPa. µ is the plasticity coefficient depending on the ma-
The tests showed that the masonry compressive sonry type.
strength ranged between 8,4 and 11,1 MPa, and its value The value of the masonry initial modulus of elastic-
averaged over strengths obtained for five specimens was ity computed in this way is equal to 11 290 MPa.
equal to σult = 9,3 MPa.
Averaged curves for strains, secant deformation
modulus, and Poisson’s ratio of the masonry are pre- 3. Response to shear
sented in Fig 1.
Shear tests were performed on six wall panels that
were produced of the masonry with the chain bond. The
à)
overall dimensions of the specimens were as follows:
1 length 1500 mm, height 1500 mm, thickness 120 mm,
0,8 with the thickness of mortar joints of 10 to 12 mm. Af-
s/s ult

ter manufacture the specimens were stored under poly-

0,6
ethylene until the mortar has hardened (not less than 3
0,4 days). The tests were carried out at an age of the speci-
longitudinal strain
lateral strain mens 19 to 25 days (after the mortar achieved the com-
0,2
elongation shortening pressive strength of 10 MPa).
0 The test specimens were divided into two series
–50 –25 0 25 50 75 100 125 (Fig 2). The specimens of the first series (series 1A) were
ε×105 tested for incremental lateral load P, applied to the top
b) of the panel in its plane, combined with minimal vertical
0,6 pressure that was necessary to prevent in-plane rotation
0,5 of the wall. The vertical pressure was produced by spring
0,4 kinematic restraints on the wall top and varied during
s/s ult

0,3
loading so that detachment of the wall bottom from the
floor was not greater than 5 cm.
0,2
Displacement transducers (LVDTs) were installed
0,1 along the wall height to measure lateral deflections dur-
0 ing loading (Fig 2). In addition, displacement transduc-
7500 10000 12500 15000 17500 ers were used to measure translation of the horizontal
E sec , MPa support and detachment caused by a compliantly re-
c) strained rotation of the wall in its plane. Their readings
0,6 were taken into account for calculation of the “clear”
0,5 lateral deflections by correcting the values obtained by
LVDTs Th1…Th5.
0,4
Unlike the first type specimens, specimens of the
s/sult

0,3
series 1B were loaded, in addition to the lateral load P,
0,2 with a vertical uniformly distributed load q equal to
0,1 0,2Fk = 225 kN/m, where Fk is the ultimate failure load
0 in the pure compression case. This load did not vary
0,00 0,05 0,10 0,15 0,20 0,25 during the testing. The load P was applied to four top
Poisson's ratio
rows of bricks, and displacements were measured only
at one level (at a height of 1450 mm from the wall bot-
Fig 1. Dependences of strains ∑, secant deformation modu-
tom).
lus Esec, and Poisson’s ratio upon stress level for masonry The test showed that specimens of the series 1A
under axial short-term compression collapsed immediately after a zigzag crack has appeared

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P. Aliawdin, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 3–9 5

a) Test series 1A (three specimens) a) Series 1A (Pult=104,6 kN)

b) Series 1B (Pult=192,6 kN)

b) Test series 1B (three specimens)

– LVDTs

Fig 2. Shear test setup

along the wall diagonal connecting the lateral loading

point and the horizontal support (Fig 3, a). The failure
lateral load was equal to: 120,0 kN for the first speci-
men, 113,8 kN for the second specimen, and 80,0 kN
for the third one. Therefore, the failure lateral load aver-
aged over three these values was Pult = 104,6 kN. At the
ultimate stage, average total value of the compressive
load q was equal to 118 kN.
Experimental graphs showing the deforming process
of the series 1A specimens are presented in Fig 4.
The walls of the series 1B having been tested for
combined shear and compression failed also with an in-
clined crack connecting the lateral loading point and the
horizontal support. However, in this case some vertical
Fig 3. Crack patterns after testing (general views and
local failure at horizontal support)
cracks were observed, and a local failure at the horizon-
tal support was clearer (Fig 3, b). The ultimate failure
lateral load was equal to: 200,0 kN for the first speci-
men, 207,7 kN for the second specimen, and 170,0 kN
for the third one. The failure lateral load averaged over
three the values was Pult = 192,6 kN.

5
6 P. Aliawdin, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 3–9

a) over, the compressive action on the masonry walls re-

150 sulted in 84 % increase of the load-carrying capacity of
Wall height, cm

the walls under lateral loading.

100
Therefore, the effect of vertical compression leads
to a higher resistance of the masonry walls to shear loads,
P/Pult=0,10 making their rigidity and load-carrying capacity higher.
50 P/Pult=0,29
P/Pult=0,48 Behaviour of the test specimens is modelled on the
P/Pult=0,67
finite element basis using Software Stark_Es of the
0 MicroFE family. The wall panels are modelled with
0 5 10 15 20 25 highly accurate hybrid plane stress elements (mesh 30x30)
Lateral displacement, mm
derived using a Reissner functional [8]. Second order
geometrical effects and unilateral elastic supports are
b)
taken into account. As an example, Fig 6 shows some
0,8 analysis results for the specimens of series 1A.

0,6
a) Deformed scheme
P/ P ult

0,4

h=850 mm
0,2 h=1150 mm
h=1450 mm
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Lateral displacement, mm

Fig 4. Lateral deflections for the series 1A specimens:

a) distribution of displacements along the wall height;
b) load–displacement relationships

The lateral load-displacement relationship averaged

over results of three tests of the series 1B is shown in
Fig 5.
1 b) Distribution of vertical normal stresses σz along the wall
0,8 length at a level of a half of the wall height
P/P ult

0,6

0,4 0
-0,40
0,2
-0,80
0
óz, MPa

0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 -1,20

-1,60
Lateral displacement, mm (h=1450 mm)
-2,00
-2,40
Fig 5. Lateral deflections for the series 1B specimens
-2,80
-3,20
Comparing the graphs presented in Figs 4 and 5 we -3,60
can notice that in-plane shear behaviour of the series 1B -4,00
specimens was more plastic than the behaviour of the 0,00 0,15 0,30 0,45 0,60 0,75 0,90 1,05 1,20 1,35 1,50
series 1A specimens which deformed almost elastically Wall length, m
up to the failure (excepting a displacement leap observed
at the second loading stage) and collapsed in a brittle Fig 6. Finite element analysis results for wall panels of
mode. Indeed, in the series 1A specimens the cracks were series 1A (under P = 104,6 kN)
not observed up to the failure, but cracks in the series
1B specimens appeared under the lateral load equal to The test results presented above enable to draw an
0,3 to 0,4 of the ultimate load. However, the specimens experimental relationship between the shear strength and
of the series 1A had a much lower rigidity than those of compressive stress rate in masonry. This relationship is
the other test series. Their failure occurred at lateral presented in Fig 7.
deflections that were an order of magnitude higher than As we can see in Fig 6, the masonry shear strength
ultimate deflections of the series 1B specimens. More- depends almost linearly upon the compressive stress level.

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P. Aliawdin, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 3–9 7

1,4 a) Test series 2A (three specimens)

Shear strength, MPa

1,2
test
1 EC6, eq. 3.3a
EC6, eq. 3.3c
0,8 Ðÿä4
0,6
0,4
masonry strength
0,2
mortar strength
0
0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3
Compressive stress, MPa

Fig 7. Relationships between masonry shear strength and

compressive stress level

Hence we can propose the following empirical formula

for approximate evaluation of the shear strength of ma-
sonry in a plane stress state for different levels of the
compressive stresses:
τult = τult ,0 + 0,28σ z , (2)
where: b) Test series 2B (three specimens)
τult is the masonry shear strength;
σ z is the mean compressive stress perpendicular to
the shear plane;
τult ,0 is the initial masonry shear strength, under
zero compressive stress.
In equation (2), all magnitudes are in MPa.
Equation (2) is valid for only the cases where the
compressive stress ⌠ does not exceed 0,2 of the ultimate
compressive strength.
A similar relationship is given in Eurocode 6 [9] to
compute the masonry shear strength depending on the
compressive stress value. In our case, this strength should
be determined using equation 3.3a [9] but its value must
be not higher than a value computed by equation 3.3c
[9]. A graphical representation of the values calculated
by these equations for our cases is given in Fig 7. As
can be seen, equation 3.3a overestimates the shear
strength of masonry, but equation 3.3c provides a rather
high safety margin for the masonry shear strength. Fig 8. Local compression test setup

4. Response to local compression

For local compression tests of masonry walls, six

specimens were produced and stored analogously as de-
scribed in the previous section.
The test specimens were tested to collapse for con-
centrated vertical load P applied incrementally at a dis-
tance 650 mm (series 2A) and 350 mm (series 2B) from
the wall edge, as shown in Fig 8. The bearing area was
10×12 = 120 cm2.
Along the loading line on both sides of the speci-
mens, displacement transducers (Tv, Fig 8) were installed
at the middle height over a gauge length of 800 mm to
measure mean vertical strains.
The tests showed that the specimens of both series
had the same failure mode – the failure was practically
brittle with formation of a local failure zone under the
bearing and a vertical crack along the loading line (Fig 9). Fig 9. Failure pattern

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8 P. Aliawdin, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 3–9

Until the load reached the value P = 150 kN, the
mean vertical strains increased with loading almost iden-
tically for specimens of both series and had a slightly
non-linear kind (Fig 10). However, further loading caused
a deviation of the “load-strain” curve for series 2B from
the direct line and from the curve shown by the series
2A specimens. After that, under the load 188 to 200 kN
the failure of the series 2B specimens occurred. The mean
value of the failure load for these specimens was
192,7 kN. The series 2A specimens showed a higher load-
bearing capacity equal to 220 to 256 kN with the mean
value of 234,7 kN.
200
2 , kN
Software Stark_Es. Results of the analysis are given in
Fig 11.
The analysis shows that for specimens of the differ-
ent series under the ultimate failure load the maximum
compressive stresses below the loaded area (óz) have the
same ratio as the loads applied. However, calculated ten-
sile stresses in the orthogonal direction (óx), which have
caused the vertical crack formation in the test specimens,
in the series 2B specimens are 1,25 times greater than in
the series 2A specimens even under a smaller load. This
indicates that in the series 2B specimens local compres-
sion (casing-type) effect is not so significant than in the
other series specimens. This fact is affirmed by the kind
of deformation distribution in the vicinity of the loaded

area – in the series 2A specimens the effective area is

150 greater than in the other specimens. From the deformed
shape presented in Fig 11 we can assume that the effec-
100
series 2A
a) Series 2A
series 2B
50

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 5
30
εx10
Fig 10. Experimental “load-strain” curves

At the failure moment, the mean value of the mid

height vertical strain was 50 ⋅ 10 5 and 35 ⋅ 10 5 for speci-
mens of the series 2A and 2B respectively. As can be
seen from Fig 1a, such strains correspond to compres-
sive stresses not exceeding a half of the ultimate strength
of masonry in pure axial compression. Thus the failure
of the specimens was local below the loaded area.
The results presented enable to evaluate the effect
of increase of the masonry resistance to concentrated
compressive loads as compared with overall axial com-
pression case. Table 2 presents values of the enhance-
ment factor for concentrated loads obtained experimen-
tally and calculated according to different building codes. b) Series 2B

Table 2. Local compression effect

Enhancement factor for concentrated
compressive loads
Test series
EC6 [9],
test SNiP [10]
PN [11]
2A 2,1 1,5 1,45
2B 1,7 1,5 1,35

As we can see from Table 2, all design codes pro-

vide a rather high safety margin for the compressive
strength of masonry subjected to concentrated loads. In
addition, Russian code [10] defines the same enhance-
ment factor for both the test series and, in contrast to
Eurocode 6 [9] and Polish code [11], does not take into
account changes of the masonry local compressive
strength depending on the wall height.
The ultimate stage of the wall behaviour is mod- Fig 11. Results of finite element analysis (displacement
elled on the basis of the finite element method using scale 200:1)

8
P. Aliawdin, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 3–9
tive area includes wall parts of 250 mm length for the
series 2A specimens and 200 mm for the series 2B speci-
mens to both sides from the loaded area (but not 120
mm as adopted in code [10] for both our cases). In this
case, the enhancement factor calculated by Eq (19) given
in [10] would be equal to 1,82 and 1,71 for specimens
of the first and the second series respectively. These
values are much closer to the experimental ones than
those calculated according to [10]. Therefore, the ma-
sonry resistance to concentrated compressive loads can
be evaluated sufficiently accurate by the finite element
analysis.
5. Conclusions
1. Large-scale tests carried out on masonry wall
panels subjected to in-plane lateral (shear) loading com-
bined with different levels of axial compression show
that:
• Behaviour of masonry wall panels subjected to pure
shear is almost perfectly elastic, the failure occurs
in a brittle mode. Compressive load affects the shear
behaviour of the masonry making it plastic.
• Shear capacity of masonry walls increases by about
80 % due to the action of axial compressive load
equal to 20 % of the ultimate compressive strength;
the lateral rigidity of such walls can be of an order
of magnitude higher as compared with the walls un-
der pure shear.
2. Local compression tests of masonry walls show
that resistance of masonry to concentrated compressive
load depends significantly on the distance from the wall
edge to the load position even if this distance 2,5 times
greater than the wall thickness. This fact is not taken
into account in SNiP II-22-81 [10]. A finite element
analysis can be used for strength evaluation for masonry
subjected to concentrated loads.
9
9
Acknowledgement. The authors are pleased to acknowl-
edge the support of INTAS under international project
00-0600.
References
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work and blockwork structures. Saxee-Coburg Publications,
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2. Hendry, A. W. Structural masonry. London: Mac-Millan
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ISSN 1392–3730
JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT
http:/www.vtu.lt/english/editions

2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 11–18

FE SOFTWARE ATENA APPLICATIONS TO NON-LINEAR ANALYSIS OF RC

BEAMS SUBJECTED TO HIGH TEMPERATURES

Darius Bacinskas1, Gintaris Kaklauskas2, Edgaras Geda3

Dept of Bridges and Special Structures, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, Saulëtekio al 11, LT-10233
Vilnius-40, Lithuania. E-mail: 1Darius.Bacinskas@st.vtu.lt, 2Gintaris.Kaklauskas@st.vtu.lt, 3egeda@salmija.lt
Received 15 Apr 2004; accepted 23 Feb 2004

Abstract. Reinforced concrete structures subjected to fire will generally experience complex behaviour. This paper
presents a strategy of numerical simulation of reinforced concrete members exposed to high temperatures and subjected
to external loading. Finite element modelling of full load – deflection behaviour of experimental reinforced concrete
beams reported in the literature has been carried out by the FE software ATENA. A constitutive model based on Eurocode
2 specifications has been used in the analysis. Comparison of numerical simulation and test results have shown reason-
able accuracy.
Keywords: reinforced concrete fire design, non-linear finite element analysis, fire tests, fire resistance, constitutive
models of concrete and steel.

1. Introduction behaviour of a member under elevated temperature con-

There are many buildings and civil engineering struc-
tures (tunnels, high-rise buildings, bridges and viaducts,
containment shells, offshore platforms, airport runways
etc.) under construction which are at risk of fire. A few
dramatic accidents in recent years have prompted inves-
tigations in the field of safety of reinforced concrete struc-
tures subjected to fire. Fires in railway Channel Tunnel
(autumn 1996), in the road tunnels of Mont Blanc
(France/Italy 1999), in the television tower of Ostankino
(Moscow, 2000), in the Twin Towers (New York, 2001)
should be mentioned [1]. In all cases, the load-bearing
capacity of structure in the actual fire conditions is of
primary importance for evacuation of persons and things,
as well as for safety of rescue teams.
The analysis of the behaviour of load-bearing mem-
bers under high temperature conditions is very compli-
cated [2, 3]. Various factors influencing the behaviour
of members need to be taken into account, including:
variation of member temperature with time, variation of
temperature over the cross-section and along the mem-
ber, temperature effects on material properties (expan-
sion, creep, reduction in strength and stiffness, spalling,
etc), material non-linearity, external restrains, section
shape, etc. A parametric study of the influence of differ-
ent factors on the behaviour of RC beams and frames is
presented in [4].
Because of the no-linear nature of the problem,
closed-form solutions usually cannot be found and an
iterative approach is required [5]. The non-linear
ditions can be simulated using the finite element method
[6, 7]. Because of increasing interest in the field of struc-
tural fire protection, the number of existing software
capable to analysing the thermal response of materials
under transient heating conditions is quite large [8, 9].
The majority of these programmes was developed in
professional software houses, such as DIANA [10],
ATENA [11], ABAQUS, MSC.MARC, etc. Such
programmes have many advantages including documen-
tation, sophisticated non-linear material models, pre/post-
processing facilities, etc.
This paper presents a strategy of numerical simula-
tion of reinforced concrete members exposed to high
temperatures and subjected to external loading. Finite
element modelling of full load – deflection behaviour of
experimental reinforced concrete beams reported in [12]
has been carried out by the FE software ATENA. A con-
stitutive model based on Eurocode 2 specifications for
fire design [13] has been used in the analysis. Compari-
son of numerical simulation and test results has been
carried out.
2. Reported fire tests of RC beams employed in the
numerical analysis
The present analysis employs experimental data [12]
of reinforced concrete beams subjected to external load-
ing and elevated temperatures. A total of 13 specimens
were cast and tested. Except for TSB2-1, the other speci-
mens were heated on three surfaces (the bottom and two

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lateral surfaces) according to the same heating curve. The present report includes results of modelling three
Specimens TSB1-(0-6) were tested in the FT (force-tem- beams of the TF series, namely TSB2-1, TSB2-4 and
perature) path to obtain failure temperatures under dif- TSB2-6, first exposed to temperatures of 20°, 400° and
ferent applied load levels. These specimens were first 600 °C, respectively, and then subjected to external load-
loaded to a predetermined value, and then heated until ing. The experimental temperature distribution through-
the specimens failed. Specimens TSB2-(1-6) were tested out the section of the beams TSB2-4 and TSB2-6 is
in the TF (temperature-force) path to obtain ultimate shown in Fig 2. The experimental load-deflection dia-
bending moment resistances. These specimens were first grams are presented in Fig 3 with the failure load speci-
heated up to a predetermined temperature, and then fied in Table 1.
loaded at a quicker rate until the specimens failed. As
the loading time was very short compared to its heating
180 400 C temperature
400
time, the thermal duration effect during loading can be ºC
600 C temperature
600 ºC
neglected. Thus, the duration of thermal exposure be- 150

Depth of section, mm
tween the FT and TF paths can be considered to be the 120
same.
The specimens were 1300 mm long, 100 mm wide, 90
and 180 mm deep, with a 10 mm concrete cover all round 60
the section.
30
The specimens were cast in two batches of normal
Portland cement (Standard grade China cement), natural 0
river sand and crushed limestone with 15 mm maximum 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
size. The mean compressive cube strength of TSB2 se- T emperature, C
ries is 29,45 MPa.
Low-carbon plain steel bars with diameter 10 mm Fig 2. Experimental temperature distribution within the
and yield stress 270 MPa at room temperature were used section depth
as tensile and compressive reinforcement, while those
with diameter 3,5 mm and yield stress 289 MPa at room
temperature were used as stirrups. The specimen tensile
0.024
steel ratio was 0,95 % and the stirrup spacing was 80 20 °C 400 °C 600 °C
mm. The specimen dimensions, detailing and loading po-
0.02
sitions are shown in Fig 1.
The specimens were compacted using a vibrating 0.016
rod and cured in a moist environment at 20 °C and 100 %
P, MN

relative humidity for a period of 7 days after casting, 0.012

and then placed in a natural environment. To reduce the

0.008
difference of the water content between specimens aris-
ing from a long test period, all specimens were tested 0.004
after 60 days.
0
D10 1 D3,5@80 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05

f, m

Fig 3. Experimental load-deflection diagrams of beams

TSB2-1, TSB2-4 and TSB2-6
1300 mm D10

1
1-1
D10
Table 1. Failure loads of test beams
10

D3,5@80
Beam Temperature, oC Failure load, kN
180

D10
10

400 400 400 TSB2-1 20 19,46

1200
10 10 TSB2-4 400 14,99
100 TSB2-6 600 5,49

Fig 1. Dimensions, cross-section and loading of test speci-

mens

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D. Bacinskas, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 11–18 13

3. A Constitutive model applied in the analysis

The reliability of a fire analysis results is strongly

affected by the choice of the constitutive laws of materi-
als and the values of theirs parameters. In the present FE
model the material properties are considered to be tem-
perature-dependent. This section describes constitutive
models for concrete and steel assumed in the numerical
analysis. The constitutive relationships are based on
Eurocode 2 specifications [13, 14].

3.1. Concrete

The constitutive model (material model) describes

the behaviour of heated and loaded concrete in math-
ematical terms. It is based on the stress-strain relation-
ships of heated concrete. The strain components can be
modelled using the superposition theory whereby the to-
Fig 4. Stress-strain relationship of concrete at different
tal strain is considered to be the sum of various strain temperatures
components [3]:
εtot = ε σ (σ, σ, θ) + εth (θ) + ε cr (σ, θ, t ) + εtr (σ, θ) , (1)
fct(θ)
where ε tot is the total strain, εσ the stress-related strain, εcu(θ) εc0 (θ)
εth the thermal strain, εcr the creep strain, ε tr the tran- εcr(θ) εcu(θ)
εc(θ)
sient strain, θ the temperature, t the time, σ a stress, Ec (θ)

σ the stress history.

The superposition theory has been particularly use-
ful in the analysis of the strain components at high tem-
perature and has been found to be applicable experimen-
tally [3]. Each of the terms of Eq 1 is briefly described fc (θ)
below.
The EC2 model implicitly takes account of the ef-
fect of high-temperature creep. Both the physical loss of Fig 5. Theoretical model of the stress-strain relationship
moisture and shrinkage at high temperature cause a de- of concrete
crease in the coefficient of expansion, but these effects
have not been considered in the present model. The model
Stress-strain behaviour of compressive concrete un-
also does not attempt to model spalling, the concrete
der normal conditions ( θ = 20 o C ) in ATENA is mod-
cross-section being assumed to remain intact.
elled by the EC2 [14] relationship the ascending branch
of which has the form
3.1.1. Stress-strain relationships in compression and
( ) ( )1 +kη(k−−η2)η
2
tension
σc 20 o C = f c 20 o C (2)
The stress-strain relationships of compressed con-
crete for different temperature levels are shown in Fig 4. where σc 20 oC ( ) is the stress of concrete at room
The theoretical model of these relationships is given in
Fig 5. On the compression side, the curve consists of a
( ) ( ( )
temperature, η = ε c 20 oC ε c 0 20 oC , ε c 20 oC is the )
parabolic branch followed by a descending curve until strain of concrete at room temperature, ε c 0 (20 o C ) is the
crushing occurs. On the tension side, the curve consists concrete strain at peak stress at the same condition,
of a bilinear diagram. An initial stiffness of concrete in (
f c 20 o C ) is the characteristic value of compressive
tension is equal to that in compression. At tensile strains
greater than this value of εcr the concrete is assumed to strength of concrete at t = 20 oC ,
follow the descending branch of the stress-strain curve.
Once tensile strains exceed εcu , the concrete in tension
( ) ( ) ( )
k = 1,1Ec 20 oC ε c 0 20 o C / f c 20 oC , Ec 20 o C is the ( )
elastic modulus of concrete.
is ignored, although it is still assumed to be capable of
It should be noted that the stress-strain relationship
carrying compression. Once the concrete has crushed, it
for compressive concrete presented in Eurocode 2 for
is assumed to have no residual strength in either com-
fire design of concrete structures [13] is different from
pression or tension.
formula 2. The former relationship is not available on

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the ATENA 2D user interface. However, the shape of Ec (θ) = βc (θ)Ec (20 º C ) , (5)
the stress-strain relationship of the compressive concrete
does not have significant influence on the results of the where βc (θ ) is an empirical factor, for normal strength
analysis. Therefore, Eq (2) has been modified in order concrete taken as:
to model temperature effects. Thus the parameters βc (θ) = 1− 0,0017θ . (6)
( ) fc (20 oC) , εc (20 oC) , εc0 (20 oC) and
σc 20 oC , The behaviour of concrete in tension under fire con-
Ec (20 oC ) from formula (2) corresponding to normal con- ditions is not fully investigated. So far few investiga-
tions have been carried out, mainly aimed at the overall
ditions ( θ = 20 o C ) were replaced by respective param- and stress-strain behaviour of structures.
eters σc (θ) , f c (θ ) , ε c (θ) , ε c 0 (θ) and Ec (θ) taken As mentioned above, the behaviour of tensile con-
for given temperature θ . Further the relationships for crete was modelled by a bilinear diagram. The current
f c (θ ) , ε c 0 (θ) and Ec (θ) are briefly discussed. model of tensile concrete is characterised by two main
The variation of the relative compressive strength factors: tensile strength and the ultimate cracking strain.
( )
f c (θ) f c 20 oC of concrete with siliceous and calcare-
The reduction of tensile strength of concrete at high
temperatures is accounted for by the coefficient kt (θ) ,
ous aggregates under increasing temperatures is shown taken as [13]:
in Fig 6. Similar relationship for strain ε c 0 (θ) is pre-
sented in Fig 7. f ct (θ) = kt (θ) f ct (20 º C ) . (7)
In absence of a more accurate information the following
kt (θ) values should be used [13]:
1
Siliceous
t
Calcareous kt (θ) = 1,0 for 20 º C ≤ θ ≤ 100 º C 
0.8 t
θ − 100 
kt (θ) = 1 − for 100 º C < θ ≤ 600 º C  (8)
)

500 
f c (θ ) f c 20 o C

0.6
kt (θ) = 0 for 600 º C < θ 
(

0.4 To the authors' knowledge, investigations regarding

the limit strain ε cu (θ ) of tensile concrete are practically
0.2 absent. In reference [16] it is taken as 15ε cr (θ ) , where
ε cr (θ) = f ct (θ) / Ec (θ) is the cracking strain of concrete.
0 The same source also notes that the analysis of RC beams
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 at ambient temperature is very sensitive to the assumed
Temperature, °C tensile behaviour of concrete.
In ATENA 2D post-peak behaviour of tensile con-
Fig 6. Relative compressive strength of concrete with sili- crete is modelled using principles of fracture mechanics
ceous and calcareous aggregates at elevated temperatures [17]. Fracture energy G f was assumed by modifying a
formula from [11] given for θ = 20 º C :
0.03 G f (θ) = 0,000025 f t (θ) , [MN/m]. (9)
0.025 It should be noted that a sudden drop in tensile
strength with increasing temperatures takes place, lead-
0.02
ing to degradation of tension softening.
ε c 0 (θ)

0.015

0.01
3.1.2. Thermal strain

0.005
Thermal strain of concrete during heating is a simple
function of temperature and its theoretical curve is plot-
0 ted in Fig 8. The theoretical curve also includes drying
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
shrinkage, but despite this, the curve is justified for rapid
Temperature, °C
heating during fire.
Fig 7. Variation of strain ε c 0 (θ ) corresponding to maxi-
mum stress f c (θ ) under increasing temperature 3.1.3. Creep strain

The creep strain depends on concrete, the load, the

A relationship for Ec (θ) is absent in Eurocode 2, temperature and the time. The following expression
is used to describe the creep of ordinary concrete:
therefore it was taken from [15]:

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D. Bacinskas, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 11–18 15

ing. It is an irreversible process and occurs only during

the first heating. The transient stress is found to be pro-
portional to the thermal expansion and to the ratio
between the compressive stress and strength at 20 °C:
σ(θ )
εtr (σ, θ ) = −2,35 ×
(
f c 20o C )× εth (11)

where εtr (σ, θ) is the transient strain, σ(θ) f c 20 o C ( )

is the ratio between the compressive stress and compres-
sive strength of the concrete at 20 °C, εth the thermal
expansion.
Fig 8. Thermal strain of concrete
3.2. Reinforcement

3,04(θ− 20 )
The constitutive model describes the behaviour of
−6 σ(θ) ∆t heated and loaded steel in mathematical terms. Since tran-
ε cr (σ, θ, t ) = − 530 ⋅ 10 × × ×e 1000 (10)
σcu (θ) 3 sient strain does not exist for steel, the model is simpler
than for concrete and is described as the sum of three
where ε cr (σ,θ, t ) is the creep strain, σ(θ) a stress of terms [13]:
concrete, σcu (θ) the ultimate compressive stress of con-
crete (Fig 5), θ is the temperature of concrete, ∆t the εtot = ε cr (σ, θ) + εth (θ) + ε cr (σ, θ, t ) (12)
time interval. where ε tot is total strain, ε cr (σ, θ) the stress related
strain, εth (θ) the thermal strain, ε tot the total strain.
3.1.4. Transient strain The strength and deformation properties of reinforc-
ing steel at elevated temperatures shall be obtained from
Transient stress is the hindered part of thermal the stress-strain relationships [13] specified in Fig 9 and
expansion for loaded concrete structures exposed to heat- Table 2.

Table 2. Stress-strain relationships for steel under a high temperature

Range Stress Tangent modulus

Elastic
ε < ε sp (θ) σ s (θ) = E s (θ)ε s , E s (θ)
Non-linear
(
σ s (θ) = f sp (θ) − c + (b / a ) a 2 − ε sy (θ) − ε s (θ) 2 ) (
b ε sy (θ) − ε s (θ) )
ε sp (θ) ≤ ε s ≤ ε sy (θ) E s (θ) =
(
a a 2 − ε s (θ) − ε sp (θ) 2 )
Plastic σ s (θ) = f sy (θ) E s (θ) = 0
ε sy (θ) ≤ ε s ≤ ε st (θ)
Descending branch  ε (θ) − ε st (θ)
ε st (θ) ≤ ε s ≤ ε su (θ) σ s (θ) = f sy (θ)1 − s  –
 ε u (θ) − ε st (θ)
Failure
0 –
ε s = ε su (θ)
Parameters ε sp (θ) = f sp (θ) / E s (θ) , ε sy (θ) = 0,02 , ε st (θ) = 0,15 , ε sy (θ) = 0,2

Functions ( )(
a 2 = ε sy (θ) − ε sp (θ) ε sy (θ) − ε sp (θ) + c / E s (θ) ),
( )
b 2 = c ε sy (θ) − ε sp (θ) E s (θ) + c 2 ,

( f sy (θ)− f sp (θ))2
c=
(ε sy (θ)− ε sp (θ))E s (θ)− 2( f sy (θ)− f sp (θ))

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 16 D. Bacinskas, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 11–18

1
hot rolled
cold worked
0.8

Es (θ) / Es (20 º C )
0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Temperature, °C

Fig 12. Relative elastic modulus of hot-rolled and cold-

Fig 9. Stress-strain relationship of steel worked steel at elevated temperatures

For a given steel temperature, the stress-strain curves

in Fig 9 are defined by three parameters: 4. Numerical modelling of experimental beams
– the slope of the linear elastic range Es (θ) for
4.1. FE package ATENA
reinforcement,
– the proportional limit f sp (θ) , ATENA is a commercial finite element software
– the maximum stress level f sy (θ) . package developed for non-linear simulation of concrete
Values for each of the three parameters for hot rolled and reinforced concrete structures. Based on advanced
and cold worked steel are given in Fig 10–12 [13]. material models it can be used for realistic modelling
the structural response and behaviour.
1.2
ATENA programme consists of solution core and the
hot rolled
cold worked
user interface. The solution core has got capabilities for
1 the 2D and 3D analysis of continuum structures. It has
f sy (θ) / f yk (20 º C)

libraries of finite elements, material models and solution

0.8
methods. ATENA User Graphic Interface for 2D analysis
0.6 is a programme, which enables access to the ATENA
solution core. It is limited to 2D graphical modelling
0.4 and covers the state of plane stress, plain strain and ra-
tional symmetry.
0.2
A smeared approach is used to model the material
0 properties, such as cracks. This means that material prop-
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 erties defined for a material point are valid within a cer-
Temperature, °C tain material volume, which is in this case associated
with the entire finite element. The constitutive model is
Fig 10. Relative maximum stress of hot-rolled and cold-
based on the stiffness and is described by the equation
worked steel at elevated temperatures
of equilibrium in a material point. The concrete models
can include the following effects of concrete behaviour:
1.2
hot rolled non-linear behaviour in compression including harden-
1
cold worked ing and softening, fracture of concrete in tension based
on the non-linear fracture mechanics, biaxial strength
f sp (θ) / f yk (20 º C)

0.8 failure criterion, reduction of compressive strength after

cracking, tension stiffening effect, reduction of the shear
0.6
stiffness after cracking (variable shear retention), fixed
0.4 direction crack model. The discrete reinforcement is in
the uniaxial stress state and its constitutive law is a bi-
0.2 linear stress-strain diagram. The material matrix is de-
rived using the non-linear elastic approach. In this ap-
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 proach the elastic constants are derived from a
Temperature, °C stress-strain function.
ATENA enables loading of the structure with vari-
Fig 11. Relative proportional limit of hot-rolled and cold-
ous actions: body forces, nodal or linear forces, supports,
worked steel at elevated temperatures
prescribed deformations, temperature, shrinkage, pre-

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D. Bacinskas, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 11–18 17

stressing. These loading cases are combined into load
steps, which are solved utilising advanced solution meth-
ods: Newton–Raphson, modified Newton–Raphson or arc-
length. Secant, tangential or elastic material stiffness can
be employed in particular models. Line-search method
with optional parameters accelerates the convergence of
solution, which is controlled by residual-based and en-
ergy-based criteria. This is only a concise survey of
ATENA features. All the described features support the
user by engineering analysis of connections between steel
and concrete and computer simulation of its behaviour.
4.2. FE model of experimental beams
Load-deflection behaviour of the experimental beams
described in Section 2 have been analysed by the finite
element package ATENA. The present report includes
results of modelling the three beams of the TF series, ie
TSB2-1, TSB2-4 and TSB2-6, first exposed to tempera-
tures 20, 400 and 600 °C, respectively, and then sub-
jected to external loading till failure.
400 and 600 °C, respectively. As the temperatures were
increasing from the bottom to the top, the beams have
deflected downwards. The calculated deflections due to
temperature effects only (no loading) are in a good agree-
ment with the tests for the beam TSB2-6, but some dis-
crepancies can be noted for the beam TSB2-4. With in-
creasing load the experimental load-deflection diagrams
(Figs 2, 14) can be roughly approximated by a bilinear
diagram consisting of two lines: the first one describing
pre-yielding and the second post-yielding behaviour. It
can be seen from Fig 14 that the shape of experimental
load-deflection diagrams has been qualitatively captured
in the finite element analysis. Pre-yielding deflections
were accurately modelled for the beam TSB2-1
(t = 20 ºC), but were underestimated for the beam TSB2-
4 and overestimated for the beam TSB2-6. Agreement
of the ultimate load is within reasonable limits. Deflec-
tion fields and cracking pattern of TSB2-4 beam at load
P = 16 kN are shown in Fig 15.
20 C temperature 400 C temperature 600 C temperature
20 C
20 ºCAtena 400
400 C
ºCAtena 600
600 C
ºCAtena

SBETA material model with parameters given in 0,025

Section 3 was applied for simulating the concrete
behaviour. Reinforcement is modelled by a single straight 0,02
line in a discrete way („bar reinforcement“). Material of
reinforcement is represented by the bilinear model.
0,015
The experimental temperature distribution through-
P , MN

out the section of the beams TSB2-4 and TSB2-6 is

shown in Fig 2. In order to assess degrading material 0,01

properties due to high temperature effects, the beams

within the depth were divided into six macroelements. 0,005

These macroelements were discretised by CCIsoQuad

type quadraliteral elements with rigid connections be- 0
0 0,005 0,01 0,015 0,02 0,025 0,03 0,035 0,04 0,045 0,05
tween the macroelements. The temperatures and respec-
f, m
tive material properties in different macroelements were
assessed according to the experimental temperature dia-
grams from Fig 2. Standard Newton-Raphson solution Fig 14. Calculated and experimental load-deflection dia-
method was applied for non-linear analysis of experi- grams
mental beams. FE model of TSB2 series experimental
beams is presented in Fig 13.

Fig 13. FE model of TSB2 series experimental beams

Fig 15. Deflection fields and cracking pattern of TSB2-4

4.3. Analysis results beam at load P = 16 kN

In this section, comparison of numerical modelling

with test data has been carried out. The modelled load-
deflection diagrams are presented in Fig 8 along with
the experimental curves. The modelling has included all
the stages of temperature and loading. First, the beams
TSB2-4 and TSB2-6 were subjected to temperature of
5. Concluding remarks
Load-deflection behaviour of reinforced concrete
beams subjected to high temperatures (up to 600 °C) has
been modelled by the finite element package ATENA.

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18 D. Bacinskas, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 11–18
A constitutive model based on specifications of Eurocode
2 has been used in the analysis. Comparison of the ex-
perimental and modelling results has shown that ATENA
has satisfactorily captured the load-deflection behaviour
of the beams.
6. Acknowledgment
The financial support under Framework 5 project
“Cost-effective, sustainable and innovative upgrading
methods for fire safety in existing tunnels” (UPTUN,
project No GRD1-2001-40739/UPTUN) provided by the
European Community is gratefully acknowledged.
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12. Shi, X.; Tan T.-H.; Tan, K.-H. and Guo, Z. Effect of Force–
Temperature Paths on Behaviour of Reinforced Concrete
Flexural Members. Journal of Structural Engineering,
Vol 128, No 3, March 2002, p. 365–373.
13. prEN 1992-1-2. Eurocode2: Design of Concrete Structures
- Part 1.2: General Rules – Structural Fire Design. Euro-
pean Committee for Standartisation, Brussels, July 2001.
102 p.
14. prEN 1992-1. Eurocode2: Design of Concrete Structures -
Part 1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings. European
Committee for Standartisation, Brussels, Oct 2001. 230 p.
15. Iljin, N. A. Outcomes of fire effect on reinforced
concrete structures (Ïîñëåäñòâèÿ îãíåâîãî âîçäåéñò-
âèÿ íà æåëåçîáåòîííûå êîíñòðóêöèè). Moscow:
Stroizdat, 1979. 128 p. (in Russian).
16. Cai, J.; Burgess, I. and Plank, R. A Generalised Steel/Re-
inforced Concrete Beam-Column Element Model for Fire
Conditions. Engineering Structures, Vol 25, No 6, 2003,
p. 817–833.
17. Karihaloo, B. L. Fracture Mechanics and Structural Con-
crete. Longman Scientific and Technical, England, 1995.
330 p.
 19

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2004, Vol X, Suppl 1,19–22

ANALYSIS OF THERMAL STRAIN OF STRUCTURAL STEELS IN VARIABLE

THERMAL FIELD

Zoja Bednarek, Renata Kamocka

The Main School of Fire Service (MSFS) in Warsaw, Str. J. Sùowackiego 52/54, 01-629 Warsaw, Poland.
E-mail: sgsp@ sgsp.edu.pl
Received 3 Nov 2003; accepted 8 Apr 2004

Abstract. The strain analysis of steels subjected to a thermal field with a high temperature increase rate is presented.
The results of tests of thermal strain caused by thermal expansion and the coefficient of linear thermal expansion are
presented for the structural steel, class AIII, grade 34GS, tested in a linearly variable temperature field at various heating
rates. The impact of heating rate on thermal strain εT = α(T) · ∆T and coefficient of linear thermal expansion α(T) is
discussed.
Keywords: thermal expansion, thermal strain, coefficient of linear thermal expansion, structual steel.

1. Introduction Structural strength under fire conditions and fire

The impact of elevated temperatures on structural
materials (including structural steels) results in a change
of their elastic and plastic behaviour. The intensity of
such phenomena as creep and relaxation also increases
with temperature. As results of our previous studies, such
phenomena have a considerable impact on structural
strength at fire temperatures.
Furthermore, not only an absolute value of tempera-
ture is essential but also temperature distribution with
time and rate of temperature increase are of vital impor-
tance.
Our previous studies [1] concerning the impact of
rapid-heating conditions, like fire, on the properties of
reinforcing steel, also including its thermal strain, have
shown that:
• Such properties and the type of rupture are influ-
enced by temperature distribution during the test,
and in particular, by temperature increase rate
dT/dτ, what was found while testing steels at both
relatively slight and significant temperature increase
rates;
• Different grades of steels (including structural steels)
show some kind of inertia, which consists in a par-
tial or full inhibition of some processes leading to
the material rupture due to heating at a significant
rate as compared to the same processes at constant
temperatures or at a slight rate of temperature in-
crease;
• Thermal fields characterised by higher temperature
increase rates undoubtedly produce more favourable
effects in terms of the material strength, eg result
in higher critical temperatures (causing rupture).
resistance are calculated on the basis of well established
mechanical and strength characteristics of building ma-
terials.
The nature of structural steels strain, being a result
of simultaneous impact of stresses and time-dependent
thermal field during a fire, is still under examination.
According to a proposal made by RILEM-
COMMITEE 44-PHT, an international committee, total
strain at elevated temperatures can be described by the
following constitutive equation for the material (steel):
ε = εT (T ) + ε e− p (σ, T ) + ε τ (σ, T , τ) , (1)
where εT is thermal strain εT = α(T ) ⋅ ∆T caused by
thermal expansion of steel,
ε e− p mechanical strain computed ignoring creep
strain as described by Ramberg-Osgood equation as fol-
lows:
σ 1 µ (T ) µ (T ) −1
εe− p = εe + ε p = + 0,002[ ] σ σ ,(2)
E (T ) σ y (T )
ε τ is creep strain (dependent on time τ) as described by
Dorn’s theory and Harmothy’s studies; also being the
subject of our earlier studies conducted at the Applied
Mechanics Department (MSFS) under Z. Bednarek’s
guidance.
The total strain of steel at elevated temperatures can
be calculated by summing up the thermal strain, the strain
calculated from the Ramberg-Osgood equation and the
creep strain.
This paper presents the results of studies of the first
component of the steel strain model based on equation (1),
ie the thermal strain caused by linear expansion of steel.

19
20 Z. Bednarek, R. Kamocka / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 19–22

2. Model of thermal expansion of solid bodies There is the following relation between the linear
expansion coefficient α and the anharmonicity coefficient:
According to the microscopic description, the ther-
mal expansion of solid bodies can account for an < x > b⋅k 1 . (4)
α= = 2 ⋅
increase of the crystal lattice parameter (interatomic dis- r0 ⋅ T K r0
tances in a crystal). Some of these phenomena can also
The higher the curve asymmetry, the greater the
account for defects in the crystal lattice – mainly vacan-
thermal expansion coefficient.
cies (the lack of atom in the place, which is assigned to
such atom).
As temperature rises, the amplitude of atoms oscil- 3. Testing the impact of temperature on steel strain
lations from their average equilibrium positions increases due to linear thermal expansion
(Fig 1).
Steel is a homogenous and isotropic continuous
. medium, which is subject to thermally activated strain.
A body length at a given temperature can be deter-
mined by means of the following formula:
l(T) = l0 (1 + αT + βT2). (5)
Ho For isotropic changes (a steel specimen), when ap-
H proximating linearity of changes in length, we can write:
∆l = l(T) – l0 = α(T) l T
or (6)
ε = ∆l/l = α(T) × T.
7(H) According to Harmothy [3–6] (ENV 1993-1-2), the
strain of heated steel with temperature can be expressed
by the following formulae:
∆l
= 1,2 · 10–5T + 0,4 · 10–8T2 – 2,416 · 10–4
Ho l
H 20 °C < T < 750 °C, (7a)

-1 -2
62>61 ∆l
Ho = 1,1 · 10–2 750 °C < T < 860 °C, (7b)
H1 l
H2
∆l
Fig 1. Relation between force, potential energy and inter- = 2 ⋅ 10–5T + 6,2 ⋅ 10–3 860 °C < T < 1200 °C. (7c)
l
atomic distance r: r0, r1, r2 – average interatomic dis-
The linear expansion coefficient can be precisely
tances at increasingly elevated temperatures
defined as:

The interatomic distance at temperature 0 °K is con- 1 dl ( p, T )

stant and equal to r0.
As temperature rises up to T1, the energy of atoms
in the crystal lattice increases resulting in their oscilla-
tions from their average equilibrium position r1 [2].
It can be shown that the average displacement of
the equilibrium position can be expressed as
b ⋅ k ⋅T ,
< x >=
K2
where <x> – average distance from r0 , eg <x> = r1 – r0;
b – anharmonicity coefficient (determines the de-
viation of atom oscillations from harmonicity);
K – coefficient of quasi-elastic force acting between
atoms in the crystal lattice
(Fx = –Kx + bx2);
T – temperature; k – Boltzman constant.
Thus, as temperature rises, the average interatomic
distance increases and the solid body expands.
α= ( )p, (8)
l0 dT
where p – constant pressure.
At constant pressure, coefficient α is a temperature-
dependant function.
For practical purposes of making structural analy-
sis, the average based on the reference value of
1,2 · 10–5(1/deg) for low-carbon steels is frequently as-
(3)
sumed instead of an actual value of linear expansion
coefficient α at a given temperature. There is no avail-
able precise data on the linear expansion coefficient for
structural steels for the needs of a more detailed steel
strain analysis at elevated temperatures, including fire
conditions characterised by a rapid increase in tempera-
ture. When searching through the publications available
to us we have only found the data on American steel
ASTM A36 [7], austenitic steels S350GD, S355 and
S460 [8] and formulae describing the relation between
coefficient α and temperature as follows:

20
Z. Bednarek, R. Kamocka / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 19–22 21

α = (0,004T + 12) · 10–6 (1/K) [9, 6], (9) ∆l

b– = 1,32 · 10–5T + 0,256 · 10–8T2 – 5,95 · 10–4,
α = (6,1 + 0,0019T) · 10–6 inch/inch per degree [10].(10) l
(11a)
For the needs of further studies on individual com-
ponents of formula (1), which describes the strain of ∆l
c– = 1,27 · 10–5T + 0,322 · 10–8T2 – 6,65 · 10–4,
structural steels at fire temperatures, the behaviour of l
linear expansion coefficient for the steel, class AIII, grade (11b)
34GS, was examined in a linearly variable temperature ∆l
field at different heating rates. d– = 1,28 · 10–5T + 0,298 · 10–8T2 – 7,79 · 10–4,
l
The tests were conducted under anisothermic con- (11c)
ditions (T ≠ const) for 4 different temperature increase
∆l
rates. Fig 2 shows temperature-time distributions. Under e – = 1,28 · 10–5T + 0,244 · 10–8T2 – 7,85 · 10–4.
fire conditions, the rate of temperature increase is l
5 °C/min for a steel element covered by a good quality (11d)
fire insulation. For uncovered structures, the rate of tem- The points marked in Fig 3 to determine curves "b,
perature increase can reach 50 °C/min. The results of tests c, d and e" are measuring points obtained by the authors
are shown on Figs 3 and 4, below. from their own tests, whereas points on curve "a" were
calculated according to the formula 7a taken from the
references.
Below, we present a comparison of the curve taken
from the references (curve “a”) with our curves (curves
“b, c, d, e” in Fig 4) describing the relation between

1,6E-05
Thermal expansion coefficient á [1/deg]

1,4E-05

1,2E-05
a

1,0E-05

8,0E-06 b a – wg Lie,T.T. [3]

c b – dT/dτ = 5 °C/min
6,0E-06 d c – dT/dτ = 10 °C/min
e d – dT/dτ = 15 °C/min
Fig 2. Relation between temperature and time for speci- 4,0E-06 e – dT/dτ = 20 °C/min
mens heated at various temperature increase rates 2,0E-06

0,0E+00
0 100 200 300 400 500 600

Temperature [°C]

Fig 4. Relation between thermal expansion coefficient and

temperature for specimens heated at various temperature
increase rates

thermal expansion coefficient a and temperature that we

obtained by experiments:

a – α = 4 · 10–9T + 1,2 · 10–5, (formula 9)

Fig 3. Relation between strain and temperature for speci-
mens heated at various temperature increase rates
Below, we present a comparison of the curve taken
from ENV 1992-1-2/1995/ (curve a) with our curves
(curves b, c, d, e in Fig 3) describing the relation
between strain and temperature that we obtained from
experiments:
∆l
a– = 1,2 · 10–5T + 0,4 · 10–8T2 – 2,416 · 10–4,
l in their own tests, whereas points on curve “a” were
(formula 7a)
21
b – α = – 2,51 · 10–11T2 + 2,78 · 10–8T + 5,87 · 10–6,
(12a)
c – α = – 2,81 · 10–11T2 + 3,04 · 10–8T + 5,3 · 10–6,
(12b)
d – α = – 3,08 · 10–11T2 + 3,39 · 10–8T + 3,9 · 10–6,
(12c)
e – α = – 3,89 · 10–11T2 + 4,09 · 10–8T + 1,95 · 10–6.
(12d)
The points marked in Fig 4 to determine curves “b,
c, d and e” are measuring points obtained by the authors
calculated according to formula (9) taken from the refer-
ences.
22 Z. Bednarek, R. Kamocka / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 19–22
4. Conclusions
The objective of investigations was to determine and
conduct a comparative analysis of thermal strain and ther-
mal expansion coefficient for structural steels at differ-
ent temperature increase rates. As the results of the tests
conducted at different heating rates on specimens made
of structural steel, class AIII, grade 34GS show, the ther-
mal strain of specimens is affected by the temperature
increase rate. The higher the temperature increase rate,
the lower the thermal strain of specimen. The thermal
expansion coefficient also changes in a similar way. The
reason for such a behaviour of steel is its material iner-
tia which consists in a partial or full inhibition of some
processes leading to the material rupture and taking place
in steel due to a significant heating rate, as we have also
shown in our papers [1] and [11].
Linear expansion coefficient α(T) rises with tem-
perature. As the regression analysis of the results, ob-
tained by the tests on linear expansion coefficient α at a
given heating rate shows, the best correlation degree was
obtained when approximating experimental data with
quadratic polynomials. This paper includes the functions
that describe the relation between coefficient a and tem-
perature at different heating rates (formulae 12a, b, c,
and d).
22
References
1. Bednarek, Z. Influence of thermal conditions on strength
parameters of reinforcing steel exposed to fire. Inýynieria
i Budownictwo, 12/93, p. 526–528.
2. Staub, F. Metal Science, WNT Katowice 1994.
3. Lewis, K. R. Fire design of steel members, fire engineer-
ing research report 2000/07 ISSN 1173–5996.
4. Böðvar, T. High performance concrete. Design guide lines,
Department of fire safety engineering, Report 5008, Lund,
1998.
5. Burgon, B. Elevated temperature and high strain rate prop-
erties of offshore steels, Steel Construction Institute, Off-
shore Technology Report 2001, 020, Norwich.
6. Alfawakhiri, F.; Sultan, M. A.; MacKinnon, D. H. Fire
Resistance of Loadbearing Steel-Stud Walls Protected with
Gypsum Board: A Review, Fire Technology, Vol 35, No 4,
1999.
7. Skowroñski, W. Theory of fire safety of steel structures,
PWN 2001.
8. Outinen, J.; Kaitila, O.; Mäkeläinen, P. High-temperature
testing of structural steel and modelling of structures at
fire temperatures. Research report TKK-TER-23. Helsinki
University of Technology, 2001.
9. Guy C. Gosselin. Structural fire protection- predictive
methods, Building science inside 1987, Institute for Re-
search in Construction, National Research Council Canada.
10. R.H.R. Tide: Integrity of structural steel after exposure to
fire, Engineering Journal /First Quarter, 1998.
11. Bednarek, Z. Effects of increase of temperature on struc-
tural steel strength parameters as applied to the estimation
of fire safety of concrete construction. Doctor Habilitatis
thesis. Vilnius: Technika, 1996, p. 1–208.
 23

ISSN 1392–3730
JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT
http:/www.vtu.lt/english/editions

2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 23–29

SLIP OF “BULLDOG”-TYPE TOOTHED-PLATE CONNECTORS IN STEEL-TIMBER

JOINTS OF OPEN-WEB GIRDERS

Rimantas Èechavièius
Dept of Metal and Timber Structures, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University,
Saulëtekio al. 11, LT-10223 Vilnius-40, Lithuania. E-mail: mktc@takas.lt
Received 4 June 2003; accepted 3 May 2004

Abstract. Composite steel-timber open-web girders invented by Truss Joint MacMillan company (Canada) provide
some technological and structural advantages. Timber chords and steel diagonals of triangular open-web are connected
by "Bulldog" type single-sided toothed-plate connectors. The article presents the results of research on four real-size
(span – 3 m) open-web trussed purlin with "Bulldog"-type connectors. From carried out tests next parameters are
determined: resistance of "Bulldog"-type connectors, slip modulus and statical slip values depending on the angle
between the force and wood fibres directions. It is also received numerical values of the slip modulus and statical slip,
which are substantically greater than given in experimental Eurocode 5. The tests also let to find that redistribution of
forces in steel diagonals of the trussed purlin starts when slip of "Bulldog"-type connectors in steel-to-timber joints
approaches to the limit (2 mm) value.
Keywords: composite structure, steel-timber joint "Bulldog"-type connector, slip, resistance test.

1. Introduction The majority of these results is obtained by investi-

gating separate joints. But there is a lack of data con-
Toothed “Bulldog”-type plate connectors (DS “Bull- cerning the slip of such joints in real steel-timber struc-
dog”) are means of mechanical ties used in timber struc- tures where the redestribution of stresses among
tures. The main purpose of them is to increase the tim- individual truss elements becomes clear.
ber bearing area in structural joints and to diminish the The article presents the results of research on four
slip of feathered joints. They could also allow to increase open-web trusses with “Bulldog”-type connectors [10–
considerably the bearing capacity of such joints and to 12]. Not only the strength of such joints and their slip
tie light steel-timber open-web girders (trusses) and but also the stress redestribution among elements of the
frames. This is characteristic of “OPEN-WEB” trusses truss were determined.
having been produced since 1960 by the joint-stock com-
pany ”MacMillan”; these trusses can be used for span-
ning both small openings (l ≈ 4,5–9 m) and large (12–
120 m) ones (Fig 1).
The main advantages of such trusses are their small
weight and rational joint work of timber chords and the
network of metal tubes. The main research on the bear-
ing capacity of toothed “Bulldog”-type connectors was
performed at Stevin-Laboratorium (Delft University of
Techology, Netherlands), Dannish Construction Research
Institute, Otto-Graf Institute (Stuttgart University, Ger-
many) [1–5]. During these investigations the strength of
joints was analysed by J.H. Blass, etc [6–7]. The model
of calculating such joints presented in his work is rec-
ommended by the project of new Eurocode standards [8].
The slip of “Bulldog”-type plate connectors was investi-
gated by Y. Hirashima [9]. The results are presented in
Fig 2, where slipping of different joining means is com-
pared. Fig 1. Composite steel-timber open-web truss of Truss
Joist MacMillan

23
24 R. Èechavièius / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 23–29

Fig 2. Experimental load-slip curves for joints in tension

parallel to the grain: a – glued joints (12, 5·10³ mm²), b –
split ring (100 mm), c – double-sided toothed plate (¸ 62
mm) [15], d – dowel (¸ 14 mm), e – bolt (¸ 14 mm), f –
punched plate (0,1E5 mm²), nail (¸ 4,4 mm)

4. A

4. B
3. A

Joint M6

Fig 4. Truss testing scheme: a – general view of truss

= testing (SN-1-3); b – truss SN-1-1 testing diagram: 1 –
truss SN-1-1; 2 – traverse; 3 – hinge; 4 – stiff support;
5 – jack; 6 – dynamometer; 7 steel spreader; 8 – timber
pad; X – traverse braces; T1-T16 – electric strain resis-
Joint M1
3. B
tance gauges; II.1 – II.7 – 0,01 mm accuracy dial gauges
(deflection indicators); In.1–In. 6 – displacement of ends
of pipe indicators with precision of 0,01 mm

2. The structure of trusses and test scheme

3. C Four steel-timber (3 m span) trusses SN-1-1, SN-1-

Fig 3. Structure of SN-1 trusses: a – diagram for analysis;
b – structure of M6 joint; c – structure of M1 joint
2, SN-1-3, SN-1-4 have been tested and some joints of
them strengthened by DS “Bulldog” [13]: all joints in
SN-1 and SN-2; mostly loaded were the joints M1, M5,
M6, M7, M10 and M11 in trusses SN-1-3, SN-4. In the
latter trusses, the less loaded joints M2, M3, M4, M8,
M9 were connected only by bolts M16. All the network

24
R. Èechavièius / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 23–29 25

Table 1. Schedule of materials for a SN-1 truss

No Materials and details Characteristic Remarks, standards
1 Wooden element (upper chord) 50×120 Fig 4. Test of girder Pinewood, 2nd sort W = 12%+/-2%
diagram:mm, 1 = 3280 mm
2 Wooden element (lower chord) 50×120 mm, 1 = 2680 mm Pinewood, 2nd sort W = 12%+/-2%
3 Tube (truss network) d = 45,0 mm, t = 4,0 mm, 1 = 680 mm C235, GOST 10704-76
4 Toothed connector E75M16 DIN 1052 Bulldog [19]
5 Pin M16,1 = 200 mm C235, GOST 1759-70
6 Plate (insertion) a = 68 mm, t = 8 mm, hole 16,5 mm C235, GOST 27772-88
7 Washer a = 68 mm, t = 6 mm, hole 16,5 mm C235, GOST 27772-88
8 Nut M16 C235, GOST 1759-70

Fig 5. General view of testing the open-web truss: a – test of truss SN-1-2; b – arrangement of test
devices in the truss SN 1–4

elements of metal tubes are connected at 60° angle with
the upper and lower chords. The tubes at connecting
points are flattened and a hole of 16,2 mm was drilled.
In joints with one network element (M6 and M11), an
insertion was put. The structure of these trusses and the
testing scheme are shown in Figs 3, 4 and Table 1.
The trusses were tested at the laboratory of build-
ing structures of the VGTU. The source of loading was
a hydraulic jack based on a rigid metal frame. The
scheme of truss testing is shown in Fig 4. Strain gauges
(20 mm on metal and 50 mm on wooden basis) were
used only when testing SN-1-1 truss. The vertical strains
of truss supports and lower chords joints as well as slip
strains of joints M1, M5, M6, M11 were measured by
indicators of 0,01 mm precision.
For stability of experimental equipment in the plane
of bending moment, hinge supported horizontal wooden
squared beam connections were provided. It was observed
during testing that the horizontal ties are free and they
do not hinder transferring vertical forces.
3. Test results
It has been determined by testing steel-timber con-
nections [14, 15] that the characteristic value Rck  of truss
chord timber compressive strength along fibres is equal
to 38,61 MPa and characteristic volume weight rk = 434
kg/m². Testing trusses lasted for 2–3 h. During this time
span the strains of on average 21 devices were deter-
mined at every stage of 15 loadings. Loading duration
in separate stages was in the interval of 10–20 min de-
pending on the necessity to rearrange either the devices
(when strains were larger than the size of limit strains)
or the equipment of horizontal braces. Testing trusses is
shown in Fig 5.
The unit deformations of the truss SN-1-1 are shown
in Fig 6. The average strains in compressive truss bars
1–7 and 5–10 under the loading of 80 kN (σc = 86,64
MPa) and in the members in tension 1–6 and 5–11 un-
der the loading of 110 kN (σc = 121,46 MPa) were close
to those calculated theoretically according to the experi-
mentally defined pipe compressive (Et) and tensioned
bars elasticity models: E c  = 2,10·10 5  MPa, and
Et = 2,12·105 MPa. But from F = 85–90 kN loading the
growth of strains of compressed pipes and from F = 110
kN the strains of tensioned pipes decreased considerably
and later have stopped almost entirely. Thus at the in-
crease of loading the stresses in these bars have not
changed, ie the stresses were redestributed among the
truss elements. This phenomenon can be explained by
the data of Table 2: exactly at this time M-11 ir M-6
joints slip deformations were larger than the allowable 2

25
26 R. Èechavièius / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 23–29

Table 2. Characteristics for serviceability limit state of “Bulldog”-type connectors in steel-to-timber joints
Impact kN Slip modulus according to LST EN 26891 [19], Keser Keu Slip according [14]
No of girder No of joint kN/mm Ktser Ktu
α °,
connections connections Uy, Uu, µs
Fmax F2 Ks K0,6 K0,7 K0,8 Keu Keser
mm mm
M1 90 36,2 23,0 21,0 12,0 11,0 – 2,8 11,5 1,18 0,43 1,07 13,0 12,15
M2 90 32,2 21,6 22,9 13,8 9,6 – 3,9 10,8 1,11 0,60 0,85 8,2 9,65
Connections M3 90 31,8 21,0 20,3 11,8 9,2 – 5,8 10,5 1,08 0,89 0,85 5,5 6,47
B-2 Vid.: 90 33,4 21,9 21,4 12,6 10,0 4,2 10,9 1,12 0,64 0,92 8,9 9,42
M4 0 34,0 26,2 24,0 18,6 15,3 – 5,7 13,1 1,34 0,93 0,97 6,0 6,19
Connections M5 0 38,0 30,0 24,6 21,6 17,9 – 5,4 15,0 1,54 0,83 1,17 7,1 6,07
B-1 M6 0 39,5 25,7 25,9 16,2 – – 4,4 12,8 1,31 0,68 0,92 9,0 9,80
Vid.: 0 37,1 27,3 24,8 18,8 16,6 5,2 13,6 1,40 0,81 1,02 7,4 7,35
SN-1-1 M6 60 36,4 29,3 41,8 21,7 – 16,0 7,7 14,7 1,51 1,18 0,7 4,7 6,7
M11 60 36,4 24,5 38,4 15,3 – 9,6 6,6 12,2 1,25 1,01 0,5 5,5 11,0
SN-1-2 M6 60 34,2 29,2 39,2 19,4 – 15,4 11,8 14,6 1,50 1,81 0,4 2,9 7,3
M11 60 34,2 20,7 17,7 10,7 – 7,3 5,4 10,4 1,07 0,83 1,1 6,3 5,7
SN-1-3 M6 60 37,0 19,2 14,2 7,6 – 5,7 6,2 9,6 0,98 0,95 1,0 6,0 6,0
M11 60 37,0 19,5 10,2 9,2 – 8,5 2,8 9,8 1,00 0,43 0,4 5,3 13,2
SN-1-4 M6 60 37,0 26,2 44,0 19,1 – 11,2 2,5 13,1 1,34 0,38 0,4 5,9 14,8
M11 60 37,0 29,2 48,3 19,3 – 15,7 9,7 14,6 1,50 1,49 0,4 3,8 9,5
Average 60 36,2 24,7 31,7 15,3 11,2 6,6 12,4 1,27 1,01 0,6 4,9 7,4

Fig 6. Kinetics of strain in steel web members of SN-1-1
(Figs 3, 4). Tension members: 1 – 6 (T-9, T-10) and 5–11
(T-15, T-16); compression members: 1 – 7 (T-11, T-12)
and 5–10 (T-13, T-14); 1, 2 – strain of compression and
tension members, respectively
Fig 7. End displacements of web members of SN-1-2 truss
(Figs 3, 4): dial gauges In.1 and In.4 for tensile member
1 – 6; In.2 and In.5 – for tensile member 5 – 11; In.3 and
In.6 – for compressive struts 1 – 7 and 5 – 10, respectively

Fig 8. Views of joints M6 (In.1) (a) and M1 (In.3 and In.4) (b) of SN-1-4 truss after failure

26
R. Èechavièius / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 23–29 27

mm limit (the total loading F reached 86,6 kN and

103,3 kN, and F2 for one DS was equal to 24,5 kN and
29,3 kN, respectively.
It is clearly shown in Fig 7: the joint M6 (In.1) slip
strains were very similar to those of the joint M1 (In. 3
and In. 4). In Fig 8, deformations after failure of joints
M6 (In. 1) and M1 (In. 3 and In. 4) are seen. Maximal
bearing deformations of steel bolts M16 (dv = 15,9 mm)
reached 0,3 – 0,4 mm, and their bend 8,5 mm (SN-1-4)
and 14,8 mm (SN-1-3). In this picture the character of
bolt hole deformations is seen too. The determined after
the failure measurements of bolt holes in upper and bot-
tom chords are presented in Table 3. It shows that the
direction (a) of hole maximal dimensions correlates well Fig 9. Variation of slip modulus of “Bulldog”-type steel-
with the force direction: in the girder SN-1-4 the maxi- timber connectors with relative force (F/Fmax) and angle
mal dimension of 19,0 mm of joint M6 is of a = 60° (α) between force and timber grain directions
direction, and M-1 is a maximal dimension (19,35 mm)
of a = 0° direction.

4. The characteristic of DS “Bulldog” serviceability

limit state

This characteristic is presented in Figs 9, 10 and

Table 2. Here also the results of tests B-1 and B-2 of
metal-wood joints with “Bulldog”-type connectors are
shown.
In this Table the theoretical moduli of the slip of
such joints were calculated according to European ex-
perimental standards [14]:
Ktser = 0,3 ds r k = 9,76 kN/mm,
Ktu =  2·Ktser /3 = 6,51 kN/mm.
K, kN/mm
F/Fmax .
In these formulas, due to a shortage of tests con-
cerning the humidity of timber, the influence of the con-
nection elements thickness and the number of connec-
tors in a joint has not been evaluated, as well as the
influence of the angle between the force and wood fi-
Fig 10. Relationship between carrying capacity of “Bull-
bres. It was noted by H. J. Blass [16], too.
dog”-type connector in steel-to-timber joints and angle α
Our investigations have disclosed that the bearing between force F and grain direction: 1 – Ktser – theoreti-
capacity of DS “Bulldog” at the states of security and cal value of slip modulus [14]; 2 – slip modulus at ser-
serviceability (failure loading Fmax; force F2, when the viceability limit state (Keser); 3 – force (F2) when connec-
strain of the slip connector equals 2,0 mm; magnitude tor slip equals 2 mm; 4 – maximum force (Fmax); 5 – stati-
of slip modulus at reaching the serviceability limits state cal slip in steel-to-timber joints µes [14]
Keser, connection static slip ms) depends on the angle (a)
between the force and wood fibres. In Fig 9 we can see
5. Conclusions
that the dependence of slip modulus size on the impact
angle (a) is valid for the whole time span of the connec- 1. The bearing capacity of steel-timber connections
tor strain: from the initial impetus up to failure. with “Bulldog”-type connectors depends, according to the
Table 2 includes the DS “Bulldog” static slip aver- state of serviceability limits, on the angle between the
age characteristics determined according to DAN-ENV force and wood fibres.
1995-1-1 [14]; in many cases they are larger (a/v 2. Experimental slip modulus Keser is by 1,12–1,4
µs = 7,35 – 9,42 depending on a) than in these norms: times larger than that theoretically determined by experi-
3 < µs < 6. mental European standards. Its value depends on the
It has been determined that the slip modulus Keser angle between the force and wood fibres.
is by 1,12–1,4 times larger than that defined by [14] 3. The static slip value µs with “Bulldog”-type con-
depending on the angle between the force and wood nectors in steel-timber connections is much larger than
fibres.
27
28 R. Èechavièius / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 15–21

Table 3. Dimensions of holes in chords of open-web girders after testing

Dimensions of bolt holes in girder upper chords, mm *1

Joint SN-1-1 SN-1-2 SN-1-3 SN-1-4 Average
α,° *2
No front side front side inner side front side inner side front side inner side dimensions
M-11 0
60 16,1 16,1 16,4 16,2 16,1 15,9 16,2
90
120 18,3 18,8 19,0 17,5 18,5 17,4 18,2
M-10 0 16,8 17,4 17,2 16,8 16,8 16,7 17,0
60 16,9 16,7 16,5 16,1 16,8 16,5 16,6
90 15,8 16,1 16,3 16,2 16,4 16,1 16,2
120 16,4 16,3 16,4 15,9 16,5 16,1 16,3
M-9 0 16,1 16,3 16,8 16,3 17,7 16,7 16,6
60 16,2 17,1 18,5 17,7 17,7 17,3 17,4
90 16,5 16,8 18,5 17,8 18,2 17,5 17,6
120 16,1 16,7 17,8 17,3 17,5 17,0 17,1
M-8 0 16,0 16,3 17,2 16,6 17,0 16,6
60 16,1 16,3 17,4 16,6 16,8 16,5 16,6
90 16,1 16,4 18,0 17,5 17,4 17,1
120 16,6 16,4 18,5 17,8 18,0 17,4 17,4
M-7 0 16,7 17,4 17,1 16,8 17,1 17,1 17,0
60 16,0 16,2 16,0 15,9 16,1 16,3 16,1
90 16,2 16,4 16,3 16,0 16,4 16,0 16,2
120 16,7 16,5 17,5 16,8 16,8 16,4 16,8
M-6 0
60 17,8 18,0 20,1 19,4 20,2 17,8 18,9
90
120 16,0 16,5 16,6 16,4 16,2 16,7 16,4
M-5 0 17,9 18,4 18,5 19,1 18,8 17,7 19,6 18,7
60 16,1 16,6 17,1 16,7 16,1 16,5 17,8 16,8
90 16,0 16,4 16,0 16,1 15,9 16,3 16,6 16,2
120 16,7 17,7 16,0 16,8 16,2 17,5 17,0 16,9
M-4 0 16,4 16,2 16,8 17,3 17,4 17,7 17,3 17,1
60 16,0 16,4 17,2 16,6 16,4 16,6 16,8 16,7
90 16,4 16,1 16,0 16,2 16,3 16,6 16,5 16,3
120 16,0 16,1 16,0 16,5 16,3 16,6 16,5 16,3
M-3 0 16,0 16,3 16,0 16,6 16,7 16,9 17,3 16,6
60 16,0 15,9 16,1 16,4 16,5 16,9 16,3 16,4
90 16,0 16,0 15,9 16,4 16,5 16,8 16,5 16,4
120 16,0 16,0 15,8 16,4 16,4 16,9 16,4 16,3
M-2 0 16,5 16,2 16,5 17,5 17,8 18,0 19,5 17,6
60 16,2 16,2 16,3 16,4 16,6 16,2 16,8 16,4
90 16,0 16,1 16,0 16,4 16,7 16,3 16,3 16,3
120 16,1 16,2 16,1 16,8 16,8 17,8 17,3 16,8
M-1 0 17,7 19,1 18,8 18,2 17,9 19,7 20,0 19,0
60 16,8 17,1 17,2 16,9 16,9 17,2 17,1 17,1
90 16,6 16,5 16,2 16,7 16,0 16,8 16,3 16,4
120 16,0 16,5 16,1 16,4 16,5 17,9 16,9 16,7

*1 dimensions were taken from the inner side of joint

*2 clockwise in the front side

28
R. Èechavièius / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 23–29
that given in experimental European standards (Eurocode
5). Its magnitude also depends on the angle between the
force and wood fibres.
4. Redistribution of stresses between the girder web-
members starts when the slip strains in steel-timber con-
nections with “Bulldog”-type connectors are near the limit
value (2 mm).
References
1. Kuipers, J. and Kurstjens, P. B. J.: Creep and damage re-
search on timber joints. Part one. Rapport 4-86-15-HD-
23. Stevin-Laboratorium. Delft University of Technology,
Netherlands, 1986.
2. Kurstjens, P. B. J. Creep and damage research on timber
joints. Part two. Rapport 25.4-89-15 C HD-24, Stevin-
Laboratorium, Delft University of Technology, Netherlands,
1989.
3. Kurstjens, P. B. J. Creep and damage research on timber
joints. Part three. Rapport 25.4-90-12 C HD-26, Stevin-
Laboratorium, Delft University of Technology, Netherlands,
1990.
4. Kurstjens, P. B. J. and Stolle, P. Creep and damage re-
search on timber joints. Part four. Rapport 25.4-91-06/ C
HD-28, Stevin-Laboratorium, Delft University of Technol-
ogy, Netherlands, 1991.
5. Frech, P. and Kolb, H. Test of Bulldog-type connectors.
Test results H 30471 (Prüfung von Bulldog-Holzverbindern
Prüfzeugnis H 30471). Otto–Graf Institute of Stuttgart
University, 1971 (in German).
6. Blass, J. H.; Ehlbeck, J. and Schlager, M. Characteristic
strength of toothed-plate connector joints. Holz als Roh-
und Werkstoff, 51, 1993, p. 395–399.
7. Blass, H. J.; Aune, P.; Choo, B. S.; Görlacher, R.; Griffiths,
D. R.; Hilson, B. O.; Racher, P. and Steck, G. Timber
Engineering. Netherlands: Centrum Hout, 1995.
8. Eurocode 5. Design of timber structures. Part: General rules
and rules for buildings. ENV 1995–1–1. Brussels: CEN,
1993. 133 p.
29
29
9. Hirashima, Y. (1990). Lateral resistance of timber connec-
tor joints parallel to grain direction. In: Proceedings of the
International Engineering Conference, Vol 1: 254–261,
Tokyo.
10. Èechavièius, R. Investigation of ring-toothed connectors
in metal-timber girders. Research report of Technical Cen-
tre for Timber Structures (Mokslo tiriamojo darbo ataskaita.
Dantytøjø sprausteliø tyrimai). Vilnius, 1999. 93 p. (in
Lithuanian).
11. Ðliþys, M. Application of ring-toothed connectors in metal-
timber girders (Dantytøjø sprausteliø panaudojimas).
Vilnius, 1999. 81 p. (in Lithuanian).
12. Narmontas, D.; Èechavièius, R.; Kudzys, A. Behaviour of
composite open-web trusses with toothed-plate connectors.
In: Proceedings of the International PhD Symposium in
Civil Engineering, Institute of Structural Engineering Uni-
versity of Agricultural Sciences, Vienna, Oct 5–7, 2000,
p. 431–434.
13. Standard of Germany. DIN 1052, Part 2: Timber struc-
tures design and construction (Deutsche Norm. Holzbau-
werke-Berechnung und Ausführung). Beuth Berlin, 1988.
27 p. (in German).
14. Standard of Lithuania. LST EN 28970. Timber structures.
Testing of joints made with mechanical fasteners (Medinës
konstrukcijos. Sujungimø mechaninëms tvirtinimo detalëms
bandymas). Requirements for wood density, 2000. 4 p. (in
Lithuanian).
15. Standard of Lithuania. LST EN 26891. Timber structures.
Joints made with mechanical fasteners (Medinës konstruk-
cijos. Sujungimai mechaninëmis tvirtinimo detalëmis).
General principles for the determination of strength and
deformation characteristics, 2000. 6 p. (in Lithuanian).
16. Blass, J. H. Joints of toothed-plate connectors. In: Timber
structures in limit state. Introduction of Eurocode 5. Build-
ings materials and dimensioning basis (Assemblages par
crampons. À: Structures en bois aux états limites). STEP1.
Introduction à l’Eurocode 5. Matériaux et bases de calcul,
Sedibois, Paris, 1996. 517 p.
 31

ISSN 1392–3730
JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT
http:/www.vtu.lt/english/editions

2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 31–37

OPTIMUM DESIGN OF COLD-FORMED STEEL SHEETING USING

GENETIC ALGORITHMS

Wei Lu1, Pentti Mäkeläinen2, Jyrki Kesti3, Jukka Lindborg 4

1Steel Structures, Helsinki University of Technology, FIN-02015, Espoo, Finland. E-mail: luwei@cc.hut.fi
2Steel Structures, Helsinki University of Technology, FIN-02015, Espoo, Finland. E-mail: Pentti.Makelainen@hut.fi
3Rautaruukki Oyj, Construction Solutions / R &D, Helsinki, Finland. E-mail: Jyrki.Kesti@rautaruukki.com
4Rautaruukki Oyj, Construction Solutions / R &D, Helsinki, Finland. E-mail: Jukka.Lindborg@rautaruukki.com

Received 1 March 2004; accepted 18 May 2004

Abstract. Cold-formed steel profiled sheeting is widely used for roof, floor system and wall cladding. Due to the variety
of profiles available on the market, finding the optimum shapes is necessary. In this paper, genetic algorithms are
applied to optimise dimensions of cold-formed steel profiled sheeting. The objective of the optimization is to obtain the
optimum dimensions of profiled sheeting that has the minimum weight subjected to the given constraints. Sheathings
are designed in accordance with Eurocode 3, Part 1.3. With this optimization process, a set of easily accessed optimum
sections may be provided for structural steel designers and steel manufacturers.
Keywords: cold-formed steel, profiled sheeting, optimization, genetic algorithm.

the weight of sheathing [11, 12]. In this paper, GA-based

1. Introduction
Because of the high strength to weight ratio and ease
of assembly, the profiled sheeting has been widely used
for roofing, cladding and extended to floor systems in
building constructions. Due to the variety of profiles
available on the market, finding the optimum shapes is
necessary.
Genetic Algorithm (GA) is a general-purpose, de-
rivative-free, stochastic search algorithm [3, 6, 10] and
starts by randomly choosing an initial population that
consists of candidate solutions to the problem at hand.
Each individual in the population is characterised by a
fixed length binary bit string, which is called chromo-
some. These chromosomes are evaluated by means of a
fitness function. Combining the fittest individuals from
the previous population, a new generation of chromo-
somes is created. Evolutionary operators such as selec-
tion, crossover, and mutation are used to create this new
population. Besides, Elitism, which is a method that cop-
ies the best chromosome or a few better chromosomes
to the new population, might be incorporated into the
algorithm to avoid losing the best individual. This pro-
cess continues until the specified level of fitness is
reached.
Normally, the objective for optimization is to
achieve maximum use of material by using appropriat-
ing profiles, for instance, to maximize the resistance of
sheeting subjected to bending stress [7] or to minimise
optimization method is used to obtain the optimum shape
and dimension of roof sheathing that minimise the weight
under the given constraints, such as the geometric, stress
and fabrication constraints. Sheathings are designed in
accordance with Eurocode 3, Part 1.3 [5]. Because of
the many types of sheeting available and the diverse func-
tional requirements and loading conditions that apply,
design is generally based on experimental investigation.
The analytical method can be used mostly for trapezoi-
dal sheeting. The GA-based design procedure is demon-
strated with four design examples. With this optimiza-
tion process, a set of easily accessed optimum sections
may be provided for structural steel designers and steel
manufacturers.
2. Description of optimum design problem
The minimum weight design can be expressed as:
Minimise W = ρ ⋅ ( Ag / bd ) ⋅ L , (1)
where W is the sheeting weight; L is the span of the
sheeting; and bd is the notation width of the pitch as
shown in Fig 1. Fig 1 also shows the dimensions of the
sheeting for one fold, in which, bu and bp are notation
widths of the plane elements; hw is the height of the
web; Sw is the slant height of the web; and θ is the incli-
nation of the web. Except for Sw and bd, all other di-
mensions shown in the figure are design variables.

31
32 W. Lu, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 31–37

top flange. Similarly to the top flange, the dimensions of

the bottom flange are shown in Fig 6. The design vari-
ables are the width and the height f the stiffeners, x9 and
x10, the position of the stiffeners, x8; the inclination of
the stiffener, θsp, and the number of the stiffeners.

Fig 1. Dimension of the cross-section for one fold

The shapes of the stiffeners on the flanges are shown

in Fig 2. The number of the stiffeners on the flange can
be zero, one or two. The stiffeners are assumed to be
symmetric on the top of the flange. When two stiffeners
appear, the sizes of them are the same.
Fig 4. Type of web stiffeners

Fig 2. Types of flange stiffener

The dimensions of the upper flanges are shown in

Fig 3. The design variables are width and depth of the
stiffeners, x2 and x3, the position of the stiffeners, x1;
the inclination of the stiffener, θsu, and the number of
the stiffeners.

Fig 5. Dimension of web with two stiffeners

Fig 3. Dimensions of the upper flange

According to the number of stiffeners on the web,

three cases can be classified: case (a) without stiffener,
case (b) with one stiffener and case (c) with two stiffen-
ers as shown in Fig 4. In case (c), the size of the stiffen-
ers is assumed to be the same. The dimensions of the
Fig 6. Dimensions of the bottom flange
stiffeners on the web are shown in Fig 5, in which the
design variables are height and width of stiffeners bsw
and ssw1; positions of stiffeners, sw1 and sw2, and the The constraints can be classified into three catego-
number of the stiffeners. ries: the geometrical constraints, the strength constraints
The numbers and the dimensions of stiffeners on and the fabrication constraints. The geometrical limits
the bottom flange may be different from those on the that should be satisfied are taken from Eurocode 3,

32
W. Lu, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 31–37 33

Part 1.3. These limits are listed in Table 1 as G1 and where αi is the normalised geometrical and strength con-
G2. When designing sheeting, the following checks straint and β is the normalised fabrication constraint and
should be carried out: bending resistance, shear resis- is defined as (Ls / LStrip – 1). Since the number of the
tance, concentrated load resistance (crippling resistance), fold is calculated as dividing the required width of the
interaction of bending and shear and/or crippling, and strip, Lstrip, by length of sheeting of each fold calculated
stiffness of the sheeting. Thus, the strength constraints from the current combination of design variables, thus,
are given in Table 2 as SM1, SM2, SF3, SF4, SF5, SV6 the value of |Ls / Lstrip| is less than one. And the value of
and SMV7.  ισ ϖαριεδ µορε ρεγυλαρλψ ωηεν χοµπαρινγ το ϖαλυε 〈.
Τηερεφορε, τηε πεναλτψ ισ διϖιδεδ ιντο τωο τερµσ, ιε 〈
Table 1. Geometrical constraints ανδ .
Symbols Constraints descriptions In the above formula, nn1 is the coefficient that
G1 Sw/t ≤ 200/sinθ  
G2 bp/t ≤ 500 or bu/t ≤ 500

 i
∑
makes the values of W and  (max( 0 ,α i )) 2  at the


same order and nn2 makes the values of W and β 2 at
Table 2. Strength constraints the same order so as to avoid one value dominating the
other. KKi ≥ 0 are coefficients and the solution of the
Symbols Constraints descriptions
SM1, SM2 Moment resistance, positive and negative penalty problem can be made arbitrarily close to the
SF3, SF4 Web crippling, end and internal support solution of the original problem by choosing KKi suffi-
SMF5 Combined bending and crippling ciently large [2].
SV6 Web shear Since GA is suitable to find the maximum value of
SMV7 Combined bending and shear an optimization problem, thus, the above-mentioned un-
constrained minimisation problem should be transformed
The fabrication constraint in this analysis is defined into maximisation problem by using the following for-
as to manufacture the profiled sheeting with actual pro- mula [1]:
vided strip width, ie
F = Φ max − Φ ifΦ < Φ max ,
Ls = Lstrip , (2) F =0 ifΦ ≥ Φ max , (4)
where Ls is the total length of sheeting calculated by where Φmax is average fitness, ie Φmax = ave(Φ) so that
using the cross-section dimensioned with the current com- the individuals with fitness greater than or equal to this
bination of design variables; and Lstrip is the length of value are discarded and with no chance to enter the
the provided strip width. For the purpose of the practi- mating pool. In GA terminology, F is called fitness func-
cal application, the overlap length has been taken into tion, which is used in the reproduction stage.
account in the calculation of Ls (Fig 7). Fig 8 shows how the sheeting design is integrated
into the GA optimization process. GA-based design starts
from randomly generating an initial population that is
composed of candidate solutions to the current problem.
Each individual in the population is a bit string of fixed
length. After decoding, these individuals that represent
the dimensions of the sheeting are sent to the sheet de-
Fig 7. Overlap of two sheathings sign programme, by which the resistances of the sheet-
ing are calculated. After that, the constraints are checked
and if the constraints are violated, the penalty is applied
3. GA-based design and the fitness function is calculated. After the evalua-
tion of the fitness for each individual, a new generation
Since GA is suitable for an unconstrained optimiza-
is created using such operators as selection, crossover
tion problem, the constrained problem can be transformed
and mutation. In order to keep the best individuals in
to an unconstrained problem through a penalty function.
each generation, the elitism may also be used. This pro-
A suitable penalty function must incur a positive for in-
cess is continued until the specified stopping criteria are
feasible points and no penalty for feasible points. In this
satisfied.
analysis, the quadratic penalty function is used, and the
Compared to other search and optimization algo-
corresponding unconstrained problem becomes:
rithms, GA has the following features: GAs search a set
Minimise Φ = W + KK1 ⋅ nn1 ⋅ ∑ (max(0, α i )) 2 of points in parallel, not only at a single point; GAs do
i not require derivative information or other auxiliary
2
(3) knowledge. Only the objective function and correspond-
+ KK 2 ⋅ nn2 ⋅ β ,
ing fitness affect the search direction; GAs use prob-
ability rules; and GAs provide a number of potential

33
34 W. Lu, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 31–37

Start Initialising the Randomly generating

parameters the initial population

Sheeting design:
Checking the constraints and Gross section properties
calculating the normalised Effective section properties Decoding
constraints Moment resistance
Shear resistance
Buckling resistance

Applying the penalty for

the violated constraints Fitness evaluation

Output the results Yes Check if the max generation

and stop is reached

No
Apply the GA operators:
selection, crossover and mutation

Fig 8. GA-based sheeting design

stiffener from the nearest corner is set to 10 mm and the
minimum distance between stiffeners is set to 10 mm.
solutions to a given problem. The final solution is left to
user.

4. Examples

Fig 9 shows two-span roof sheathing with applied

loading. The loading includes the permanent load such
as the self-weight of sheeting and insulations, which are
represented as g, and variable loads, in this case, snow
load, which is represented as s. The inclination of the
whole sheeting is assumed to be zero.
The load combination for the ultimate state design
according to Eurcode 1[4] can be calculated as:
q = 1,35 × (Gk + w) + 1,5 × Qk (5)
in which 1,35 and 1,5 are partial safety factors for dead
load and variable load, respectively, under unfavorable
Fig 9. Loads applied to sheathing
effects; Gk and Qk are characteristic values of dead load
and variable load; and w is the self-weight of the sheet-
ing. Four design examples are demonstrated in this sec-
The yield strength of the steel is 350 N/mm2, the tion according to the GA-based design procedure men-
elastic modulus is 210 000 N/mm2 and the density is 7850 tioned above. The first example is to find the optimum
kg/m3. The characteristic value of permanent load is as- dimensions of the profiled sheeting without any stiffen-
sumed to be 0,5 kN/m2 and that of variable load is 1,8 ers. The other three examples are with stiffeners on the
kN/m2. The thickness of the profile is 0,6 mm. The sup- flanges, with stiffeners on the webs and with no limita-
port length is assumed to be 100 mm. The length of tions, ie the stiffeners can be either on the flanges or on
span is 4 m. In addition, the minimum distance of the the webs, or both or no stiffeners at all.

34
W. Lu, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 31–37
The GA, which is based on bit representation, two-
point crossover, bit-flip mutation, and tournament selec-
tion with elitism, is used to perform the optimization.
The population size is set to at least twice of the length
of individual string. Such parameters as the crossover
rate and the mutation rate in genetic algorithms are set
to 0,8 and 0,001, respectively. The selection of these
parameters is based on previous research [8].
4.1. Profiles without stiffeners
The dimensions of the profile are shown in Fig 10.
The design variables are the width of the top flange bu,
which is varied from 20 mm to 200 mm; the width of
the bottom flange bp, which is varied from 20 mm to
200 mm; the height of the profile hw, which is varied
from 20 to 170 mm and the inclination of the web θ,
which is varied between 45° to 90°.
35
L −L L −L
2: 10 f cave , and case 3: 10 fave cave , in which Lf is
the order of weight of each individual; Lc is the order of
 
 ∑ (max(0, αi )) 2  or β 2 ; L is the order of average
ave
 i 
weight of individuals in a population and Lcave is the
 2
order of average value of  ∑ (max(0, αi ))  or β 2 in
 i 
a population.
The effects of these three cases on finding the opti-
mum profile are shown in Table 3. Due to the fixed size
of population, the behaviour of GA may be different from
run to run due to the error of finite sampling [9]. (One
run is terminated when the given generation is reached).
Thus, the optimization for each case is performed in 20
runs and minimum weight in 20 runs is taken as the op-
timum value.
Table 3 also shows the length of sheathing and the
percentage value of the dominant constraints, ie the com-
bination of bending and local crippling. In addition, the
average values of weight in 20 runs are also provided in
the Table.

Table 3. Comparison of case 2 and case 3

Case 2 Case 3
(kk1 = 1000, kk2 = 100) (kk1 = 1000, kk2 = 100)
SMF5 Ls W1 SMF5 Ls W1
[mm] [kg/m2] [mm] [kg/m2]
98,64 1500,54 12,87 99,33 1500,44 14,10
99,12 1500,36 14,21 97,89 1500,44 13,37
Fig 10. Dimensions of the profile without stiffeners 99,40 1500,19 13,19 99,09 1499,70 12,97
99,44 1500,43 13,54 95,28 1500,32 15,11
99,99 1499,98 13,37 100,16 1500,58 13,97
Each individual in the initial population can be 100,18 1499,86 13,58 99,73 1500,01 13,85
formed as concatenating the design variables end by end 90,03 1500,43 15,64 99,20 1499,61 13,75
99,07 1500,50 12,77 95,93 1500,17 14,47
and presenting them as a single string. For each design
99,30 1500,14 13,82 95,76 1499,68 13,47
variable, the binary encoding method is used. The gen- 95,49 1500,23 14,46 99,99 1500,11 13,55
eral formula for decoding design variable is [1]: 91,74 1500,35 14,68 97,31 1500,20 14,32
98,43 1500,27 13,67 98,64 1500,27 13,51
Xd 99,95 1500,15 13,75 99,67 1499,78 13,39
X = X min + ( X max − X min ) , (6) 98,77 1500,02 14,30 97,50 1500,20 14,08
2L 99,48 1499,73 13,18 98,53 1500,14 13,82
where X is the decoded value of design variable; Xmax 99,36 1499,77 13,48 99,70 1500,13 13,73
97,80 1500,26 13,58 97,32 1500,04 13,58
and Xmin are the maximum and minimum value for the 98,82 1499,71 13,97 96,17 1499,61 13,55
given design variables; Xd is the decimal integer value 98,61 1499,94 13,33 99,44 1499,88 14,19
of the binary string; L is the string length corresponding 99,31 1500,41 13,94 95,45 1499,68 14,61
to each design variable. Min 12,77 12,97
Ave 13,77 13,87
In the process of calculating the fitness function,
the values of KK1 and KK2 are set in the following way:
perform the optimization with initial value of KK1 = 10 By running the program based on case 1, we found
and KK2 = 10; check the violation constraints afterwards. out that the profile of minimum weight with no viola-
If constraints for the profile with minimum weight are tions of the inequality constraints can be found via in-
violated, the values of KK1 and KK2 are increased, for creasing the value of KK1 gradually. However, we can-
instance, KK1 to 100 and KK2 to 100, until there is no not find the profiles that have the acceptable values of
constraint violation for the profile of minimum weight. strip length via varying the value of KK2. This is due to
In this analysis, the value of KK1 is found as 1000 and the fact the formula of defining nni in case 1 does not
that of KK2 is as 100. include the effect of the order of each individual. Only
The role of nn1 and nn2 in equation (3) is to make the integer part is taken into account. According to the
the weight at the same order as penalty. Three formulas definition of penalty for inequality constraints, the fea-
L −L sible individuals are kept with α = 0. Therefore, as the
are used to define value of nni, ie case 1: 10 f c , case

35
36 W. Lu, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 31–37

optimization is preceded, the optimization is concentrated 4.2. Profiles with stiffeners

to find the minimum weight among the individuals with
no constraints violation even the effect of the order is The calculation is classified into three cases: pro-
not considered. However, the value of β always appeared files with flange stiffeners, profiles with web stiffeners
in the formula for calculating fitness function. As the and profiles without any limitation. Besides the design
optimization proceeds, those individuals with lower value variables provided in the profiles without stiffeners in
of integer part rather than those with small constraints the previous section, the range of the following variables
violations are kept. are given before running the programme: the heights of
When comparing the optimization results based on the flange stiffeners are varied from 0 mm to 15 mm;
case 2 and case 3, it can be seen from the Table that the widths of the flange stiffeners are varied from 5 mm
both case 2 and case 3 give reasonable results. How- to 15 mm; the inclinations of the flange stiffeners are
ever, the case 2 provides the least weight comparing to varied from 45° to 90° and the length of the web stiffen-
case 3. As far as case 3 is concerned, it is only neces- ers are varied from 0 mm to 30 mm.
sary to calculate the order of the average weight and the The optimum dimensions for the above-mentioned
order of the average constraint. Thus, the calculation three cases are shown in Figs 12, 13, 14, respectively.
speed is improved when more design variables are in- Similarly, these figures also show the other possible pro-
volved. The analysis in this paper is based on case 2. files with different numbers of folds. The corresponding
The final optimum dimensions for the profile with- constraints for these three cases are shown in Table 4.
out any stiffeners in 20 runs are shown in Fig 11. In the
figure, “n4-W1337” represents that the number of the (mm)
160 n4-W1125 n5-W1104
fold is 4 and the minimum weight is 13,37 kg/m2. The n6-W1136
weight of the best profile is 12,77 kg/m2 and the number 140
of fold is 6. The constraints for the optimum profiles are 120
shown in Table 4. 100
80
(mm) 60
160 n4-W1337 n5-W 1318 40
140 n6-W1277 n7-W 1564 20
(mm)
120 0
100 0 50 100 150 200
80
60 Fig 12. Optimum dimensions of profiles with flange
stiffeners
40
20
(mm)
0
(mm)
0 50 100 150 160 n4-W1130 n5-W 1081
n6-W1166 n7-W 1188
140
Fig 11. Optimum dimensions of the profile without stiff- 120
eners 100
80
The results in 20 runs can be classified into several 60
groups according to the numbers of folds. The profiles 40
illustrated in Fig 11 are selected as the one with least 20 (mm)
weight in each group. By doing so, it is possible to pro- 0
vide more options for the manufacturers or designers 0 50 100 150 200
when the manufacture facilities and practical application
Fig 13. Optimum dimensions of profiles with web
is taken into account. For instance, roof sheeting can be
stiffeners
classified as “cold” roof, which has outer waterproof skin
with internal insulation if required, and “warm” roof,
which includes insulation and waterproofing. For “warm” When comparing the optimum profiles shown in
roof, the main requirement of preventing penetration by Fig 11 to those in Fig 12, it can be seen that the profile
rainwater leads to shallow profiles with a sequence of with stiffeners both on the flanges and on the webs has
wide and narrow corrugations. For “warm” roof, it nor- the minimum weight. However, the other cases provided
mally has the wider flanges on the top so as to provide here can give the alternatives when the cost, techniques
sufficient support for the insulation. of manufacturing, and the practical applications of the
profiles are taken into account.

36
W. Lu, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 31–37 37

Table 4. Values of constraints as percentage of the limits for the optimum profile for various cases
Cases G1 G2 SM1 SM2 SF3 SF4 SMF5 SV6 SMV7 Ls [mm]
NoS 28,3 18,9 63,7 90,6 21,7 33,2 99,1 18,5 85,6 1500,5
FS 42,6 21,8 72,8 65,8 38,6 59,2 100,0 48,4 66,8 1501,3
WS 37,4 13,1 68,7 79,5 28,1 43,1 98,0 21,0 67,5 1500,0
NL 38,9 21,1 62,5 69,8 35,6 54,5 99,4 32,0 58,9 1500,0

(mm) The results of the numerical examples indicate that of

160 n4-W0972 n5-W1032 four types of profiles studied, the profile with stiffeners
140 both on the flanges and on the webs has the minimum
120 weight. However, the other cases provided here can give
100 the alternatives when the cost, techniques of manufac-
turing, and the practical applications of the profiles are
80
taken into account. Besides, in order to provide the stan-
60
dard optimum dimensions under certain loads and for
40
various span lengths for the practical applications, a large
20
(mm) amount of calculations are required
0
0 50 100 150 200
References
Fig 14. Optimum dimensions of the profiles with no
1. Adeli, H. and Cheng, N. T. Integrated genetic algorithm
limitations
for optimization of space structures. Journal of Aerospace
Engineering, 1993, Vol 6, No 4, p. 315–328.
4.2. Comparison 2. Bazaraa, M. S.; Sherali, H. D. and Shetty, C. M. Nonlin-
ear programming: theory and algorithms. John Wiley &
Fig 15 shows the comparison of the weight of opti- Sons, Inc., 1993, p. 360–372.
mized profiles for the case without any limitation for
3. Cogan, B. The evolution of genetic algorithms. Scientific
web and flange stiffeners to some commercial profiles. Computing World, 2001, May/June, p. 28–31.
It also shows the ratio of calculated strip width using
4. ENV 1991-1 Eurocode 1: Basis of design and actions on
current dimensions to the provided strip width (1500 mm
structures, Part 1: Basis of design, 1994, p. 45–53.
here). It can be seen that optimized profile using GA
5. ENV 1993 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures, Part
shows the lighter weight and more efficient use of mate-
1.3: General rules. Supplementary rules for cold-formed
rials. thin gauge members and sheeting, 1996.
6. Koumousis, V. K. and Georgion, P. G. Genetic algorithms
0,82 0,83 0,68 1 in discrete optimization of steel truss roofs. Journal of
Computing in Civil Engineering, 1994, Vol 8, p. 309–325.
7. Lee, C. L; Mioduchowski, A. and Faulkner, M. G. Opti-
mization of corrugated claddings. Journal of Structural En-
gineering, 1995, Vol 121, No 8, p. 1190–1196.
8. Lu, W. Optimum design of cold-formed steel purlins us-
ing genetic algorithms, Publications, TKK-TER-25, Labo-
ratory of steel structures, Helsinki University of Technol-
ogy, 2003, p. 59–79.
9. Michalewicz, Z. Genetic Algorithms + Data Structures =
Evolution Programs, Third, revised and Extended Edition,
Springer, 1999, p. 57–93.
10. Mitchell, M. An introduction to genetic algorithms. Cam-
Comercial profiles Opt. profile (NL) bridge (MA) MIT Press, 1998, p. 1–31.
11. Nagy, Z. V. Evolution of optimum trapezoidal sheeting
Fig 15. Comparisons with commercial profiles profile based on Eurocode, using finite strip method and
genetic algorithm. Proceedings of the third international
conference on coupled instabilities in metal structures,
5. Summary and future perspectives Lisbon, Portgual, 21–23 Sept, 2000, p. 643–650.
As demonstrated in this paper, the Genetic Algo- 12. Seaburg, P. A. and Salmon, C. G. Minimum weight design
rithm (GA) can be used as an optimization tool to ob- of light gage steel members. Journal of Structural Divi-
sion, 1971, Vol 97, No ST1, p. 203–222.
tain the optimum dimensions of the profiled sheeting.

37
 39

ISSN 1392–3730
JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT
http:/www.vtu.lt/english/editions

2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 39–43

DEKORATYVINIO TANKAUS SILIKATINIO BETONO MIÐINIO SANDØ SAVYBIØ

ÁTAKA DIRBINIØ KOKYBEI

Algimantas Naujokaitis
Statybiniø medþiagø katedra, Vilniaus Gedimino technikos universitetas, Saulëtekio al. 11,
LT-10223 Vilnius-40, Lietuva. El. paðtas: naujok@st.vtu.lt
Áteikta 2003 08 28; priimta 2004 04 21

Santrauka. Iðnagrinëta dekoratyvinio tankaus silikatinio betono miðinio savybiø priklausomybë nuo miðinio sandø.
Darbo tikslas buvo parodyti, kokios sandø savybës turi átakos tiksliø matmenø silikatiniø dekoratyviniø betonø savybëms.
Nustatyta, jog miðinio sutankinimo vienodumui, suformuoto dirbinio matmenø tikslumui didþiausios átakos turi miðinio
granuliometrinë sudëtis. Darbas atliktas naudojant naujo preso kompiuteryje tikslingai sukauptus duomenimis. Tyrimams
gamybinëmis sàlygomis buvo naudoti praktiðkai neuþterðti priemaiðomis, vidutinio smulkumo ir smulkieji Giraitës telkinio
kvarciniai smëliai. Parengta nauja miðiniø su daþomaisiais pigmentais sudëèiø parinkimo metodika, ávertinanti riðiklio su
pigmentu savybes. Tyrimo duomenys naudojami tiksliø matmenø dekoratyviniø dirbiniø gamyboje.
Raktaþodþiai: sandai, silikatinis betonas, betono sudëtis, smëlis, grûdinë sudëtis, pigmentai, smëlio smulkumas, tiksliø
matmenø dirbiniai, sutankinimo koeficientas.

1. Ávadas
Gaminant dekoratyviná silikatiná betonà visi jo san-
dai dalyvauja cheminëse reakcijose ir turi átakos visoms
produkto savybëms. Pasikeitus vienam ið sandø, pasikei-
èia ir pagamintos medþiagos mechaninës bei fizikinës sa-
vybës. Tai privalu ávertinti, parenkant silikatinës masës
sandø sudëtá, ypaè daþomojo pigmento rûðá ir kieká. Ðie
klausimai buvo sprendþiami empiriðkai, analizuojant at-
skirus sandus dalimis, o vëliau sujungiant juos á sistemà.
Akivaizdu, kad vienodomis gamybos sàlygomis, kai
sandø savybës yra panaðios, silikatinio betono kokybi-
niai rodikliai pirmiausia priklauso nuo silikatinës cemen-
tuojanèios medþiagos sudëties. Autorius daro prielaidà,
kad dekoratyvinis silikatinis betonas bûna geriausios ko-
kybës, kai sunaudojamas minimalus kalcitiniø kalkiø kie-
kis, galintis, naudojant daþomuosius pigmentus, susijungti
su kvarciniu smëliu. Idealiu atveju susidariusios cemen-
tuojanèios medþiagos kiekis priklausys nuo trijø veiks-
niø: naujadarø sluoksnio storio, kvarcinio smëlio lygina-
mojo pavirðiaus ir pigmento dispersiðkumo. Ávertinus tai
parenkami smëlio, kalkiø ir pigmento kiekiai. Reikia áver-
tinti ir norimo suformuoti pusfabrikaèio stiprá, kuris pri-
klauso nuo lyginamojo slëgio á formavimo masæ, slëgi-
mo trukmës, riðiklio ir kvarcinio smëlio granuliometrinës
sudëties, koloidiniø daleliø kiekio, drëgmës kiekio ma-
sëje. Apskaièiuojami miðinio sandø kiekiai ir gaminamas
miðinys. Smëlio, kurio grûdeliai yra aðtriabriauniai, su
nelygiu pavirðiumi, frakcijø sankiba yra didesnë, nei ap-
valios formos grûdeliø. Pusfabrikaèio stipris priklauso nuo
slëgio vandens mikrokapiliaruose, kuriuos sudaro disper-
sinës dalelës, susikaupusios tarp ávairaus dydþio smëlio
daleliø. Stiprio didinimas galimas didinant mikrokapilia-
rø kieká miðinio struktûroje. Tai pasiekiama, parenkant
smëlio grûdinæ sudëtá, didinant dispersiniø ir riðamosios
medþiagos daleliø kieká.
Pusfabrikaèio stipris dar priklauso nuo tarpmoleku-
liniø traukos jëgø, atsirandanèiø ávairaus dydþio daleliø
susilietimo vietose, kai atstumas tarp daleliø maþesnis uþ
jø skersmená [1]. Labai keièiasi kalkiniø daleliø dydis ir
kiekis masëje. Be to, á spalvotus dirbinius pridedama
smulkiadispersinio pigmento, kuris chemiðkai veikia mi-
ðiná. Kaip teigiama [2], daleliø lyginamasis pavirðius yra
18 900 – 34 600 cm2/g. Kalkiø daleliø skersmuo:
d = 6 · 103 / (ρ Sp), mkm, (1)
ρ – Ca(OH)2 tankis; Sp – lyginamasis pavirðius, cm2/g.
Dalelës skersmuo gali bûti nuo 1,5 mkm iki
210 mkm. Taigi gali susidaryti pakankamai daug kontak-
tø [2, 3]. Negalima pamirðti, kad dalelës linkusios koa-
guliuoti. Gesintøjø kalkiø masëje yra rezervø riðamajai
medþiagai atsirasti [4].
Smëlio grûdeliai daþnai yra aðtriabriauniai, tokie yra
ir nagrinëjamos technologijos atveju. Aðtrûs kampai pa-
didina pusfabrikaèio stiprá, taèiau priklauso nuo disper-
siðkumo ir elektrostatinës sankibos [4].
Diskutuojama dël tankiø plonø vandens plëveliø, pre-
suojant suriðanèiø dispersines daleles [5, 6]. Taèiau tokios

39
 40 A. Naujokaitis / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 39–43
plëvelës daþniausiai yra tik intarpai tarp daleliø. Iðskirtinæ
vietà, kaip manoma, turi koloidinës medþiagos, kuriø
dalelës gali sudaryti tiltelius, jungianèius stambesnes
daleles, esanèias didesniu atstumu nei molekuliniø jëgø
veikimo laukas [7].
Sutankintas pusfabrikatis sudaro pakankamai akytà
medþiagà, kurioje yra daug mikro- ir makrokapiliarø, ne-
visiðkai uþpildytø vandeniu. Susidaræ tarp daleliø van-
dens meniskai, turintys pakankamai laisvosios energijos,
sukelia átempimus, taèiau kartu stiprina pusfabrikatá [7, 8].
Maþesnis pigmentø priedas turi teigiamos átakos kal-
cio hidrosilikatø susidarymui, pagerëja gaminiø stipru-
mas ir jø eksploatacinës savybës [9]. Nustatyta, kad pig-
mentø daþomàjà gebà lemia jø smulkumas ir juose
esanèios daþomosios medþiagos kiekis. Esant didesnëms
ðiø rodikliø reikðmëms intensyvesnë ir pigmentø daþomoji
geba [10]. Paþymëtina iðskirtinë suodþiø átaka silikatinio
akmens savybëms, ypaè vandens ágeriamumui. Ðie pig-
mentai yra hidrofobiðki, yra didelis lyginamasis pavir-
ðius, taèiau vandens ágeriamumas taip pat didelis. Mano-
ma, kad prie pigmento daleliø susidaro mikroporos dël
didelio hidrofobiðko pavirðiaus blogo sàlyèio su silikati-
nio akmens hidrosilikatais [11].
Iðanalizavus minëtas teorijas, reikia pabrëþti, jog
spalvotas silikatinis miðinys, ið kurio formuojami gami-
niai, yra sudarytas ið gamtinio grûdinio smëlio, disper-
siðkos riðamosios medþiagos, taip pat ir gesintøjø kalkiø
bei pigmentø, susidedanèiø ið gausybës smulkiø daleliø,
o smëlyje yra labai maþø kvarco grûdeliø bei molio mi-
neralø. Miðinyje yra ir vandens bei oro burbulëliø, kuriø
nepakanka uþpildyti formavimo metu susidariusioms tuð-
tumoms. Sutankinant silikatiná miðiná veikia ávairios jë-
gos, didinanèios jo stiprá: tai mechaninis grûdeliø sulipi-
mas, molekuliniai sukibimo ryðiai vandens plëveliø
kapiliaruose ir tarpkoloidiniø daleliø sàveika. Ypaè di-
delæ reikðmæ turi vanduo, sujungdamas koloidines maþà-
sias daleles su stambesniais smëlio grûdeliais. Sukibimo
0 Cheminë jo sudëtis: SiO 2 82,6–91,48 %, Al 2O3 3,2–
10
Pilnutinës liekanos ant sietø, %
B
20
A
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 0,075 0,125 0,25 0,5 1 2
Sietø akuèiø dydis, mm
1 pav. Smëlio grûdinë sudëtis: A – Giraitës telkinio smëlis;
B – sijotas, geros grûdinës sudëties smëlis
Fig 1. Sieve graphical analysis of sand: A – sand from
the Giraitës deposit; B – sand riddle, granular structure of
high quality
jëgø dydis priklauso nuo sandø savybiø: smëlio granu-
liometrinës sudëties, grûdeliø formos ir dydþio, sumalto
smëlio kiekio, kalkiø dispersiðkumo ir hidratacijos laips-
nio, priemaiðø sudëties ir kiekio, pigmentø kiekio ir sa-
vybiø, vandens kiekio. Technologiniai preso ypatumai irgi
svarbûs geram pusgaminio sutankinimui, nes privalu kuo
geriau uþpildyti laisvà tûrá tarp smëlio grûdeliø, kad juos
vienas nuo kito skirtø ploniausi riðamosios medþiagos
sluoksniai. Toks sutankinimas leidþia gauti tankø ir stip-
rø silikatiná betonà.
Darbo tikslas – iðtirti atskirø sandø átakà tiksliø mat-
menø dekoratyviniø silikatiniø betonø ir plytø gamybai.
Atsiradus ðalyje naujai technologinei árangai, yra gali-
mybë gaminti didesnio santykinio tankio tiksliø matme-
nø ávairios formos ir dydþio gaminius. Iki ðiol naudoja-
mais technologiniais árenginiais negalima buvo tiksliau
reguliuoti dirbiniø matmenø. Suformuoti pusfabrikaèiai
deformuojasi dël ávairiø veiksniø, taèiau gaminant tiks-
liø matmenø dirbinius bûtina pagaminti kiek ámanoma
stipresná pusgaminá, maþiausiai paþeidþiamà kitose tech-
nologinëse operacijose. Naujai iki ðiol ðalyje nenaudotai
technologinei presavimo árangai, kai naudojami vietiniai
sandai, technologiniø tyrimø nëra atlikta. Reikëjo iðnag-
rinëti ðiuos technologinius parametrus: formavimo miði-
nio sudëties átakà; dvipusá slëgimà á pusgaminá; smulkio-
sios sandø dalies kieká formavimo masëje, miðinio
lyginamojo pavirðiaus átakà, vandens kieká. Pagrindinis
tyrimo tikslas – parinkti miðiná, norint gauti kokybiðkus
dirbinius.
2. Tyrimø metodika
Tyrimams buvo naudotas dvipusio slëgio hidraulinis
automatiðkai valdomas KSP 402 presas, kurio valdymo
sistema leidþia fiksuoti atskirø operacijø atlikimà ir
technologinius parametrus, áraðant juos á valdymo
sistemos atmintá.
Naudotas kvarcinis smëlis ið Giraitës telkinio.
4,19 %, CaO 2,8–4,5 %. Grûdinë sudëtis pateikiama
1 pav. Sijojimas atliekamas pagal standarto EN 1015-1
reikalavimus. Dalis smëlio buvo ápilta malant kalkes, já
vadinsime maltu smëliu. Smëlio smulkumas buvo nustato-
mas AT-5 prietaisu. Kalcitinës negesintosios antros rûðies
kalkës – „Naujojo kalcito“ gamybos, jø aktyvumas 65–
85 %, MgO – 1,2–1,5 %. Jø savybës tirtos pagal GOST
9179 metodikà. Spalvà suteikiantis pigmentas – Bayer
firmos – 920, tankis 4,1 g/cm3, Fe2O3 yra 85–87 %.
4 Silikatinio betono miðiniai buvo ruoðiami naudojant
sausas medþiagas, dozuojami pagal masæ. Bandiniai
formuoti natûralaus dydþio (25×12×8,8 cm). Miðinio
sudëties, slëgio dydþiui presavimo formoje, dirbinio
sutankinimui, granuliometrinës sudëties ir drëgnio átakai
nustatyti bandiniai nebuvo kietinami. Tyrimai atlikti
suformavus bandinius. Dalis jø buvo kietinami ir
nustatomas galutinis gniuþdomasis bei lenkiamasis jø
stipris, tankis ir vandens ágëris.
40
A. Naujokaitis / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 39–43 41

3. Tyrimø rezultatai
0,008

Aktyvaus CaO kiekis (q), kg

Pagrindiniai dekoratyviniø silikatiniø dirbiniø tiks- 0,007
0,006 q = f.S
lumo technologiniai parametrai yra presavimo bûdas, pre- 0,005
savimo slëgio dydis ir formavimo miðinio sudëtis. Presa- 0,004
0,003
vimo slëgio dydá tiriamoje technologijoje galima keisti 0,002
nepriklausomai nuo kitø technologiniø parametrø: forma- 0,001
0
vimo miðinio suslegiamumo, demferuojanèio veiksnio, mi-
ðinio sudëties. Miðinio granuliometrinë sudëtis buvo

20

0
0
0
0
0
10
20
20
35
45
pasirinkta gera ir natûrali karjerinë. Ji yra svarbi dirbi-
2
nio suformavimui, deformavimuisi nuo fizikiniø ir kitø Smëlinio komponento lyginamasis pavirðius, m /kg
veiksniø, todël buvo sudaryta naujos sudëties jo parinki-
mo principinë metodika. Siûlomas miðinio sudëties pa- 2 pav. Minimalus aktyvaus CaO kiekis miðinyje priklauso-
rinkimo metodas. Riðiklio kiekis P3 apskaièiuojamas taip: mai nuo smëlio smulkumo

P3= q1 S1 P4 / A + q2 S2 P1 / A, (2) Fig 2. Minimal amount of CaO in the mix depending on
fine grained sand
P = P1+ P2+ P5, (3)
P2 = P3+ P4, (4)
Smëlio tuðtymëtumas ir lyginamasis pavirðius
P5 = [K11 (P1S1 + P4S2)+ K21 (P3 A S3)] / K5S4; (5)
Sand voids and specific surface
èia
P – 1 m3 sutankinto sauso formavimo miðinio masë, kg; Grûdeliø Smëlio Vidutinis Lyginamasis
P1  – smëlio masë 1 m3 sutankintame sausame forma- skersmuo, tuðtymëtu- grûdeliø pavirðius,
vimo miðinyje, kg; mm mas, % skersmuo, m2/kg
P2  – riðiklio masë 1 m3 sutankintame sausame forma- mm
vimo miðinyje, kg;
2,0–1,0 35,7 1,4 4,65
P3  – kalkiø masë 1 m3 sutankintame sausame formavimo
miðinyje, kg; 1,0–0,5 38,7 0,82 7,95
P4  – malto smëlio masë 1 m3 sutankintame sausame
formavimo miðinyje, kg; 0,5–0,25 39,5 0,15 10,75
P5  – pigmentø masë 1 m 3 sutankintame sausame 0,25–0,125 40,6 0,26 27,6
formavimo miðinyje, kg; 0,125–0,075 45,5 0,11 154,6
q1  – optimali CaO masë, sunaudojama 1 m2 maltam
smëliui padengti, kg; 0,075–0,038 49,5 0,04 223,0
q2  – optimali CaO masë, sunaudojama 1 m2 nemaltam
smëliui padengti, kg;
Sudarant silikatinæ masæ kalkës sveriamos ne pagal
S1  – malto smëlio lyginamasis pavirðius, m2/kg;
bendrà masæ, o pagal aktyviosios dalies masæ, kuri
S2  – nemalto smëlio lyginamasis pavirðius, m2/kg;
dalyvaus cheminëje reakcijoje. Be to, ávertinama
S3  – kalkiø lyginamasis pavirðius, m2/kg;
kvarcinio (malto ir nemalto) smëlio ir pigmento savybës.
S4  – pigmentø lyginamasis pavirðius, m2/kg;
Esant tam paèiam kalkiø aktyvumui, pagal siûlomà
A  – kalkiø aktyvumas, vieneto dalimis;
sudëties parinkimo metodikà faktinis kalkiø kiekis
K11  – koeficientas, ávertinantis nemalto smëlio daleliø
priklauso nuo jø kokybës. Naudojant ðvieþiai iðdegtas
pavirðiø;
didelio aktyvumo kalkes su minimaliu priemaiðø kiekiu,
K21  – koeficientas, ávertinantis malto smëlio daleliø
jø masë sumaþëja. Jei kalkës turi daug neiðdegusio
pavirðiø;
kalkakmenio ir priemaiðø ir buvo ilgai laikytos ore, jø
K5  –  koeficientas, ávertinantis pigmentø savybes;
masë padidëja. Pakeitus nenutrûkstamai veikianèius
q – reikðmës, nustatomos pagal 2 pav. reikðmes.
dozatorius á periodinio-porcijinio svërimo dozatorius,
buvo galima gerokai tiksliau pasverti kalkes ir silikatinæ
1, 2 pav. ir lentelëje pateikiami duomenys silikati-
riðamàjà medþiagà. Sumaþëjo kalkiø sànaudos 1000 vnt.
nio betono sudëèiai parinkti pagal kalkiø aktyviosios da-
spalvotøjø plytø reikiamai stiprumo markei gauti. Realiai
lies masæ ir smëlinës dalies dispersiðkumà. Kiti duome-
tai pasiekiama tik naudojant elektroniná svërimo valdiklá.
nys apie sandus imami pagal savybiø tyrimo reikðmes.
Slegiant tik preso puasonu ið vienos pusës, slëgis
Pigmentø savybiø koeficientø (K11, K21) reikðmës áverti-
silikatinës masës pripildytoje presformoje pasiskirsto
namos pagal gamintojo deklaracijas.
netolygiai [12]. Miðinys susitankina prie formos sieneliø,
o vidinëje dalyje ir prieðingoje puasono pusëje masë
susitankina maþiausiai.

41
42 A. Naujokaitis / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 39–43

Slegiant ið abiejø dirbinio pusiø dviem slëgimo dydá
reguliuojanèiais puasonais, dirbinio tankis skerspjûvyje
suvienodëja (2 pav).
3 paveiksle pateiktas slëgio dydþio pasiskirstymas
sutankintame silikatiniame betone. Hidraulinis presas
slegia pradþioje apatinæ masës dalá, o po 0,5 s ásijungia
ir virðutinis puasonas. 3 pav. a) pateikta geresnë smëlio
Miðinio aktyvumo didinimas ekonomiðkai yra
nenaudingas, nes sunaudojami dideli riðamosios medþia-
gos kiekiai ir pablogëja galutinio produkto atsparumas
atmosferiniams veiksniams. Todël praktiðkai pakanka 5,3–
6,2 % miðinio aktyvumo.

Pusfabrikaèio stipris, MPa

grûdinë sudëtis, todël gaunamas tankiausias daleliø 0,35
iðsidëstymas, o pusfabrikaèio stipris bûna vienodesnis 0,3
2
negu 3 pav. b), kur smëlio grûdinë sudëtis artima 0,25 1
natûraliai. Miðinio struktûrà sudaro visi sandai, ji 0,2
priklauso nuo ðiø sandø iðsidëstymo ir uþimamo tûrio. 0,15
Svarbiausi elementø parametrai yra tûris ir stambiøjø 0,1
daleliø vidutinis skersmuo, turintis átakos riðamosios 0 5 10 15 20 25
medþiagos kiekiui. Vienodø stambiøjø daleliø didesnis Miðinio aktyvumas, %
kiekis didina sistemos tuðtymëtumà, o ðioms tuðtymëms
uþpildyti sunaudojama daugiau riðamosios medþiagos.
4 pav. Miðinio sudëties átaka pusfabrikaèio stipriui: 1 –
apskaièiuotos pagal (3) ir (4) formules; 2 – apskaièiuota
a) b)
pagal nepakeistà silikatinës masës paruoðimo schemà
0,265 0,266 0,245 0,244 Fig 4. Influence of mix composition on the strength of
0,268 0,265 h = 88 mm 0,266 0,252 half-finished product: 1 – composition according to for-
mulae 3 and 4; 2 – composition under the application of
0,273 0,271 0,279 0,271 non-modified silica paste preparation scheme

a= 250 mm a = 250 mm Silikatinio dekoratyvinio miðinio sutankinimas tiesio-

giai priklauso nuo smëlio grûdinës sudëties (5 pav).
3 pav. Silikatinio (nesukietinto) betono stipris gniuþdant,
MPa (slëgis formoje 18,6 MPa): a) – geros grûdinës
sudëties smëlis; b) – smëlio grûdinë sudëtis nëra pakankamai 2,3
gera (Giraitës telkinio smëlis sijotas per 20 mm akutës sietà)
Sutankinimo koeficientas

2,1
Fig 3. Silicate concrete compressive strength: a – good 1
granular structure sand; b – sand granular structure is not 1,9
good enough (Giraitës bed sand sifted through the 20 mm 2
stitch bolter) 1,7
3
1,5
Tuðtymëtumui sumaþinti reikia smulkesniø disper-
siniø daleliø. Koloidinës dalelës, maþesnës kaip 0,1 mkm, 1,3
yra labai svarbios [12]. Padidëja kontaktø tarp stambiø
0,5 1.0 1,5 2 2,5
daleliø kiekis. Pigmentai dekoratyviniame silikatiniame
Smëlio stambio modulis, Ms
miðinyje atlieka klijuojanèios medþiagos vaidmená ir
padidina pusfabrikaèio stiprá. Buvo naudotas ávairios
sudëties kalkiø ir smëlio miðinys. Ruoðiant toká miðiná 5 pav. Smëlio grûdinës sudëties átaka silikatinës masës su
imamas vienodas pigmento kiekis ir keièiamas tik kalkiø pigmentu sutankinimui. Aktyvumas: 1 % – 7,40 %; 2 % –
kieká permalant miðiná. Ruoðiamas miðinys, kurio  5,30 %; 3 % – 2,50 %
aktyvumas – nuo 5 % iki 18 %. Dispersiðkumas apytikriai Fig 5. Influence of grain composition of sand on the com-
vienodas. Maiðyta permalimo ir trynimo bûdu, o paction of silica paste with pigment. Activity: 1 % –
antrajame variante pasverti komponentai sumaiðyti  7,40 %; 2 % – 5,30 %; 3 % – 2,50 %
priverstiniame maiðytuve. 4 pav. matyti, jog sandø sudëtis
pusfabrikaèio stipriui nëra labai svarbu, bet sumaiðymo Kuo daugiau miðinyje yra ávairiø frakcijos daleliø,
bûdas yra reikðmingas. Sveriant sandus automatiðkai tuo lengviau jis sutankinamas, tuo didesnis gaunamas
reguliuojamomis svarstyklëmis, gaunami pakankamai pusfabrikaèio stipris. Kalkiø ir pigmento smulkiadisper-
tikslûs jø kiekiai, todël praktikoje pasirenkami priverstinio sës dalelës kartu su vandeniu uþpildo poras tarp
tipo maiðytuvai, uþtikrinantys vienodà sandø pasiskirs- stambesniø grûdeliø, padidëja kontaktø kiekis tarp miðinio
tymà miðinyje. Miðinio daliø permalimas gamybos daleliø, susidaro mikrokapiliarai, iðnaudojamos vandens
sàlygomis yra sudëtingas, tam reikia dideliø energijos fizikinës savybës didesniam pusfabrikaèio gniuþdomajam
sànaudø. stipriui gauti. Silikatinës masës formavimo drëgnis turi

42
A. Naujokaitis / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 39–43
bûti proporcingas ðio miðinio lyginamajam pavirðiui. Jis
nustatomas ne pagal smëlio frakcijos kieká, o pagal smul-
kiøjø daleliø masæ ir jø bendràjá lyginamàjá pavirðiø
(5 pav).
Miðinio drëgná charakterizuoja maksimalus jo
drëgnio imlumas. Matome, kad kreivës 1, 2 ir 3 yra
vienodo pobûdþio, didëjant miðinio drëgniui pusfabrikaèio
stipris taip pat didëja. Reguliuojamas masës presavimo
bûdas leidþia pasiekti pakankamà pusfabrikaèio mechaniná
gniuþdomàjá stiprá, esant 4,5–5,3 % formavimo masës
drëgniui. Visais atvejais pusgaminio stiprio pagrindas yra
dispersinës dalies kiekis, kurio suriðimo procese dalyvauja
vanduo, esantis mikrokapiliaruose. Sutankintas miðinys
su daþomaisiais pigmentais yra stipresnis.
4. Iðvados
1. Bûtina suderinti dekoratyvinio tankaus silikatinio
betono sudëtiniø daliø savybes, norint pagaminti geros
kokybës dirbinius.
2. Parenkant miðinio sudëtá, riðamosios medþiagos
ir kalkiø kiekis apskaièiuojamas ne pagal bendrà kalkiø
masæ, o tik pagal aktyviosios dalies masæ, susiejant jà su
kitø miðinio sandø savybëmis.
3. Optimalus pigmentø kiekis, su riðamàja medþiaga
maiðant mineraliná pigmentà, kuris suteikia pageidaujamo
intensyvumo spalvà, parenkamas pagal kalkiø ir kitø
dispersiniø daleliø kieká. Tai sudaro galimybæ taupyti
pigmentus (jø sunaudojama perpus arba net kelis kartus
maþiau), pagerinti dirbiniø kokybæ. Pusfabrikaèio stiprio
vienodumas dirbinio tûryje gaunamas slegiant paruoðtà
silikatinæ masæ vienodu slëgiu pagrindinëms plokðtumoms
prieðingomis kryptimis.
4. Silikatinio betono pusfabrikaèio matmenø tikslu-
mui ir stipriui didþiausios átakos turi du pagrindiniai
veiksniai: silikatinës masës suspaudimo bûdas ir dispersið-
kosios dalies kiekis.
5. Gaminant didelio matmenø tikslumo spalvotus
silikatinius dirbinius rekomenduojama naudoti minimalaus
tuðtymëtumo aðtriabriaunius smëlius, jø kiekius apskai-
èiuojant pagal siûlomà metodikà, tankinant dvipusio
slëgio presuose.
43
43
Literatûra
1. Pohl, G. Lime burning and quality (Kalk brenen und
Kalkqualitat). TJZ, 1993. No 9/10. 63 p. (in German).
2. Durable concrete structures. Concrete Report, No 5, (S).
Swedish Concrete Association, 1999. 56 p.
3. Dvorkin, L. I. Projecting of concrete composition with
given characteristics (Ïðîåêòèðîâàíèå ñîñòàâà áåòîíà ñ
çàäàííûìè ñâîéñòâàìè). Rovno: PDTU, 1999, p. 121–
125 (in Russian).
4. Chavkin, L. M. Production of silicate concrete with given
characteristics of cementing substance. In: VNII Strom,
No 66 (46). Ìoscow: VNIIStrom, 1998. 42 p. (in Rus-
sian).
5. Walker, S.; Bloem, D. I. Effects of aggregate size on prop-
erties of concrete. Journal of American Concrete Institute,
Vol 57, No 3, 1992, p. 215–221.
6. Hiese, W.  Collection of works (Baustoffkentnis Düsseldorf),
1995, p. 452–462 (in German).
7. Chavkin, L. M. Colouring of silica bricks. Building mate-
rials (Ñòðîèòåëüíûå ìàòåðèàëû), No 7. Moscow, 1998,
p. 15–17 (in Russian).
8. Weiss, R. Burnt lime production and characteristics
(Physikalisch-chemische Untersuchung über den Zustand
des Brannkalkes). Zement-Kalk-Gips, No 10, 1999. 86 p.
(in German).
9. Karsten, R. Constructional chemistry 9 (Bauchemie 9). Aufl.,
Verlag C. F. Müller. Karlsruhe, 1999. 16 p. (in German).
10. Rade, D. Research of inorganic pigments and their use for
the production of coloured silica articles (Einige
Untersuchungen über dieVerwendung von Anorganischen
Baupigmenten zur Herschtellung von Farbkalksandstein).
II JSD KB, Hannower, 1975. 62 p. (in German).
11. Hanssen, V. Inorganic pigments for the production of silica
bricks, Areas of application (Anorganische Bayer-Pigmente
zur Einfarbung on Kalksandsteinen). Sparte AC Anw-
endungstechnik 10/96. Leverkusen P, Bayer AG, 1999. 27 p.
(in German).
12. Larrend, F. The Influence of aggregate on the compressive
strength of normal and high-strength concrete. ACI Materi-
als Journal, Vol 94, No 5, 1997, p. 417–426.
 45

ISSN 1392–3730
JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT
http:/www.vtu.lt/english/editions

2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 45–50

THE APPLICATION OF THE MODERN METHOD OF EMBANKMENT

COMPACTION CONTROL

Maria Jolanta Sulewska

Biaùystok Technical University, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Environmental Engineering, 15-351 Biaùystok,
45E Wiejska Str., Poland. E-mail: sulewska@pb.bialystok.pl
Received 3 Sept 2003; accepted 17 May 2004

Abstract. Light drop-weight tester is a device for field tests and it is used for quick control of bearing capacity and
compaction quality of built-in soils in different types of embankments. It is a modern device which is commonly used
in Germany and now in Poland. The examples of calibration of the light drop-weight tester in laboratory and in-situ,
and its application in real embankment are presented.
Keywords: embankments, compaction control, light drop-weight tester, dynamic modulus of soil deformation.

1. Introduction
index Io= E2/E1 (where E1 and E2 – primary and second-
Increase of demands concerning the quality of dif- ary moduli of soil deformation tested with VSS plate) or
ferent types of earth structures has been observed re- secondary modulus of deformation E2 [8].
cently. Special stress is also put on the short duration of
construction. That is why the interest in quick methods
of control of ground compaction has increased recently.
Application of quick and not complicated method of cur-
rent control is especially important. Falling-weight
deflectometers FWD of different structure and param-
eters are used in many countries for control tests of
achieved compaction of subsoil and made ground [1– 4].
Falling-weight deflectometers mounted on automo-
tive vehicles has been introduced recently in highway
engineering. They are used for measurement of bearing
capacity of road surface based on deflection bowl [3].
Force impulse in the range of 7 kN to 250 kN is trans-
mitted on the surface of tested medium through thrust
plate of radius 300 mm. A scheme of measurement of
deflection bowl on road surface using FWD is presented
in Fig 1.
On the theoretical basis of considered problem [5,
6] it is assumed that loading of soil with the lightweight
Fig 1. Scheme of measurement of bowl of deflections on
dynamic deflectometer can be treated as a problem of
road surface using FWD [3]
short duration quasi-statical pressure of the plate on the
elastic half-space.
This paper describes a light drop-weight tester used These types of tests are labour-consuming and long-
in Germany [4, 7] and Czech Republic [2]. There are lasting and they cannot be conducted in all field condi-
also companies in Poland which apply this device. tions.
The measure of quality of controlled compaction of Light drop-weight tester has many advantages com-
soil built in embankments is the value of soil degree of paring with traditional control tests. These are:
compaction Is= ρd/ρds (where ρd – dry density of solid • elimination of heavy equipment, which is used as
particles, ρds – maximum dry density of solid particles counterweight in the method of tentative static loads
tested with Proctor method) or the value of deformation with VSS plate,

45
46 M. J. Sulewska / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 45–50
• possibility to conduct the tests in case of limited
surface and difficult access, eg dykes, backfills of
narrow excavations,
• small dimensions (1,5 m high) and light weight
(20 kg),
• short time for a test (about 3 min) enables to make
many tests and to densify tested points and find
“weak” areas,
• possibility to obtain results immediately shortens the
duration of construction and does not cause shut-
downs during earth works.
The paper presents examples of calibrations of the
light drop-weight tester which were made prior to its
application in compaction control of real embankments.
Correlations between dynamic modulus of soil deforma-
tion ED and other geotechnical parameters (IS, E1, E2),
which are normally tested for evaluation of compaction
quality, were determined on the basis of our own labo-
ratory examinations of medium sand. Dependency
ED = f(IS) was determined basing on examinations of all-
in aggregate on the test field.
2. The description of the test method
2.1. Light drop-weight tester
The light drop-weight tester consists of steel thrust
plate (1) diameter of 300 mm with holders (2) and the
detector for settlement measurement (3). Guide bar (4)
with shock absorber (5) and 10 kg weight (6) hanging in
snap fastener (7) is placed on the thrust plate. Detector
is connected with the electronic settlement meter (8). The
settlement meter shows and registers deflection of sub-
soil under the thrust plate after each of three impacts
and then the average deflection out of the three mea-
surements, the value of dynamic modulus of soil defor-
mation ED and the “time of acceleration” uD/v (where
uD – deflection of soil under the thrust plate, v – the
deflection rate). The diagram of the light drop-weight
tester is presented in Fig 2.
Fig 2. Diagram of light drop-weight tester with electronic
settlement meter
46
The test is based on producing force impulse of short
duration (amplitude 7,07 kN) through the weight impact
dropping along guide bar from the height (h) on the shock
absorber. The impulse is transmitted by the thrust plate
to the surface of tested soil and it causes deformation of
soil under the plate. The value of dynamic modulus of
soil deformation is a result of this test [4]. It is calcu-
lated from the following equation:
rσ D 22.5
E D = 1,5 = , (1)
uD uD
where r – diameter of the thrust plate, r = 300 mm;
σ D – amplitude of dynamic stress under the thrust plate,
σ D = 0,1 MPa; u D – average settlement of the
thrust plate calculated from the results of 3 impacts
made after three initial impacts, mm.
2.2. Application of light drop-weight tester
This tester is used for quick examination of dynamic
modulus of deformation. The modulus is used for evalu-
ation of bearing capacity and indirectly - for control of
compaction quality of subsoil, soil-surfaced roads, lay-
ers of embankments or backfills built from mineral soils,
soils improved with lime or from waste materials. Light
drop-weight tester can be used [4, 7] under the follow-
ing conditions:
• under the measurement range 15 ≤ ED ≤ 80 MPa,
• for mineral coarse-grained soil with content of grains
d ≥ 63 mm not exceeding 15 % (and soil with up to
30 % of crushed stone) and fine-grained non-cohe-
sive and cohesive soil in semisolid or low plastic
state,
• when thickness of tested uniform soil layer is in the
range of 0,3 to 0,5 m [9, 10].
2.3. The way of conducting the test
The thrust plate is set up on the even surface and
additionally it is adjusted by shifting and rotating. The
surface of coarse grain soil can be even up with the layer
of dry fine sand thickness of few millimeters. Then the
guide bar is set up on the thrust plate and the deflection
meter is connected. The weight is lifted to the height (h)
and then dropped on the shock absorber and gripped
when it rebounds. Three initial hits should be made in
order to get a good contact between the plate and soil.
Three test hits are made after turning on the meter.
2.4. Interpretation of test results
Quality control of compaction of soil layers con-
sists in comparison of tested value of degree of compac-
tion Is (or Io or E2) with the minimum required standard
value which for road embankments is Is ≥  0,92÷1,03
(Io = 2,5÷2,2 and E2 ≥ 30÷120 MPa) depending on cat-
egory of traffic and the depth of the tested soil layer [8].
M. J. Sulewska / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 45–50
The above parameters can be determined indirectly
on the base of developed correlation with dynamic de-
formation modulus for the given soil built in embank-
ment.
The general correlations or dependencies determined
for many types of soil or for particular groups of soil
would be the most useful.
3. Example of calibration of light drop-weight tester
The aim of the test was to determine the dependen-
cies between dynamic modulus of deformation ED and
degree of compaction Is or primary E1 and secondary E2
deformation modulus for medium-grained sand, accord-
ing to [10]. The sieve-analysis curve is presented in Fig 3.
Fig 3. Medium sand sieve-analysis curve
The test was performed on laboratory setup on the
model subsoil from medium-grained sand. Soil water con-
tent was in the range of 3,5 to 6,7 %. The investigated
soil layer thickness a1 = 0,3 m or a2 = 0,5 m was placed
on a sublayer thickness 0,3÷0,4 m of Is ≥ 1,0 and it was
evenly compacted with plate compactor.
Degree of compaction was calculated by the equa-
tion
ρd ,
Is = (2)
ρ ds
where ρ d – dry density of solid particles, ρ ds – maxi-
mum dry density of solid particles, tested using method
I (normal Proctor’s method) according to [11].
Dry density of solid particles was calculated by the
equation:
100ρ , (3)
ρd =
100 + w
where ρ – bulk density of soil tested with sand volume-
ter according to [12], w – water content tested by dry-
ing according to [11].
47
47
The tests of dynamic modulus of soil deformation
were conducted using light drop-weight tester type ZFG
01 according to [4].
Primary and secondary moduli of soil deformation
were determined by means of thrust plate with static load
(VSS) according to [8].
The dynamic modulus of deformation was calculated
by equation (1).
The values of primary and secondary moduli of
deformation were calculated by the equation:
∆σ 22,5 ,
E1 or E2 = D = (4)
∆u ∆u
where ∆σ – the range of stress in which modulus E1
and E2 were calculated, ∆u – measured settlement of
the thrust plate for σ 2 and σ1 , mm, correspondingly,
∆u = u2 − u1 , ∆σ = σ 2 − σ1 = 0,125 − 0,050 = 0,075MPa .
A set of variables (Is, ED, E1, E2) was obtained as a
result of examinations of modelled soil. The set consisted
of n = 30 results: n1 = 14 for a1 = 0,3 m and n2 = 16 for
a2 = 0,5 m. Statistical analysis of the set of variables
(Table 1) was made with computer program Statgraphics
[13].
Verification of hypothesis of equal average values
in groups (using the method of variance analysis with
singular classification based on the least significant dif-
ferences) was conducted in order to determine whether
the thickness of tested soil layer influences the value of
dynamic modulus of deformation. The level of signifi-
cance was α = 0,798. This conclusion confirmed also the
test of homogenous groups. In order to justify the con-
clusion by the variance analysis, two assumptions were
checked [13]: normality of characteristic distribution in
groups using Kolmogorov – Smirnov’s test of goodness
of fit and homogeneity of variance in groups using
Chochran’s test and Bartlett’s test.
The above analysis allowed formulating the follow-
ing conclusion: the thickness of soil layer (in the range
0,3 m to 0,5 m) does not influence the value of dynamic
modulus of soil deformation ED.
Then correlations between variables in the set of all
measurements were determined. The best fitted models
of regression between two variables were chosen using
simple regression analysis [13, 14].
Table 2 presents matrix of linear correlation coeffi-
cients for tested variables.
Analysis of correlation matrix shows significant de-
pendencies between dynamic modulus of deformation and
statical moduli of deformation as well as the relation-
ship between degree of compaction.
The dependencies: ED=f(Is) and ED=f(E1), ED=f(E2)
are presented in Figs 4 and 5.
4. Control of soil compaction using light drop-weight
tester according to German instructions
In German recommendations regarding road earth
works [15, 16] light drop-weight tester is allowed to be
48 M. J. Sulewska / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 45–50

Table 1. Statistical parameters of variables (Is, ED, E1, E2)

Geotechnical Number Minimum Maximum Average Standard Coefficient Skewness Kurtosis

parameter of obser- value value value deviation of variation ratio
vations
Is [–] 15 0,907 0,993 0,962 0,024 2,5 –1,02 0,17
ED [MPa] 30 11,0 38,8 29,0 7,1 24,6 –0,96 0,10
E1 [MPa] 15 11,2 39,5 28,0 8,1 29,1 –0,72 –0,21
E2 [MPa] 15 38,1 112,5 91,8 22,9 25,0 –1,47 1,03

Table 2. Matrix of linear correlation coefficients for tested vari-

ables

Is ED E1 E2
Is 1,000
ED 0,920 1,000
E1 0,951 0,926 1,000
E2 0,954 0,911 0,902 1,000

used for control of embankments compaction (as an in-

dependent or additional test to static plate load). It is
recommended to determine limit values of moduli ED in
comparison with secondary moduli of deformation E2
tested in the given soil condition. In the case of lack of
own correlation dependencies, the values in Table 3 can
be used for orientation [16].

Table 3. Values of secondary modulus of deformation E2

Fig 4. Dependency ED = f(Is) for medium grained sand:
(according to [17]) and dynamic modulus of deformation ED
ED = 270,51Is-231,34; r = 0,920; Syx = 2,85 MPa, r-corre-
[16]
lation ratio; Syx – standard estimation error; (1), (2) –
ranges of confidence limits for regression line and pre- E2 [MPa] 120 100 80 45
dicted values calculated for probability 95 % ED [MPa] 60 50 40 25

Comparative examinations has been conducted for

Fig 5. Dependency ED = f(E1) and ED = f(E2) for medium
grained sand: (1) ED = 6,32+0,81E1; r = –0,926; Syx= 2,74
MPa, (2) ED = 2,98+0,28E2; r = –0,911; Syx = 3,00 MPa
many years in order to develop correlation dependencies
for different groups of mineral and anthropogenic soils
and in order to determine obligatory limit values of
modulus ED in comparison with minimum required val-
ues of modulus E2.
Weingart [18] suggested to consider the following
observations:
a) the value of “time of acceleration” uD/v ratio, where
uD – settlement of thrust under impact, v – speed of
settlement, gives additional information on soil com-
paction,
b) at proper compaction (when E2/E1 ≤ 2,5 [15]) the
condition 2,2 ≤ E2 /E D ≤ 2,6 should be satisfied;
at not sufficient compaction (when E2/E 1 > 2,5)
it is observed that E2/ED< 2,2.
On the base of examinations of road load-bearing
layers Weingart proposed the following limit values and
additional conditions (they do not refer to fine-grained
soils sensitive to water) (Table 4).

48
M. J. Sulewska / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 45–50 49

Table 4. Values of secondary modulus of deformation E2 de-

pending on the value of dynamic modulus of deformation ED
[18]

E2 150 120 100 80 60 45 Additional

[MPa] conditions:
ED 70 55 45 40 30 25 E2/E1<2,2,
[MPa] uD/v<3,5ms

5. Example of light drop-weight tester application on

the building site

Light drop-weight tester was used to control the

quality of compaction of layers built in road embank-
ments (parking platforms) of considerable area and the
thickness up to 5 m. The embankments were built of
glacial sand-gravel mix from local deposit.
The embankments were formed with layers com-
pacted using vibrating tamping rollers and smooth roll-
ers. Control of soil compaction was conducted currently
for each compacted layer of thickness of 0,30÷0,50 m.
The test points were located in square grid, side length
about 25 m.
The tests of dynamic modulus of soil deformation
were conducted using light drop-weight tester type ZFG
01 according to [4].
Comparative tests in 28 points were made in order
to calibrate the light drop-weight tester for the most com-
monly built-in soils. The following geotechnical param-
eters were determined according to [11]:
– maximum dry density of solid particles ρds and op-
timum water content wopt (using I Proctor’s method)
(ρds= 1,922÷2,179 g/cm3, wopt= 6,7÷11,1 %),
– bulk density of soil ρ, using sand volumeter
(ρ = 1,995÷2,311 g/cm3),
– water content w, using drying method (w = 2,4÷7,4 %),
– degree of compaction Is (Is=0,90÷1,05).
Soils were qualified as sand-gravel mix (Po) accord-
ing to [11].
Chi-square test and Kolmogorov-Smirnov test (at
significance level α = 0,05) were conducted at the be-
ginning and it was accepted that tested variables had a
distribution consistent with normal distribution. Then,
based on analysis of matrix coefficients of linear corre-
lation of variables and stepwise regression analysis, it
was found that soil water content (in the tested range)
did not influence significantly the value of modulus ED.
The best fitted model was found based on the
method of simple regression. The dependency ED=f(IS)
and the confidence limits of regression line (1) and pre-
dicted values (2) for probability 95 % are shown in Fig 6.
The values of dynamic modulus of deformation de-
pend on soil compaction – they increase with increase
of the value of compaction degree.
The developed correlation curve was used to cur-
rent control of compaction quality of built-in soil layers.
Fig 6. Dependency E D = f(I s ) for sand-gravel mix:
1/ED = 0,176–0,156Is; r = –0,778; Syx = 0,004
It was decided to accept the following limiting values of
modulus ED:
– when Is< 0,97 → EDmin < 40 MPa,
– when 0,97 ≤ Is< 1,00 → 40 ≤EDmin< 50 MPa,
– when 1,00 ≤ Is< 1,03 → 50 ≤EDmin< 65 MPa,
– when Is ≥ 1,03 → EDmin ≥ 65 MPa.
6. Conclusions
Preliminary examinations (calibration of the device)
were made prior to application of the light drop-weight
tester in field for compaction quality control of embank-
ments. Correlations ED=f(IS) and ED=f(E1), ED=f(E2)
were determined for medium sand, and correlation
ED=f(IS) was determined for all-in aggregate.
Examinations performed by the author showed that
there exist dependencies between values of dynamic
modulus of soil deformation and values of soil degree of
compaction and values of moduli of deformation E1 or
E2. These correlations can be used during compaction
control of embankments under construction. The light
drop-weight tester can be applied for quick current con-
trol of the quality and uniformity of compaction. This
may considerably promote earth works.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by State Committee for
Scientific Research, project number W/IIB/9/01.
References
1. Benoist, I. and Schaeffner, M. Falling Weight Deflecto-
meter. Bulletin of Laboratory of Bridges and Higways
(Bulletin des Laboratoires de Ponts et Chaussees), No 122.
Paris: Nov / Dec 1982, p. 61–72 (in French).

49
50 M. J. Sulewska / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 45–50
2. ÈSN 73 6192. Impact Load Tests for Road Surfaces and
Subsurfaces (Rázové zate•ovací zkoušky vozovek a
podlo•i). Czech Standardization Institute, Praha, 1996. 24 p.
(in Czech).
3. Horz, H. W. Falling Weight Deflectometer in Road Build-
ing in Germany. Streets and Highways (Strasse und
Autobahn), No 3. Bonn, 1992, p. 170–172 (in German).
4. Technical Specification for Soil and Rock in Road Con-
struction TP BF-StB Part B 8.3 (Technische Prüfvorschrif-
ten für Boden und Fels im Straßenbau TP BF-StB Teil B
8.3: Dynamischer Platten-druckversuch mit Hilfe des
Leichten Fallgewichts-gerätes). Road and Transportation
Research Association, Köln, 1997. 18 p. (in German).
5. Weingart, W. Problems of Dynamic Test Using Light Drop-
Weight Tester. The Street (Die Strasse), No 11. Berlin,
1998, p. 369–373 (in German).
6. Kudla, W.; Floss, R. and Trautmann, Ch. Dynamic Test
with Plate – Quick Method of Quality Assurance of Road
Layers without Binder (Dynamischer Plattendruckversuch
– Schnellprüfvehrfahren für die Qualitätssicherung von
ungebundenen Schichten). Streets and Highways (Strasse
und Autobahn), No 2. Bonn, 1991, p. 66–71 (in German).
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Railways (Richtlinie für die Anwendung des Leichten
Fallgewichtsgerätes im Eisenbahnbau). NGT 39, German
Railways, 1997. 7 p. (in German).
8. PN-S-02205 Roads – Earthwork – Specifications and Test-
ing (Drogi samochodowe. Roboty ziemne. Wymagania i
badania). Polish Standardization Committee, Warsaw, 1998.
25 p. (in Polish).
9. Sulewska, M. J. New Control Method of Uniformity of
Compaction of Non-cohesive Soils. Engineering and Build-
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p. 218–220 (in Polish).
10. Sulewska, M. J. Modulus of Deformation for Non-cohe-
sive Soil Determined with Dynamic Method (Moduùy
50
odksztaùcenia gruntu niespoistego wyznaczone metodà
dynamicznà). PhD thesis, Bialystok Technical University,
Bialystok, 1993. 161p. (in Polish).
11. PN-88/B-04481 Building Soils. Laboratory Tests (Grunty
budowlane. Badania laboratoryjne). Polish Standardization
Committee, Warsaw, 1988. 63 p. (in Polish).
12. BN-77/8931-12 Determination of Soil Degree of Compac-
tion (Oznaczanie wskaênika zagæszczenia). Polish Standard-
ization Committee, Warsaw, 1977. 5 p. (in Polish).
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sion 5&6 (Statystyka z komputerem. Statgraphics wersja
5&6). Warsaw, 1995. 300 p. (in Polish).
14. Draper, N. R. and Smith, H. Applied Regression Analysis
(Analiza regresji stosowana). Warsaw: Polish Scientific
Publishers, 1973. 459 p. (in Polish).
15. Additional Technical Requirements and Instructions for
Earth Works in Road Constructions (Zusätzliche Technische
Vertragsbedingungen und Richtlinien für Erdarbeiten im
Straßenbau) ZTVE-StB 94, Road and Transportation Re-
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nische Vetragsbedingungen und Richtlinien für Aufgrabun-
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German).
17. DIN 18134 Building Ground. Tests and Test Methods. Load
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Plattendruckversuch), German Standardization Institute,
Berlin, 1993. 9 p. (in German).
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Light Drop-Weight Tester. In: Transactions in Mineral
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German).
 51

ISSN 1392–3730
JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT
http:/www.vtu.lt/english/editions

2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 51–55

SAUGOS IR SVEIKATOS PROBLEMOS IR PERSPEKTYVOS STATYBVIETËSE

Ritoldas Ðukys
 Darbo ir gaisrinës saugos katedra, Vilniaus Gedimino technikos universitetas, Saulëtekio al. 11,
LT-10223 Vilnius-40, Lietuva. El. paðtas: Ritis@st.vtu.lt
 Áteikta 2004 04 26; priimta 2004 05 19

Santrauka. Lietuvai tapus Europos Sàjungos nare svarbu nustatyti integracijos pasekmes socialinëms, ekonominëms,
ûkinëms ir kitoms sritims. Viena ið prioritetiniø srièiø yra darbuotojø sauga ir sveikata. Statyba pagal savo darbø
specifikà (daþnai keièiasi darbo pobûdis ir vieta, atliekami su rizika susijæ darbai, dirbama ávairiomis klimato sàlygomis)
yra viena ið pavojingiausiø ðiuo poþiûriu ûkio srièiø. Tyrimo tikslas – kaip galima tiksliau nustatyti kokybinius ir
kiekybinius poveikius, kuriuos patiria Lietuvos statybos ámonës, ágyvendindamos ES Tarybos direktyvà 92/57/EEB „Dël
minimaliø saugos ir sveikatos reikalavimø laikinosiose ir kilnojamosiose statybos aikðtelëse“. Tyrimui taikyti statistiniai-
analiziniai, apklausos, analizës, analogijø, finansinis ataskaitø apibendrinimø ir kiti mokslinio tyrimo metodai. Nustatytos
ámoniø iðlaidos, iðlaidos valstybiniame lygmenyje, teigiamas direktyvos poveikis, parengtos rekomendacijos.
 Raktaþodþiai: integracija, darbuotojø sauga ir sveikata, ES Tarybos direktyva 92/57/EEB, finansinës iðlaidos, statyba.

1. Ávadas
 Lietuvai tapus Europos Sàjungos nare svarbu
nustatyti integracijos pasekmes socialinëms, ekono-
minëms, ûkinëms ir kitoms sritims. Viena ið prioritetiniø
srièiø yra darbuotojø sauga ir sveikata. Statyba pagal savo
darbø specifikà (daþnai keièiasi darbo pobûdis ir vieta,
atliekama daug su rizika susijusiø darbø, dirbama
ávairiomis klimato sàlygomis) yra viena ið pavojingiausiø
ðiuo poþiûriu ûkio srièiø [1–4].
Lietuvos statybos ámonës turi vadovautis ES Tarybos
direktyvos 92/57/EEB „Dël minimaliø saugos ir sveikatos
reikalavimø laikinosiose ir kilnojamosiose statybos
aikðtelëse“ nuostatomis. Direktyva nustato minimalius
saugos ir sveikatos laikinøjø ar kilnojamøjø statybos
aikðteliø árengimo reikalavimus, susijusiø su darbuotojø
sauga ir sveikata. Joje nustatyti minimalûs ir privalomi
reikalavimai, kurie turi bûti ágyvendinti steigiamose ar
esamose statybvietëse. Tai reikalavimai, keliami
statybvieèiø pastatams, darbo ir buitinëms patalpoms,
apðvietimui, durims ir vartams, këlimo mechanizmams,
transporto priemonëms, þemës darbø maðinoms, kitiems
árenginiams, keliams ir kt.
Nagrinëjamos Direktyvos nuostatos yra svarbios ir
reikalingos didinant statybos ámoniø konkurencingumà bei
uþtikrinant darbuotojø saugà ir sveikatos apsaugà staty-
bose. Svarbu þinoti visapusiðkà ðio teisës akto poveiká
Lietuvos ûkiui. Lietuvoje atlikta nemaþa darbuotojø saugà
ir sveikatos apsaugà reglamentuojanèiø teisës aktø,
parengtø pagal ES direktyvø reikalavimus, pasekmiø
tyrimø [5–14]. Juose nustatyti teigiami ir neigiami
poveikiai Lietuvos ûkiui, pateiktos rekomendacijos
darbuotojø saugai ir sveikatos apsaugai gerinti.
ES Tarybos direktyvos 92/57/EEB „Dël minimaliø
saugos ir sveikatos reikalavimø laikinosiose ir kilnoja-
mosiose statybos aikðtelëse“ ágyvendinimo pasekmiø
tyrimo rezultatai ir rekomendacijos padës statybos
ámonëms ágyvendinti Lietuvos teisës aktø, reglamen-
tuojanèiø saugà ir sveikatos apsaugà darbe, reikalavimus.
Tai pagerins darbo sàlygas ámonëse, sumaþins profesiniø
ligø skaièiø bei padës ámonëms laiku ir geriau pasirengti
integracijai á Europos Sàjungos rinkà.
Atliekant Direktyvos 92/57/EEB ágyvendinimo
pasekmiø tyrimà dalyvavo Lietuvos statybininkø asocia-
cijos bei jos ámoniø darbuotojai. Buvo bendradarbiaujama
su suinteresuotomis ágyvendinti Direktyvà institucijomis –
Socialinës apsaugos ir darbo ministerija, Valstybine darbo
inspekcija, Valstybiniu visuomenës sveikatos centru,
Statybos darbuotojø profsàjunga, aukðtøjø mokyklø
profilinëmis katedromis.
2. Tyrimo tikslas, uþdaviniai ir metodika
 Tyrimo tikslas – kaip galima tiksliau nustatyti koky-
binius ir kiekybinius poveikius, kuriuos patiria Lietuvos
statybos ámonës ir valstybës institucijos, ágyvendindamos
ES Tarybos direktyvà 92/57/EEB „Dël minimaliø saugos
ir sveikatos reikalavimø laikinosiose ir kilnojamosiose
statybos aikðtelëse“.

51
52 R. Ðukys / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 51–55

Atliekant tyrimus siekta: veikianèiø statybos ámoniø padaugëjo apie 16 %. Respub-

• ávertinti dabartinæ situacijà (darbuotojø saugos ir likoje vyrauja smulkios ir vidutinës statybos ámonës,
sveikatos bûklæ statybos ámonëse); kurios sudaro daugiau kaip 99 % visø statybos ámoniø.
• nustatyti teigiamà Direktyvos poveiká; Duomenys apie nelaimingus atsitikimus darbe
• nustatyti iðlaidas statybos ámonëms ir vieðajam statybose, kuriems 1997–2002 m. buvo suraðyti N-1
(valstybiniam) sektoriui; formos aktai, pateikiami lentelëje.
• parengti rekomendacijas statybos ámonëms, valstybës  
ir visuomenës institucijoms. Nelaimingi atsitikimai darbe statybose
Tyrimas atliktas vadovaujantis Europos komiteto Accidents at work in construction
prie Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybës parengta „Regu-
liuojanèiø teisës aktø poveikio ávertinimo metodika“. Nelaimingi atsitikimai darbe
Metai
lengvi sunkûs mirtini ið viso
Tyrimui buvo taikomi statistinis-analizinis, apklausos, 1997 429 34 13 476
analizës, analogijø, finansinis ataskaitø apibendrinimø 1998 486 36 13 535
moksliniai metodai. Vertinant ES Tarybos direktyvos 1999 401 27 19 447
92/57/EEB reikalavimus bei jø ágyvendinimo poveiká 2000 302 26 14 342
statybos ámonëms ir valstybinëms institucijoms buvo 2001 291 34 23 348
atlikta anoniminë apklausa pagal parengtas apklausos 2002 343 35 23 401
anketas. Jos skirtos statybos ámonëms, valstybinëms bei
visuomeninëms institucijoms ir savarankiðkiesiems dar- 1997–2002 m. nelaimingø atsitikimø darbe skaièius
buotojams. Anketose pateikti klausimai, siekiant iðsiaið- (iðskyrus mirtinus ir sunkius atvejus) statybos ámonëse
kinti Direktyvos nuostatø átakos, uþtikrinant darbuotojø sumaþëjo. Taèiau 2003 m. statistika verèia nerimauti –
saugà ir sveikatos apsaugà statybos ámonëse, vertinimus. nelaimingø atsitikimø darbe statybos ámonëse skaièius
Pagrindinis tikslas, atliekant apklausà, yra gauti tyri- padidëjo.
nëjamos visumos (generalinës aibës) charakteristikas.  
Tam pasirinktas atrankinis stebëjimas, kaip neiðtisinio 3.2. Apklausos, atliktos ámonëse, rezultatai ir jø analizë
stebëjimo dalinis variantas, t. y. kai tiriami tik analizuo-
jamos dalies vienetai. Tyrimui taikytas vienas ið atsi- Atlikus ámoniø apklausos rezultatø analizæ nustatyta:
tiktinës atrankos metodø – blokinë atranka. Ði atranka • Apie 68 % visø apklaustø statybos ámoniø Direktyvai
leidþia su santykinai maþomis imtimis gauti prasmingus ágyvendinti reikia finansinës, 59 % – konsultacinës
rezultatus. Tai aktualu esant didelëms generalinëms (mokymo), 54 % – informacinës, 40 % – ástatyminës
aibëms ir visiðkai tinka tyrimo tikslui. paramos (þr. 1 pav.).
Atliekant ámoniø apklausà svarbu nustatyti atrankos
imtá, kad apklausos rezultatai bûtø pakankamai patikimi.
Reikiama imtis nustatyta remiantis ribinës paklaidos 70
apskaièiavimu. Taikyta atranka be pasikartojimø ir
reikiama apklausos imtis apskaièiuota pagal formulæ: 60
50
N t 2 σ 02 , (1)
n=
∆ x N + t 2 σ 02 40
n – atrankos imtis, N ámoniø skaièius, t patikimumo 30
koeficientas, ∆ x ribinë atrankos paklaida, σ 2 variacinio 20
poþymio dispersija.
Þinant generalinæ aibæ (t. y. veikianèiø statybos 10
ámoniø skaièiø Respublikoje) ir imant didþiausià atrankos 0
paklaidà – 5 %, o variacinio poþymio maksimalià Reikalinga parama
dispersijà – 0,5, kai patikimumo koeficientas t = 2,5,
gauta ámoniø atrankos imtis (n) apklausai atlikti, pagal Finansinë Konsultacinë Informacinë Ástatyminë
kurià gautos pakankamai tikslios visos tyrinëjamos
visumos charakteristikos. Buvo atliktas gautø duomenø 1 pav. Direktyvai ágyvendinti reikalingos paramos
tyrimas ir analizë. procentinis pasiskirstymas
 Fig 1. Percent distribution of support needed to imple-
3. Tyrimo rezultatai ment the directive
3.1. Dabartinë situacija
• Apklausa parodë, kad dauguma statybos ámoniø
Statistikos departamento duomenimis, 2003-01-01 susidurs su problemomis uþtikrinant darbuotojø
buvo 2877 áregistruotos veikianèios statybos ámonës, ið saugà ir sveikatos apsaugà pagal ES reikalavimus.
jø 1126 individualios. Palyginti su 2001 m., áregistruotø
52
R. Ðukys / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 51–55 53

Pagrindinës ið jø yra rizikos vertinimas, darbuotojø 70

aprûpinimas asmeninëmis apsauginëmis priemonë-
mis, jø mokymas ir informavimas (þr. 2 pav.). 60
• Apibendrinus apklausos rezultatus paaiðkëjo, kad 50
68 % statybos ámoniø ðios Direktyvos reikalavimø
40
vykdymas sukels skirtingas problemas. Didelës
problemos kils 9 %, vidutinës 27 % statybos ámoniø. 30
31 % statybos ámoniø problemø neturës.
20

50 10

45 0
Teigiamas poveikis
40
35 Pagerës darbo sàlygos
30 Sumaþës profesiniø ligø skaièius
25 Sumaþës nelaimingø atsitikimø skaièius
20 Pagerës darbo rezultatai
15 Pagerës darbo kultûra
10 Pagerës darbø kokybë

5
3 pav. Direktyvos teigiamø poveikiø pasekmiø procentinë
0 priklausomybë
Didelës Vidutinës Nedaug Nëra
problemos problemos problemø problemø  Fig 3. Percent dependence of directive‘s positive conse-
quences
Rizikos vertinimas
 
Darbuotojø aprûpinimas apsauginëmis priemonëmis
Darbuotojø medicininë apþiûra 3.4. Direktyvos 92/57/EEB ágyvendinimo iðlaidos
Saugos instrukcijø rengimas  Direktyvos ágyvendinimo iðlaidos nustatytos apklau-
M okymas ir informavimas sos ir statistiniu-analiziniu metodais. Tyrimo rezultatai
rodo, kad 86 % statybos ámoniø bendros iðlaidos
2 pav. Svarbiausiø problemø, kylanèiø statybos ámonëms Direktyvos reikalavimams ágyvendinti yra reikðmingos.
uþtikrinant darbuotojø saugà ir sveikatos apsaugà, procen- Didelës jos yra 18 % ámoniø, vidutinës – 44 % ir 24 % –
tinis pasiskirstymas pagal jø dydá maþos. Bendras iðlaidø procentinis pasiskirstymas
Fig 2. Percent distribution by size of main problems, faced
pateiktas 4 pav.
by construction companies while securing workers’ health
and safety
 
3.3. Direktyvos ágyvendinimo nauda (teigiamas
poveikis)

 Visos ámonës Direktyvos ágyvendinimo pasekmes

vertina teigiamai ir mano, kad tai pagerins darbuotojø
saugà ir sveikatos apsaugà statybvietëse, turës teigiamos
átakos darbo rezultatams ir darbo kultûrai. Teigiamø
Direktyvos poveikio pasekmiø procentinë priklausomybë
pateikta 3 pav.
Ðio teisës akto ágyvendinimo pasekmiø tyrimas:
• turi teigiamos átakos valstybës institucijø ir visuome-
nës bei verslo atstovø tarpusavio supratimui ir ben-
dradarbiavimui sprendþiant strateginius klausimus;
• suteikia visuomenei daugiau informacijos apie valsty-
bës institucijø veiklà ir jos rezultatus;
• padeda ámonëms prisitaikyti prie ES ir Lietuvos 4 pav. Bendras iðlaidø procentinis pasiskirstymas
teisës aktø reikalavimø; Fig 4. Total percentage of expenser
• sudaro sàlygas saugos darbe gerinimui ir profesiniø
ligø maþëjimui.
53
54 R. Ðukys / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 51–55
Duomenø apie nelaimingus atsitikimus statybos
ámonëse analizë rodo, kad pagrindinës jø prieþastys yra
norminiø aktø reikalavimø nevykdymas.
Direktyvos ágyvendinimo iðlaidos susideda ið vien-
kartiniø ir einamøjø iðlaidø. Visas Direktyvos ágyven-
dinimo iðlaidas priskyrus statybos savikainai, ji padidëja
1,21 % pirmaisiais Direktyvos nuostatø ágyvendinimo
metais, o vëlesniais sumaþëja vienkartiniø iðlaidø dydþiu
ir sudaro 1,01 %. Statybos darbø kaina ðiuo atveju iðauga
atitinkamai 1,12 % ir 0,93 %. Visomis Direktyvos
ágyvendinimo iðlaidomis sumaþinus statybos ámoniø pelnà,
jis sumaþëja 14,76 % pirmaisiais Direktyvos nuostatø
ágyvendinimo metais, o vëlesniais – 12,26 %. Direktyvos
reikalavimø ágyvendinimo statybos ámonëse iðlaidos
didþiausios átakos turi smulkiø statybos ámoniø prekiø
savikainos didëjimui. Pirmaisiais Direktyvos nuostatø
ágyvendinimo metais ji padidëja 2,12 %, vëlesniais –
2,01 %. Statybos investicijos pirmaisiais Direktyvos nuos-
tatø ágyvendinimo metais padidëtø 8,5 %. Atsiþvelgdamos
á savo finansines galimybes, rinkos bûklæ ir konkurencijà
ámonës turi numatyti taikomas ekonomines priemones.
 
4. Pagrindinës tyrimo iðvados ir rekomendacijos
 1. Parengiamiesiems darbams, kad pradëtø ágyven-
dinti Direktyvos reikalavimus, statybos ámonëms buvo
skirta 18 mën. Taèiau daug statybos ámoniø ðiuos
reikalavimus vykdo nepatenkinamai:
§ apie 15 % ámoniø vadovø nëra susipaþinæ su
Direktyvos reikalavimais;
§ apie 65 % ámoniø neatliekamas rizikos vertinimas;
§ apie 30 % statybvieèiø dël sunkios statybos ámoniø
ekonominës bûklës per lëtai pertvarkomos;
§ 87 % savarankiðkøjø darbuotojø nëra susipaþinæ su
Direktyvos reikalavimais;
§ Valstybinë darbo inspekcija neinformuojama apie
statybos darbø pradþià. Nepaskirti projekto ir saugos
bei sveikatos apsaugos darbe priemoniø ágyvendi-
nimo koordinatoriai, saugos ir sveikatos apsaugos
priemoniø statybvietëse planai;
§ ne visose statybvietëse yra tinkamos buitinës sàlygos;
§ treèdalio statybos ámoniø darbuotojai neaprûpinti
visomis reikalingomis asmeninëmis apsauginëmis
priemonëmis.
2. Visos statybos ámonës, valstybinës ir visuome-
ninës institucijos bei ekspertai Direktyvos nuostatas
vertina teigiamai:
§ ágyvendinus Direktyvos nuostatas statybvietëse,
pagerës sauga ir sveikatos apsaugos darbe – statybos
ámonës greièiau ir lengviau áeis á bendrà Europos
rinkà;
§ ágyvendinus Direktyvos nuostatas statybos ámonëse,
sumaþëtø nelaimingø atsitikimø darbe. Investicijos á
saugos ir sveikatos apsaugos darbe gerinimà, laikan-
tis Direktyvos nuostatø reikalavimø, sugráþtø, nes
maþiau reikëtø iðmokø dël darbuotojø sveikatos
paþeidimø ir maþiau bûtø dël darbuotojø nedarbin-
54
gumo nepagamintos produkcijos. Per metus bûtø
sutaupoma apie 1 mln Lt.
3. Pagrindinës Direktyvos reikalavimø nevykdymo
prieþastys yra nepatenkinamas rûpinimasis saugos ir
sveikatos apsaugos darbe priemonëmis, rizikos veiksniø
neávertinimas, didelës Direktyvos reikalavimø ágyven-
dinimo iðlaidos, sumaþëjusios statybos darbø apimtys,
rekomendacijø ir metodikø, kaip taikyti Direktyvos
nuostatas, stoka.
4. 68 % ámoniø Direktyvos reikalavimø vykdymas
sukelia problemø. Daugiausia problemø kelia:
§ rizikos vertinimas – 91 %;
§ statybos organizavimo ir technologijos projektuose
nurodyti saugos ir sveikatos apsaugos priemonës ir
reikalavimai – 73 %;
§ saugiø darbovieèiø statybvietëse árengimas – 77 %.
5. Kad ágyvendintø direktyvos nuostatas, ámonëms
reikalinga parama. Dauguma jø norëtø finansinës bei
konsultacinës (mokymo) paramos.
6. Apie 27 % apklaustø ámoniø manoma, kad
valstybës institucijos nepakankamai bendradarbiauja su
ámonëmis, todël trûksta informacijos, kaip praktikoje
ádiegti Direktyvos nuostatas. 36 % ámoniø manoma, kad
kryptinga valstybës finansinë-ekonominë politika padëtø
ágyvendinti Direktyvos nuostatas, ir siûlo statybos
darbams sumaþinti pridëtinës vertës mokestá.
7. Pirmaisiais Direktyvos ágyvendinimo metais
iðlaidos ðalies (ûkio) mastu yra apie 50 mln. Lt.
8. Ágyvendinant Direktyvà daugiausia problemø turi
smulkios ámonës. Dauguma naujø ámoniø yra smulkios,
darbdaviai neávertina saugaus darbo svarbos, átakos
darbuotojø sveikatai, ekonominiams rodikliams ir produk-
cijos kokybei. Be to, jiems trûksta þiniø apie saugos ir
sveikatos apsaugos reikalavimus teisës aktuose.
9. Smulkioms ámonëms trûksta lëðø, kad galëtø
rûpintis darbo sàlygomis. Darbdaviai nepatenkinamai
organizuoja darbuotojø saugos ir sveikatos apsaugos
tarnybø, komitetø veiklà, neávertinami rizikos veiksniai.
Norint LR statybos ámonëse ágyvendinti Direktyvos
reikalavimus, reikia ágyvendinti ðias priemones:
§ sudaryti galimybes suinteresuotoms ámonëms
susipaþinti su rengiamais saugà ir sveikatos apsaugà
reglamentuojanèiø teisës aktø projektais, kad jos ið
anksto galëtø tinkamai pasirengti teisës aktø nuostatø
ágyvendinimui;
§ efektyvesnei Direktyvos ádiegimo kontrolei bûtina
VDI biudþetà padidinti 2 %;
§ atsiþvelgdamos á savo finansines galimybes, rinkos
bûklæ, konkurencijà, ámonës turi numatyti ekonomi-
nes priemones Direktyvai ágyvendinti. Tai galëtø
bûti:
• pelno sumaþinimas Direktyvos ádiegimo iðlaidø
dydþiu;
• iðlaidø priskyrimas savikainai ir statybos kainos
didëjimas;
• tarpinis variantas, t. y. pelno maþinimas ir savi-
kainos didinimas;
R. Ðukys / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 51–55
• dalies sumos, sukauptos Socialinio draudimo
fonde (tai yra nelaimingø atsitikimø darbe ir
profesiniø ligø draudimo lëðos) skyrimas
(proporcingai statybos daliai visame ûkyje)
Direktyvai ágyvendinti, nes ðios lëðos taip pat
skirtos nelaimingø atsitikimø ir profesiniø ligø
prevencijai;
§ Direktyvoje numatytiems socialiniams reikalavimams
ágyvendinti statybos ámonës turi sudaryti priemoniø
planus, numatyti jø ágyvendinimo terminus ir tam
skirti reikiamø lëðø;
§ statybos ámonëms daugiau dëmesio skirti bendra-
darbiavimui su mokslo institucijomis diegiant
Direktyvos nuostatø taikymà. Tokio bendradarbia-
vimo formos galëtø bûti teminiai moksliniai-prak-
tiniai seminarai, neakivaizdinës diskusijos, tiksliniai
moksliniai tyrimai ir pan.;
§ pagal mokymo, kvalifikacijos këlimo ir atestavimo
nuostatus bei teorinio mokymo programas tikslinga
ádiegti nuotoliná mokymà. Tai sumaþintø iðlaidas
mokymo procesui organizuoti ir vykdyti;
§ daugiau dëmesio skirti visuomenës informavimui
apie darbuotojø saugos ir sveikatos apsaugos bûklæ.
Televizija ir radijas tam turi skirti informacinæ
valandëlæ;
§ sukurti informacijos pateikimo sistemà apie darbuo-
tojø saugà ir sveikatos apsaugà statybvietëse.
 
Literatûra
 1. Facts 18. European Agency for Safety and Health at Work
2001: http://agency.osha.eu.int
2. Didier Duper Accidents at work in the EU 1998–1999
EUROSTAT Statistics in Focus: http://agency.osha.eu.int
3. Summary of investigation „Working conditions in Euro-
pean Union and in countries – candidates“ accomplished
in year 2001 by European fond of living and working
conditions development (Europos gyvenimo ir darbo sàlygø
gerinimo fondo 2001 m. atlikto tyrimo „Darbo sàlygos
Europos Sàjungoje ir ðalyse kandidatëse“ reziumë):
http://osha.vdi.lt (in Lithuanian).
4. Yearly report of Lithuanian national work safety inspec-
torate (Lietuvos valstybinës darbo inspekcijos metinë
ataskaita 2001–2002): http://vdi.lt (in Lithuanian).
5. Investigation of consequences of EU Directives 86/188/
EEC „About workers’ protection against risks, concerning
noise influence at work“ implementation (ES Direktyvos
86/188/EEB „Dël darbuotojø apsaugos nuo rizikos,
susijusios su triukðmo poveikiu darbe, reikalavimø“
ágyvendinimo pasekmiø tyrimas): http://osha.vdi.lt (in
Lithuanian).
6. Investigation of consequences of EU Directives 89/654/
EEC „About minimal health and safety requirements for
workplace“ implementation (ES Direktyvos 89/654/EEB
„Dël minimaliø darbovietei taikomø saugos ir sveikatos
55
55
reikalavimø“ ágyvendinimo pasekmiø tyrimas):
http://osha.vdi.lt (in Lithuanian).
7. Investigation of consequences of EU Directives 98/24/EC
„About workers health and safety protection at work, con-
cerning chemical factors“ implementation (ES Direktyvos
98/24/EB „Dël darbuotojø saugos ir sveikatos apsaugos
nuo pavojø darbe, susijusiø su cheminiais veiksniais“,
ágyvendinimo pasekmiø tyrimas): http://osha.vdi.lt (in
Lithuanian).
8. Investigation of consequences of EU Directives 93/103/
EC establishing minimal health and safety requirements in
fishing boats, implementation (EB Direktyvos 93/103/EB,
nustatanèios minimalius saugos ir sveikatos reikalavimus
þvejybos laivuose, ágyvendinimo poveikio ávertinimas):
http://osha.vdi.lt (in Lithuanian).
9. Investigation of consequences of EU Directives 92/57/EEC
„About minimal health and safety requirements in tempo-
rary and transportable construction sites“ implementation
(ES Direktyvos 92/57/EEB „Dël minimaliø saugos ir
sveikatos reikalavimø laikinosiose ir kilnojamosiose
statybvietëse“ ágyvendinimo pasekmiø tyrimas):
http://osha.vdi.lt (in Lithuanian).
10. Regulating effects of implementation of standard law cer-
tificates Lithuanian hygiene norm HN 32–1998 „Working
with video terminals. Health and safety requirements“ par-
tial evaluation (Norminio teisës akto Lietuvos higienos
norma HN 32–1998 „Darbas su video terminalais. Saugos
ir sveikatos reikalavimai“ ágyvendinimo dalinis reguliuo-
janèio poveikio ávertinimas): http://osha.vdi.lt (in
Lithuanian).
11. Regulating effects of implementation of law certificates
„Rules of workers protection against biological materials“
partial evaluation (Teisës akto „Darbuotojø apsaugos nuo
biologiniø medþiagø nuostatai“ ágyvendinimo reguliuo-
janèio poveikio dalinis ávertinimas): http://osha.vdi.lt (in
Lithuanian).
12. Regulating effects of implementation of workers’ health
and safety law certificates „Rules of using health and safety
signs at workplace“ partial evaluation (Darbuotojø saugos
ir sveikatos teisës akto „Saugos ir sveikatos apsaugos
þenklø naudojimo darbovietëse nuostatai“ reguliuojanèio
poveikio dalinis ávertinimas): http://osha.vdi.lt (in
Lithuanian).
13. Regulating effects of implementation of law certificates
„Safety rules for workers working in potentially explosive
environment“ partial evaluation (Teisës akto „Darbuotojø,
dirbanèiø potencialiai sprogioje aplinkoje, saugos nuostatai“
reguliuojanèio poveikio dalinis ávertinimas):
http://osha.vdi.lt (in Lithuanian).
14. Investigation of consequences of EU Directives 89/655/
EEC „About health and safety minimal requirements for
working equipment“ and replacing directives 95/63/EEC
implementation (ES Direktyvos 89/655/EEB „Dël
minimaliø darbo árengimams taikomø darbuotojø saugos
ir sveikatos reikalavimø“ ir jà pakeièianèios Direktyvos 95/
63/EEB ágyvendinimo pasekmiø tyrimas): http://osha.vdi.lt
(in Lithuanian).
 57

ISSN 1392–3730
JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT
http:/www.vtu.lt/english/editions

2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 57–63

TRAUMØ PREVENCIJOS IÐLAIDØ STATYBOJE OPTIMIZAVIMAS

Sigutë Vakrinienë1, Petras Èyras2, Ritoldas Ðukys3

1 Matematinës statistikos katedra, Vilniaus Gedimino technikos universitetas, Saulëtekio al. 11, 10223 Vilnius-40,
Lietuva. El. paðtas: sigute@micro.lt 2, 3 Darbo ir gaisrinës saugos katedra, Vilniaus Gedimino technikos
universitetas, Saulëtekio al. 11, 10223 Vilnius-40, Lietuva. El. paðtas: Petras.Cyras@st.vtu.lt, Ritis@st.vtu.lt
Áteikta 2004 04 26; priimta 2004 05 26

Santrauka. Duomenø apie nelaimingus atsitikimus statybos ámonëse analizë rodo, kad pagrindinës jø prieþastys yra
norminiø aktø reikalavimø nevykdymas, netinkamai organizuotas darbas, tai, kad nesinaudojama saugos priemonëmis,
netinkamai organizuota darbo vieta, nepakankamai rûpinamasi darbuotojø apmokymu. Darbdaviui svarbu þinoti, kaip
optimaliai paskirstyti lëðas, skirtas nelaimingø atsitikimø prevencijai. Tai leistø (vidutiniðkai arba su tam tikra tikimybe)
sumaþinti nelaimingø atsitikimø skaièiø ir kartu sumaþinti socialinio draudimo iðmokas.
Nagrinëjamas stochastinio programavimo uþdavinys, kuris modeliuoja lëðø, skirtø nelaimingø atsitikimø darbe statyboje
prevencijai, optimalaus paskirstymo problemà. Kad su norimu patikimumu gautume optimalià lëðø, skirtø nelaimingø
atsitikimø darbe statyboje prevencijai, paskirstymo strategijà, reikia iðspræsti separabelinio programavimo uþdaviná, kurio
leistinø planø sritis nëra iðkilioji. Nustatyta ðio uþdavinio Lagranþo daugikliø prasmë nagrinëjamai problemai bei globaliojo
ekstremumo iðskyrimo taisyklë. Sprendþiant pavyzdþius gautos gana tikslios ir patikimos funkcinës priklausomybës tarp
uþdavinio sprendinio ir jo parametrø. Tai leidþia optimizuoti lëðø, skirtø nelaimingø atsitikimø darbe statyboje, panaudojimà
ir parodo tikëtino iðvengtø traumø skaièiaus priklausomybæ nuo pasikliautinumo lygmens ir lëðø, skirtø nelaimingø
atsitikimø darbe statyboje prevencijai, variacijos.
Raktaþodþiai: nelaimingi atsitikimai, prevencija, optimalus lëðø paskirstymas, stochastinis programavimas, Lagranþo
funkcija, Kuno-Takerio sàlygos, pasikliautinumo lygmuo, lëðø variacija.

1. Ávadas Straipsnyje nagrinëjamas stochastinio programavimo

Duomenø apie nelaimingus atsitikimus statybos ámo-
nëse analizë rodo, kad pagrindinës jø prieþastys yra
norminiø aktø reikalavimø nevykdymas, netinkamai orga-
nizuotas darbas, tai, kad nesinaudojama saugos priemo-
nëmis, netinkamai organizuota darbo vieta, nepakanka-
mai rûpinamasi mokymu. Darbdaviui svarbu þinoti, kaip
optimaliai paskirstyti lëðas, skirtas nelaimingø atsitikimø
prevencijai. Tai leistø (vidutiniðkai arba su tam tikra tiki-
mybe) sumaþinti nelaimingø atsitikimø skaièiø ir kartu
sumaþinti socialinio draudimo iðmokas [1–8].
Praktiðkai daþniausiai neámanoma visiðkai ágyven-
dinti visø traumø prevencijos priemoniø, siekiant visið-
kai paðalinti traumatizmo prieþastis. Prevencijos priemo-
niø kainos daþnai labai didelës, o visø nelaimingo
atsitikimo aplinkybiø numatyti ið anksto negalime, nes
jo prieþastis kartais bûna pats darbuotojas. Darbdaviui
svarbu þinoti, kurios traumø prevencijos priemonës yra
efektyviausios, kaip optimaliai paskirstyti traumø preven-
cijai skirtas lëðas. Þinojimas, kiek traumø tokiu bûdu bus
iðvengta (vidutiniðkai arba su tam tikra tikimybe) leistø
palyginti iðlaidas traumø prevencijai su nelaimingø atsi-
tikimø atvejais iðmokamø kompensacijø suma [9–12].
uþdavinys, kuris modeliuoja lëðø, skirtø nelaimingø atsi-
tikimø statyboje prevencijai, optimalaus paskirstymo pro-
blemà. Kad su norimu patikimumu gautume optimalià
lëðø, skirtø nelaimingø atsitikimø darbe statyboje preven-
cijai, paskirstymo strategijà, reikia iðspræsti separabeli-
nio programavimo uþdaviná, kurio leistinø planø sritis në-
ra iðkilioji. Straipsnyje nustatyta ðio uþdavinio Lagranþo
daugikliø prasmë nagrinëjamai problemai bei globaliojo
ekstremumo iðskyrimo taisyklë. Sprendþiant pavyzdþius
gautos gana tikslios ir patikimos funkcinës priklausomy-
bës tarp uþdavinio sprendinio ir jo parametrø. Tai lei-
dþia optimizuoti lëðø, skirtø nelaimingø atsitikimø darbe
statyboje, panaudojimà ir parodo tikëtino iðvengtø trau-
mø skaièiaus priklausomybæ nuo pasikliautinumo lygmens
ir lëðø, skirtø nelaimingø atsitikimø darbe statyboje pre-
vencijai, variacijos.
Skaièius traumø, kurios ávyks, jei vienos ar kitos
traumø prevencijos priemonës nevykdysime, yra atsitik-
tinis dydis, kurio pasiskirstymo dësnis ir parametrai gali
bûti ávertinti, remiantis duomenø apie jau ávykusias trau-
mas ir jø prieþastis statistine analize. Ðiame darbe daro-
ma prielaida, kad ðie dydþiai yra pasiskirstæ pagal Pua-
sono dësná.

57
58 S. Vakrinienë, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 57–63
Straipsnyje [13] optimalaus lëðø, skirtø darbø sau-
gos priemonëms, paskirstymo problema sprendþiama
taikant stochastiná programavimà. Optimaliajam kriteri-
jui parinkti siûlomas matricinis loðimas su atsitiktiniais
elementais, kurie rodo skaièiø traumø, ávykstanèiø dël
vienokiø ar kitokiø saugos priemoniø nebuvimo ir dar-
buotojø klaidø. Lëðos, reikalingos kiekvienai traumø prie-
þasèiai visiðkai paðalinti, bendruoju atveju taip pat yra
atsitiktiniai dydþiai. Todël modifikuotas tiesinio progra-
mavimo uþdavinys minëto matricinio loðimo optimaliai
strategijai gauti, nagrinëjamas straipsnyje [14], tampa sto-
chastinio programavimo uþdaviniu, kuriam surandamas
ekvivalentinis separabelinio programavimo uþdavinys.
Straipsnyje [15] nagrinëjamas stochastinio progra-
mavimo uþdavinio atvejis, kai traumø prevencijos prie-
moniø kainos determinuotos.
Ðio darbo tikslas yra bendresnio stochastinio pro-
gramavimo uþdavinio sprendinio savybiø tyrimas.
Kadangi tenka spræsti separabelinio programavimo
uþdaviná, kuris nëra iðkilojo programavimo uþdavinys, at-
siranda globalinio ekstremumo atpaþinimo problema, nes
artutiniais metodais gauti ekstremumai gali bûti lokalieji.
Naudojant Lagranþo funkcijà ir Kuno-Takerio sàlygas
darbe rastos bûtinosios ir pakankamosios sàlygos globa-
liajam ekstremumui nustatyti.
Nagrinëjamo uþdavinio Lagranþo daugikliai turi la-
bai konkreèià prasmæ – vieni ið jø yra piniginio vieneto
arba konkreèios prevencinës priemonës „naudingumo“
áverèiai (iðvengtø traumø skaièiaus prasme), kiti – atsi-
tiktiniø uþdavinio komponenèiø dispersijø „nenaudingu-
mo“ áverèiai (ta paèia prasme).
Gauti sàryðiai tarp optimalios lëðø traumø prevenci-
jai skirtos skirstymo strategijos ir Lagranþo daugikliø,
tikëtinai iðvengto traumø skaièiaus ir Lagranþo daugikliø
bei jø priklausomybë nuo uþdavinio parametrø. Minë-
tieji sàryðiai sprendþiant pavyzdþius leido gauti gana tiks-
lias ir pakankamai patikimas funkcines priklausomybes
tarp optimaliø uþdavinio kintamøjø reikðmiø ir uþdavi-
nio parametrø. Detaliau iðtirta optimalios traumø preven-
cijos strategijos ir tikëtino iðvengtø traumø skaièiaus (jei
ðià strategijà taikysime) priklausomybë nuo pasikliautinu-
mo lygmens ir traumø prevencijos kainø variacijos.
2. Matricinis loðimas
Ávairiø traumatizmo veiksniø paðalinimà vadinsime
1-àja, 2-àja, ....., i-tàja, ....., m-tàja traumø prevencijos
priemonëmis.
Tarkime, kad b i yra vidutinis (per laiko vienetà)
dël i-tosios prieþasties, priklausanèios nuo darbdaviø,
ávykusiø traumø skaièius, kuriuo, visiðkai ágyvendinus
i-tàjà prevencijos priemonæ, galima sumaþinti bendrà trau-
mø skaièiø.
Asmenines, nuo darbuotojø priklausanèias, traumø
prieþastis, tokias kaip technologinio proceso reikalavimø
nesilaikymas, nesinaudojimas saugos priemonëmis, neblai-
vumas ir kt., vadinsime 1-uoju, 2-uoju, ...., j-uoju, ...,
n-uoju darbo drausmës paþeidimais.
58
Tegul d ij yra j-tojo darbo drausmës paþeidimo
nulemto vidutinio traumø, kuriø galima iðvengti visiðkai
paðalinus i-tàjà prieþastá, priklausanèià nuo darbdavio,
skaièiaus dalis. Pavyzdþiui, pakankama prieþiûra gali tam
tikru dydþiu sumaþinti skaièiø traumø, susijusiø su tech-
nologinio proceso paþeidimais, arba saugos priemonëmis
nesinaudojama daþnai dël to, kad jø trûksta.
Dydþiai a ij = b i + d ij , i = 1,2, …, m, j = 1,2,…, n,
yra matricinio loðimo matricos a ij elementai:
a11 a 12 ... a1n
a 21 a 22 ... a 2n
. (1)
... ... ... ...
a m1 a m 2 ... a mn
Matricinio loðimo a ij pirmojo „loðëjo“ (t. y. darb-
davio) optimali grynoji strategija (t. y. vienos konkreèios
prevencijos priemonës pasirinkimas) arba miðri (t. y. da-
linis keliø konkreèiø prevencijos priemoniø vykdymas)
strategija garantuoja, kad nepriklausomai nuo darbuoto-
jø padarytø paþeidimø bus iðvengta vidutiniðkai V0 trau-
mø (per laiko vienetà). Èia V0 yra matricinio loðimo ver-
të.
Tvirtinimas, kad bus iðvengta vidutiniðkai V0 trau-
mø, remiasi prielaida, kad, sumaþinus dalá traumas
nulëmusiø prieþasèiø, proporcingai sumaþës ðiø prieþas-
èiø sukeliamø traumø skaièius.
Jeigu matricinis loðimas a ij turi balno taðkà, t. y.
turi stulpelá j = k, atitinkantá atvejá, kai darbuotojai pa-
þeidimø nedaro ( d ik = 0), paþymëkime a ik = a i = b i . Ta-
da optimali grynoji strategija rodo efektyviausià traumø
prevencijos priemonæ, taèiau ði priemonë gali bûti per
daug brangi. Todël turime þinoti, kokia yra kiekvienos
traumatizmo prieþasties paðalinimo kaina.
Tarkime, c i yra vidutinis kiekis lëðø, reikalingø
i-tajai traumø prieþasèiai visiðkai paðalinti (i = 1,2,…,
m). Kai turima C lëðø, optimalø jø paskirstymà gautume
iðsprendæ tiesinio programavimo uþdaviná:
max W
m
∑ a i xi ≥ W,
i =1
m
∑ c i xi ≤ C, (2)
i =1
0 ≤ xi ≤ 1, i = 1,2, ..., m.
Jeigu ðio uþdavinio optimalus planas yra ( x10 , x20 ,…,
0
xm ) ir W 0 – optimali tikslo funkcijos reikðmë, kiekvie-
nai prevencijos priemonei skirdami xi0 100 % visø jai
visiðkai ávykdyti reikalingø lëðø nepriklausomai nuo
darbuotojø elgesio galësime iðvengti vidutiniðkai ne
maþiau kaip W 0 traumø.
S. Vakrinienë, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 57–63 59

Þodis „vidutiniðkai“ reiðkia, kad iðvengtø traumø m

skaièius gali bûti ir maþesnis uþ skaièiø W 0 (didesnis y 2 = ∑ a i xi2 , (4)
i =1
taip pat). Net jeigu dydþiai a ij (per laiko vienetà,
pavyzdþiui, per metus, ávykstanèiø traumø, susijusiø su m 2
i-tàja prieþastimi ið darbdavio pusës, ir j-tuoju darbuotojo z 2 = ∑ σi xi2 ,
padarytu paþeidimu, vidutinis skaièius) gaunami remiantis i =1
daugelio metø statistiniais duomenimis apie traumas ir y ≥ 0, z ≥ 0,
jø prieþastis, jø negalima laikyti visiðkai determinuotais.
Todël toliau nagrinëjamas rekomenduojamø matematiniø 0 ≤ xi ≤ 1, i = 1, 2, ..., m.
metodø ir gautø rezultatø patikimumas.
Jeigu vidutiniai kvadratiniai nuokrypiai σi ,
i = 1, 2, ..., m, nëra þinomi, ðá uþdaviná galima spræsti
3. Stochastinio programavimo uþdavinys pasirenkant ávairias atsitiktiniø dydþiø ci variacijos
σi
Tarkime, kad prevencijos priemonëms visiðkai koeficientø vi = reikðmes.
ai
ávykdyti reikalingi lëðø kiekiai ci , i = 1, 2, ..., m yra Optimali tikslo funkcijos reikðmë W 1 yra skaièius
nepriklausomieji normuotieji atsitiktiniai dydþiai, kuriø traumø, kuriø su tikimybe, ne maþesne kaip p ,
2

vidurkiai c i , i = 1, 2, ..., m, ir vidutiniai kvadratiniai iðvengsime, jeigu turimas lëðas C traumø prevencijai
nuokrypiai σi , i = 1, 2, ..., m. paskirstysime pagal separabelinio uþdavinio sprendiná:

( )
2
Kad su tam tikra tikimybe p galëtume teigti, jog,
X = x11, x12 , ..., x1m . (5)
optimaliai pasirinkus prevencijos priemoniø finansavimo
strategijà, iðvengtø traumø skaièius bus ne maþesnis uþ Sprendinio komponentë x1i rodo, koks procentas
konkretø dydá ir kad lëðø sumos C pakaks ðiam visø jai reikalingø lëðø turi bûti skiriamas i-tajai
prevencijos planui ávykdyti, reikia spræsti stochastinio prevencijos priemonei.
programavimo uþdaviná: Ðiame darbe, tirdami optimalios traumø prevencijos
priemoniø finansavimo strategijos priklausomybæ nuo
max W
patikimumo p ir prevencijos priemoniø kainø variacijos,
m  laikysime, kad visi variacijos koeficientai vienodi:
P ∑ ai xi ≥ W  ≥ p, (3) v1 = v2 = … = vm = v.
 i =1 
Tuomet σi = vci .
m 
P ∑ ci xi ≤ C  ≥ p,
 i =1  4. Lagranþo daugikliai

0 ≤ xi ≤ 1, i = 1, 2, ..., m. Separabelinio programavimo uþdavinio leistinø planø

sritis nëra iðkilioji, todël artutiniais metodais gautas
Èia ai yra atsitiktinis dydis – traumø, susijusiø su sprendinys gali bûti lokaliojo maksimumo taðkas. Ði
i-tàja prieþastimi ið darbdavio pusës, skaièius per laiko problema gali bûti iðspræsta naudojant Lagranþo funkcijà:
vienetà. Traumø skaièiø per laiko vienetà galima laikyti
Puasono atsitiktiniu dydþiu, nes progø ávykti traumoms m 
yra daug, taèiau jos (ypaè sunkios ir mirtinos) ávyksta L(W , x1, x2 , ..., x m , y, z ) = − W − λ1 ∑ a i xi − u p y − W  −
 i =1 
gana retai. Taigi darome prielaidà, kad atsitiktiniai dydþiai
ai , i = 1, 2, ..., m, yra nepriklausomi ir pasiskirstæ pagal  m   m 
λ 2  − ∑ c i xi − u p z + C  − µ1 y 2 − ∑ a i xi2  −
Puasono dësná su vidurkiais a i .  i =1   i =1 
Straipsnyje [14] árodoma, jog tuomet stochastinio
 m  m
programavimo uþdaviniui bus ekvivalentiðkas ðis µ 2  z 2 − v 2 ∑ ci2 xi2  − ∑ (1 − xi )αi ,
separabelinio programavimo uþdavinys, kuriame yra nauji  i −1  i =1
neneigiami kintamieji y ir z:
uþraðytà minimizavimo uþdaviniui:
max W ,
min(−W )
m
∑ a i xi – u p y ≥ W , m
i =1 ∑ a i xi − u p y ≥ W ,
i =1
m
∑ c i xi + uq z ≤ C , m
i =1 − ∑ c i xi − u p z − C ≥ 0,
i =1

59
60 S. Vakrinienë, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 57–63

m W = λ 2 C + ∑ αi . (8)
y 2 − ∑ a i xi2 = 0, (7) xi =1
i =1
Gautos iðraiðkos bei sàryðiai tarp Lagranþo daugikliø
m
z 2 − v 2 ∑ ci2 xi2 = 0, up 2 zµ 2 µ z
i =1 µ1 = − , λ2 = − , λ2 = 2 (9)
2y up µ1 y
1 − xi ≥ 0, i = 1, 2, ..., m, rodo, kokio pobûdþio priklausomybë galëtø bûti tarp
iðvengtø traumø skaièiaus W ir variacijos v bei kvantilio
y ≥ 0, z ≥ 0, u p (arba pasikliautinumo lygmens p).

xi ≥ 0, i = 1, 2, ..., m.
5. Stochastinio uþdavinio sprendinio priklausomybë
Kiekvienas Lagranþo daugiklis turi konkreèià
nuo uþdavinio parametrø
prasmæ:
§ λ1 rodo, kiek, optimaliai paskirsèius lëðas traumø Taikant programinës árangos SAS/OR netiesinio
prevencijai, padidës iðvengtø traumø skaièius, jei optimizavimo procedûrà NLP buvo iðspræstas didelis
pirmojo apribojimo laisvasis narys padidës vienetu; skaièius pavyzdþiø, kuriuose parametrai p, v, ai, ci ir C
§ λ 2 rodo, kiek, optimaliai paskirsèius lëðas traumø buvo keièiami. Remiantis ðiø pavyzdþiø sprendiniais
prevencijai, padidës iðvengtø traumø skaièius, jei maþiausiøjø kvadratø metodu buvo gauti funkciniai
skirstoma suma C padidës vienu piniginiu vienetu; sàryðiai:
§ µ1 rodo, kiek, optimaliai paskirsèius lëðas traumø
m m m m 
prevencijai, sumaþës iðvengtø traumø skaièius, jei  ∑ ai ci ; C p; p ∑ ai ; ∑ ci p; v 2 ∑ ci2 ; 
 i =1 i =1 i =1 i =1 
m
W = F  (10)
atsitiktinio dydþio ∑ ai xi dispersija padidës vienetu; m
 ∑a C 
i =1  i 
§ µ 2 rodo, kiek, optimaliai paskirsèius lëðas traumø  i =1 
prevencijai, sumaþës iðvengtø traumø skaièius, jei
m m m m 
m  ∑ ai ci ; C p ; p ∑ ai ; ∑ ci p; v 2 ∑ ci2; 
atsitiktinio dydþio ∑ ci xi dispersija padidës vienetu;  i =1 i =1 i =1 i =1  (11)
i =1 xi = G 
m
§ α I rodo, kokio traumø skaièiaus iðvengsime, jei  ∑ a C; a c , i = 1, 2 , ...,m 
i-toji traumø prevencijos priemonë bus pakankamai  i i i 
 i =1 
finansuojama, t. y. kai optimalus xi = 1.
Naudodami Kuno-Takerio sàlygas ðiam netiesinio kurie leidþia kintamuosius W ir xi rasti su vidutinëmis
programavimo uþdaviniui su neneigiamais kintamaisiais paklaidomis 1,8 ir 0,17 bei determinacijos koeficientais –
gauname iðvadas: atitinkamai 0,83 ir 0,70. Konkreèiam uþdaviniui, kai ai
1) sprendinyje Lagranþo daugikliai λ 1 ir λ 2 yra ir ci fiksuoti, analogiðki funkciniai sàryðiai yra tikslesni
teigiami, o daugikliai µ1 ir µ 2 – neigiami; (vidutinës paklaidos 1,09 ir 0,10) ir patikimesni
2) globalusis ekstremumas gaunamas tada ir tik tada, (determinacijos koeficientai 0,98 ir 0,90).

kai λ1 = 1 (didþiausia galimoji reikðmë), o µ1 ir µ 2

6. Rezultatø analizë
reikðmës minimalios;
3) optimalusis xi iðreiðkiamas formule: Lentelëje ir grafikuose pateikti duomenys iliustruoja
optimalios traumø prevencijos strategijos bei traumø
λ 2 ci − ai skaièiaus, kurio iðvengsime (su tikimybe p) jà naudodami,
xi = , kai 0 < xi < 1 ,
2(µ1ai + µ 2 v 2ci2 ) priklausomybæ nuo prevencijos kainø variacijos v ir
i = 1, 2, ..., m; pasikliautinumo lygmens p. Jiems gauti buvo naudojami
minëti funkciniai sàryðiai konkreèiam uþdaviniui tuo
ai atveju, kai turime 50 % visø traumø prevencijai reikiamø
4) optimalusis xi = 0, kai ≤ λ2 ;
ci lëðø. Analizuodami ðiuos grafikus galime padaryti keletà
5) kai optimalusis xi = 1, tai iðvadø. Lentelës, kurioje pateikta traumø prevencijos
strategijos priklausomybë nuo pasikliautinumo lygmens
αi = ai – λ 2 ci + 2( µ1 ai + µ 2 v 2 ci2 ; p, duomenys rodo, kad, norëdami gauti didesná patiki-
6) optimali tikslo funkcijos reikðmë (didþiausias su mumà p, traumø prevencijai turëtume tolygiai paskirstyti
pasikliautinumo lygmeniu p tikëtinas skaièius traumø, lëðas. Esant maþai prevencijos priemoniø kainos variacijai
kuriø bus galima iðvengti) iðreiðkiama formule: (1 %), ði tendencija iðryðkëja pradedant pasikliautinumo
lygmeniu p = 0,7, o kai variacija v didelë – jau nuo
p = 0,6. Kitø duomenø analizë pateikiama grafikuose.

60
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Traumø prevencijos strategijos priklausomybë nuo pasikliautinumo lygmens p

Subjection of injury prevention strategy to confidence level p
Pasikliautinumo

Kai prevencijos priemoniø kainø variacija V=0,01 Kai prevencijos priemoniø kainø variacija V=0,4
lygmuo p

X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X1 X2 X3 X4 X5

0,50 1 0 0,468 1 0 1 0 0,325 1 0

0,53 1 0 0,454 1 0 1 0 0,311 1 0
0,55 1 0 0,442 1 0 1 0 0,298 1 0
0,58 1 0 0,431 1 0 1 0 0,288 1 0
0,60 1 0 0,422 1 0 1 0 0,278 1 0
0,63 1 0 0,413 1 0 1 0 0,270 1 0,007
0,65 1 0 0,407 1 0 1 0 0,263 1 0,037
0,68 1 0 0,401 1 0,005 1 0 0,257 1 0,066
0,70 1 0 0,396 1 0,033 1 0 0,252 1 0,094
0,73 1 0 0,391 1 0,060 1 0,005 0,248 0,974 0,121
0,75 1 0 0,388 1 0,086 1 0,037 0,245 0,942 0,147
0,78 1 0 0,385 1 0,111 1 0,071 0,242 0,907 0,172
0,80 1 0 0,383 1 0,136 1 0,107 0,240 0,869 0,197
0,83 1 0,012 0,381 0,966 0,159 1 0,143 0,238 0,828 0,220
0,85 1 0,049 0,380 0,922 0,183 1 0,181 0,237 0,785 0,243
0,88 1 0,082 0,379 0,876 0,205 0,987 0,219 0,236 0,739 0,266
0,90 1 0,128 0,379 0,828 0,227 0,906 0,259 0,236 0,691 0,288
0,93 0,957 0,168 0,379 0,778 0,249 0,822 0,299 0,236 0,641 0,310
0,95 0,872 0,209 0,379 0,726 0,270 0,737 0,340 0,236 0,589 0,331
0,98 0,785 0,2508 0,379 0,672 0,291 0,650 0,382 0,237 0,535 0,352

xi
Xi 1,2
1,2
1
1

0,8 0,8

0,6 0,6

0,4 0,4

0,2 0,2

0 V
0 V
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5

x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x1 x2 x3 x4 x5

2 pav. Traumø prevencijos strategijos priklausomybë nuo

1 pav. Traumø prevencijos strategijos priklausomybë nuo
prevencijos priemoniø kainos variacijos, kai p = 0,9
prevencijos priemoniø kainos variacijos, kai p = 0,8
Fig 2. Subjection of injury prevention strategy to varia-
Fig 1. Subjection of injury prevention strategy to varia-
tion of prevention measures costs, if p = 0,9
tion of prevention measures costs, if p = 0,8

4 ir 5 pav. grafikai rodo, kad tikëtinas iðvengtø

1–3 pav. grafikai rodo, kad, didëjant prevencijos
traumø skaièius maþëja tiek didëjant pasikliautinumo
priemoniø kainø variacijai, optimalus lëðø traumø
lygmeniui p, tiek ir didëjant prevencijos priemoniø kainos
prevencijai paskirstymas tampa tolygesnis, ypaè kai
variacijai v, o juo labiau didëjant abiem ðiems para-
norime gauti didelá pasikliautinumo lygmená p. Visais
metrams. Priklausomybë nuo patikimumo p stipresnë; su
atvejais reikðminga tik tokia variacija, kuri yra ne
tikimybe p = 0,99 galime tikëtis perpus maþesnio iðvengtø
maþesnë kaip 10 %.
traumø skaièiaus negu su tikimybe p = 0,7 (tuo atveju,

61
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xi W
0,8
16
0,7
14
0,6
12
0,5
10
0,4
8
0,3
6
0,2
4
0,1
2
V
0
0
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 p
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2

x1 x2 x3 x4 x5
V=0,001 V=0,2 V=0,4

3 pav. Traumø prevencijos strategijos priklausomybë nuo 5 pav. Iðvengtø traumø skaièiaus priklausomybë nuo
prevencijos priemoniø kainos variacijos, kai p = 0,999 pasikliautinumo lygmens p, kai traumø prevencijos kainø
Fig 3. Subjection of injury prevention strategy to varia- variacija V skirtinga
tion of prevention measures costs, if p = 0,999 Fig 5. Subjection of number of avoided injury to confi-
dence level p if variation of injury prevention costs V dif-
W
fers
16
14
Skaièiams ai padidëjus 10 ar net 100 kartø,
tikimybës p ir variacijos v átaka optimaliai traumø
12 prevencijos strategijai iðlieka. Taèiau tam, kad prioritetai
10 pasikeistø, turi bûti vis didesnës p ir v reikðmës. Todël
siûloma metodika ir optimalumo principas gerai tinka ne
8 tik sunkiø ir mirtinø traumø (kuriø bûna nedaug), bet ir
6 nesunkiø traumø (kuriø bûna daug) prevencijai planuoti.
4
2 Literatûra

0 V 1. Èyras, P.; Ðukys, R.; Jakutis, A.; Nainys, V. Investigation

0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5
p=0,6 p=0,8
4 pav. Iðvengtø traumø skaièiaus priklausomybë nuo
traumø prevencijos kainø variacijos, kai pasikliautinumo
lygmuo p skirtingas
Fig 4. Subjection of number of avoided injury to varia-
tion of injury prevention costs if the confidence level p
differs
kai variacija didelë, t. y. v = 0,4). Variacijos koeficientas
reikðmingas tiktai bûdamas didesnis kaip 20 %.
Straipsnyje [15], kuriame analogiðkos problemos
sprendþiamos esant determinuotoms traumø prevencijos
kainoms, pastebëtas faktas, jog tuo atveju, kai skaièiai
ai yra dideli, optimali traumø prevencijos strategija
keièiasi tik esant labai dideliam patikimumui p (arti
vieneto). Ðis teiginys nëra teisingas atsitiktiniø kainø
atveju.
0,6 of European Union directives, about workers’ health and
safety protection at work, influence on Lithuanian economy.
Health Sciences (Sveikatos mokslai), No 7 (30), 2002, p. 6–
p=0,99 10 (in Lithuanian).
2. Ðukys, R.; Èyras, P.; Jakutis, A.; Paèësa, A. R. Investigat-
ing consequences of directives 92/57/EEC „Implementa-
tion of minimum safety and health requirements at tempo-
rary or mobile constructions sites“, implementation
(Direktyvos 92/57/EEB „Dël minimaliø saugos ir sveikatos
reikalavimø laikinosiose ir kilnojamosiose statybos
aikðtelëse ágyvendinimo pasekmiø tyrimas“). In: National
health council’s yearly report (Nacionalinës sveikatos
tarybos metinis praneðimas), 2003, p. 29–32 (in Lithuanian).
3. Èyras, P.; Juozulynas, A.; Nainys, V.; Ðukys, R. Strategy
of occupational health and safety in years 2004–2006.
Health Sciences (Sveikatos mokslai), No 8 (31), p. 18–23
(in Lithuanian).
4. Èyras, P.; Jakutis, A.; Rutkauskas, A. V.; Ðukys, R. Imple-
menting directives about health and safety at work in
Lithuania: analysing expenses. Technological and economic
development of economy (Ûkio technologinis ir ekonominis
vystymas), 2003, Vol 9, No 2, p. 60–66 (in Lithuanian).

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5. Èyras, P.; Rutkauskas, A.; Ðukys, R.; Jakutis, A.; Nainys, V.
Investigating consequences of European Union directives
„Concerning the minimum safety and health requirements
for the workplace 89/654/EEC implementation (ES Tarybos
direktyvos 89/654/EEB „Dël minimaliø darbovietei taikomø
saugos ir sveikatos reikalavimø“ ágyvendinimo pasekmiø
tyrimas), 2000. 44 p. (in Lithuanian).
6. Èyras, P.; Ðukys, R.; Jakutis, A.; Paèësa, A. R. Investigat-
ing consequences of EU Council Directives „Implementa-
tion of minimum safety and health requirements at tempo-
rary or mobile constructions sites“ (eight separate direc-
tive, as described and Directives 89/391/EEC 16 clause, 1
part) implementation (1992 m. birþelio 24 d. ES Tarybos
Direktyvos 92/57/EEB „Dël minimaliø saugos ir sveikatos
reikalavimø laikinosiose ir kilnojamosiose statybvietëse“
(aðtuntoji atskiroji direktyva, kaip apibrëþta Direktyvos
89/391/EEB 16 straipsnio 1 dalyje) ágyvendinimo pasekmiø
tyrimas), 2001. 46 p. (in Lithuanian).
7. Èyras, P.; Ðukys, R.; Jakutis, A. Estimating social and eco-
nomical consequences of accidents and occupational dis-
eases at work, and preparing prevention measures and rec-
ommendations for economical work areas (Profesiniø ligø
ir nelaimingø atsitikimø darbe ekonominiø ir socialiniø
pasekmiø nustatymas ir prevenciniø priemoniø bei reko-
mendacijø ekonominës veiklos sritims parengimas), 2003.
47 p. (in Lithuanian).
8. Èyras, P.; Ðukys, R.; Nainys, V. Occupational health and
safety programs for years 2004/2006-project preparation
according to European Communitys occupational health and
safety strategy for years 2002/2006 (Profesinës saugos ir
sveikatos programos 2004–2006 m. projekto parengimas
63
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pagal Europos Bendrijø profesinës saugos ir sveikatos
strategijà 2002–2006 m), 2003. 40 p. (in Lithuanian).
9. Charalambos, D. Stochastic nonlinear minimax dynamic
games with noisy measurements. In: IEEE Transactions
on Automatic Control, Vol 48, No 2, 2003, p. 261–267.
10. Qinru Qiu, Qing, Wu, Massoud Pedram. Stochastic mod-
elling of a power-managed system - construction and op-
timization. In: IEEE Transactions on computer-aided de-
sign of integrated circuits and systems, Vol 20, No 10,
2003, p. 1200–1217.
11. Dempster, M. A. H.; Pedron, N. H.; Medova, E. A., Scott,
J. E.; Sembos, A. Planning logistics operations in the oil
industry. Operational Research Society, Vol 51, No 11,
2000, p. 1271–1289.
12. McKnight, J. G. R. Why did employee health insurance
contributions rise? Health Economics (Sveikatos ekono-
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13. Vakrinienë, S.; Èyras, P. Optimal distribution of resources
for work safety measures, using stochastic programming.
(Lietuvos matematikos rinkinys), 2003, Vol 42, No 1–6,
p. 591–596 (in Lithuanian).
14. Vakrinienë, S.; Èyras, P. Investigation of the efficiency of
labour safety means by statistical games. Civil engineer-
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196 (in Lithuanian).
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p. 68–71 (in Lithuanian).
 65

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JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT
http:/www.vtu.lt/english/editions

2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 65–70

IDENTIFICATION OF NON-LINEAR DYNAMIC SYSTEMS POLYHARMONIC

OSCILLATIONS

Viktorija Volkova
Dnepropetrovsk National University of Railway Transport named after Academician Lazarjan, 2 Lazarjan St,
Dnepropetrovsk, UA-49010 Ukraine. E-mail: drvev@pisem.net
Received 2 Apr 2004; accepted 16 June 2004

Abstract. An analytical investigation of oscillations is a necessity of construction of mathematical model. The data of
technical drawings, descriptions and other documentation about frame and values of parameters might be used for this
purpose. However, in some cases this information can be insufficient. The methods of systems identification are effec-
tive.
Keywords: identification, phase trajectories, polyharmonic oscillations, non-linear dynamic systems.

1. Introduction 2. Application of the phase diagrams to investigation

The qualitative investigation of a dynamic system
behaviour is reduced to the analysis of behaviour of tra-
jectories in a phase space. Fundamentals of the qualita-
tive theory of dynamic processes were built by Poincaré.
The exclusive role in development of qualitative method
of testing dynamic systems belongs to Andronov A. A.
[1], Leontovich E. A., Gordon I. I. Primary goal of the
classic theory of qualitative investigation is the defini-
tion of dynamic properties of systems without obtaining
the precise analytical solution. The phase trajectories on
a plane ( y, y& ) were widely used for this purpose.
Let’s note that the phase space of dynamic systems
is multidimensional. Other choice of phase plane param-
eters is also possible. For the first time, an attempt to
apply phase trajectories on planes ( y, &y&) and ( y& , &y&) to
the investigation of dynamic systems was made in the
monograph [2]. As follows from the obtained results, the
phase trajectories on a plane ( y, &y&) can be effectively
used for identification of dynamic systems. In the mono-
graph [3] the results of qualitative investigation of oscil-
lations of conservative systems having non-linear dissi-
pative and elastic characteristics of different types are
shown.
The purpose of this paper is the analysis of dynamic
behaviour of asymmetrical systems with the piecewise
linear elastic characteristic, obtained of time processes
and phase trajectories ( y, &y&) and ( y& , &y&) for different
oscillatory regimes.
of oscillatory processes
The phase trajectories on a plane ( y, &y&) is of great-
est interest. It is connected with the fact that the power
relations on it are interpreted most visually. Besides, the
relation &y&( y ) is back symmetrical relative an axis y to
the diagrams of elastic properties change. For example,
in Fig 1 the diagrams of change of the elastic character-
istic and accelerations for a system with “backlash” are
presented. The phase trajectories &y&( y ) allow to estab-
lish the type and level of system non-linearity.
It is known that accelerations of points are more
sensitive to deviations of oscillations from harmonic. We
compare linear system to non-linear symmetric system
with double-well potential (buckling). It should be noted
that the oscillograms of these systems at some regimes
of oscillations at the excitement frequency are similar,
but accelelograms are different. So, accelelogram of lin-
ear system looks like a harmonic process, and asymmetri-
cal system with double-well potential – like sawtooth
type [2].
The major difficulty of formation of phase trajecto-
ries &y& ( y ) and &y& ( y& ) consists in the necessity to exclude
parameter of time t from the appropriate dependencies.
It is not always possible to perform this operation ana-
lytically. The majority of measuring devices register the
changes of displacements, velocities and accelerations of
investigated systems points in time. Sanitary and techno-
logical norms bring restrictions in values of these pa-
rameters. Accepting consistently appropriate pairs of
parameter values y (t ) and y (t ) or y (t ) and y& (t ) , it is
possible to obtain phase characteristic data (Fig 2).

65
66 V. Volkova / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 65–70

&y&
R (y)

y y

Fig 1. Change of elastic properties and acceleration for system with “backlash”

&y&

y
&y&

t Fig 2. Formation of phase trajectory

3. Differential equation of forced oscillations of

systems with the asymmetrical piecewise linear
characteristic
The differential equation of forced oscillations has
a view
y + ε y& + R ( y ) = F (t ) ,
where y is generalised co-ordinate, R ( y ) is elastic char-
acteristic, ε is friction coefficient; F (t ) – function of
an outer excitement.
Let us focus our consideration on a case of an asym-
metrical biharmonic excitement. We assume that the char-
acteristic of an outer polyharmonic excitement has the
following form
F (t ) = F1 cos (ω1 t ) + Fm cos (ωm t ), m = 1, 2, 3K. (2)
It is known that the characteristic of an outer ex-
citement is a periodic function of time t only in case of
multiple frequencies, ie ω m = µ ω 1 , µ = 0, 1, 2, 3, K . It
should be noted that the appearance of stationary oscil-
lations is possible only under a periodic excitation. There-
fore we shall study the cases of multiple frequencies.
By values µ = 0 and µ = 1 the formula (2) describes
a harmonic excitement with frequency ω and amplitudes
F 1 and F1 + Fm respectively.
Let's assume that the elastic characteristic is asym-
metrical and changes under the law
(1) α 1 y , y ≤ 0 ;
R (y) =  (3)
 α 2 y , y > 0.
It is known [4, 5], that the natural frequency of dy-
namic systems with the bilinear elastic characteristic does
not depend on initial conditions. It equals
2ω1 ω 2
ω0 = , (4)
ω1 + ω 2
where ω 1 = α 1 and ω 2 = α 2 .
Despite this fact, the installation of sub- and
ultraharmonic is possible. These oscillations are reshaped
on the basis of free oscillations of a system, which are
supported by an outer driving force (Fig 3).
As against symmetrical systems with piecewise lin-
ear elastic characteristics, stable conditions sub- (ω0 2 )

66
V. Volkova / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 65–70
3ω
AMPLITUDE, M
FREQUENCY, RAD/S
Fig 3. An amplitude-frequency characteristic of forced oscillations of an asymmetrical system with the piecewise linear elastic
−1
characteristic. ε = 0,1 s , α 1 = 10,8 s −1, α 2 = 40,8 s −1 , F1 = 0,15 m s , F2 = 0,15 ms , µ = 3
and ultraharmonic (2 ω0 ; 4ω0 ) of oscillations on even
harmonics here will be realised.
4. Technique of hybrid modelling
The hybrid computing complexes (HCC) present the
synthesis of analog and numerical computers. They pos-
sess the speed of the analog and the precision of the
numerical computers at the large volume of memory.
HCC gives the posibility to observe visually the com-
puting process during the investigations by means of os-
cillographs, self-recorders, etc [6]. Besides, it is possible
to change the parameters of the investigated system in
the process of computing. The investigation of the forced
oscillation systems with buckling was carried out on the
HCC produced on the base of the IBM PC and analog
computer ACC-31 with the signal generator of special
shape. The maximum output signal constitutes 10 V at
the frequency range 0,001–10 KHz. The double-trace
oscillograph C1-99 was used for visual observation of
the computing process – electric signals from the major
amplifier outputs. The results of the non-linear differen-
tial equation system integration were transmitted by
means of the interface devices on IBM PC.
The standard mathematical securing is used for the
analog–to–digital converter functioning. The information,
put into IBM PC, is stored in the hard disk in text file
67
67
ω/ 2 ω/3
−2
2
form. The spectral characteristics of the oscillating pro-
cesses are obtained by means of the standard programme
of the fast Fourier transformation. The standard graphic
programme complex is used for the graphic formation of
the dynamic processes. The usage of HCC is described
further after the definite example.
5. Analysis of results
As contrasted to the system with the linear elastic
characteristic, the studied system has a large number of
resonance frequency ranges. The oscillations on frequency
of a excitement, and also oscillation on either higher or
lower frequencies developed.
The following parameters of a dynamic system (1)
are adopted: ε = 0,1 s −1 ; α 1 = 10,8 s −1 ; α 2 = 40,8 s −1 ;
F1 = 0,15 m s 2 ; F2 = 0,15 ms −2 ; µ = 3 .
Let us compare the dynamic behaviour of the sys-
tem under study (1) with ones of the following systems
&y& + ε y& + R ( y ) = F1 cos(ω1 t ), (5.a)
&y& + ε y& + R ( y ) = Fm cos(ωm t ). (5.b)
The amplitude-frequency characteristic of an equa-
tion (1) is shown in Fig 3. Here two resonance zones
related to resonances for each of harmonics of an outer
excitement are sharply expressed. The skeleton curve of
68 V. Volkova / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 65–70
the given system is a straight line on frequency
ω0 = 4,33 rad s . Their comparison with amplitude-fre-
quency characteristics for systems (4.a) and (4.b) in the
range of a main resonance (Fig 3) demonstrates rather
close coincidence of oscillation parameters with reso-
nance-inducing harmonic. In the range of the second reso-
nance an insignificant extension of frequency range and
amplitude increase for the system (4.b) are observed.
The characteristics of subharmonic resonance of the
order ω 2 for systems (1) and (4.a) are similar, while
insignificant expanding of frequency range of a
subharmonic oscillation on frequency ω 3 for a case of
a biharmonic excitement is observed (Fig 3).
Thus it is possible to conclude that the amplitude-
frequency characteristic can be obtained for some ranges
with an adequate accuracy in analysis of systems with
simpler structure of an outer excitement.
The existence of two harmonics of an outer excite-
ment results in changes in the structure of periodic re-
gimes. These changes basically are inherent in the fre-
quency range below the main resonance and lead, first
of all, to the change of the orders of sub-ultraharmonic
tones being manifested.
In the interval between the main and the second fre-
quency ranges of a system (1), the resonance oscilla-
tions of order (µ + 1)ω µ are sharply manifested. Let's
note that in the given range the oscillations on frequency
a)
Fig 4. Time processes, spectral characteristics and phase trajectories of a symmetrical system with the piecewise linear elastic
characteristic. Range I: a) monoharmonic excitement; b) biharmonic excitement
68
become unstable, and here a pair of subharmonic oscil-
lations of frequency of order ω µ appears. One of them
is resonant and another is non-resonant. Oscillation am-
plitude on a harmonic (µ + 1)ω µ increases rapidly, and
even exceeds oscillation amplitude of fundamental fre-
quency ω . Despite the large steepness of the conform-
ing segments of amplitude-frequency characteristics, the
investigation of these types of oscillations by numerical
methods is difficult [7].
Presence of isolated frequency ranges, manifestation
of additional sub- and ultraharmonic oscillations are con-
nected with the fact that the natural frequency of essen-
tially non-linear systems depends on the parameters of a
rather large number of harmonics which are parts of the
solution [8].
The steady branches of an amplitude-frequency char-
acteristic of a system (1) can be divided into five fre-
quency ranges. The time processes, spectral characteris-
tics and phase trajectories on planes ( y, y& ) , ( y, &y&) and
( y& , &y&) for each one have been obtained.
Range I (ω = 0 ÷ 3 rad s ) is a domain of superposi-
tion of ultraharmonic oscillations of order µω on oscil-
lations of a fundamental tone, both at increasing and
decreasing the basic excitement frequencyv (Fig 4).
Range II (ω = 3 ÷ 7rad s ) is characterised by the
stall of resonant oscillations on the fundamental tone.
b)
V. Volkova / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 65–70
Range III (ω = 7 ÷ 11rad s ) demonstrates subharmo-
nic oscillations of orders ω 2 . It is worth noting that
the oscillations on even harmonics are steady due to the
asymmetrical system. The amplitudes of a resonant sub-
harmonic oscillation are commensurable with the ampli-
tudes of resonance oscillations of a fundamental tone.
Range IV (ω = 11÷ 14 rad s ) is a domain of sub-
harmonic oscillations of order ω 3 , both at increasing
and decreasing frequency of an excitement (Fig 5).
Range V (ω > 14 rad s ) is an after-resonance do-
main, where the only "small" oscillations are realizable.
In Figs 4a, 5a and the time processes, spectral char-
acteristics and related phase trajectories for a system (4a)
for the same frequencies of the lowest harmonic are
shown.
The analysis of relations of dynamic parameters
presented in Figs 4, 5 allows to mark the following. The
influence of sub- and super-harmonic oscillations results
in change of time processes (t , &y&) . It has poly-harmonic
nature. Sub- and super-harmonics cause the appearance
of additional closed loops on phase trajectories.
The spectral content of the solution can vary in car-
dinal way with changing a frequency of an outer excite-
ment. It follows from the analysis of given amplitude-
frequency characteristics and spectral characteristics of
a few time processes. The biharmonic outer excitement
promotes such changes of the spectral content. By vary-
ing the dependencies of outer excitement change, it is
possible either to achieve the required frequency ranges
or to exclude the undesirable ones. It creates the basis
a)
Fig 5. Time processes, spectral characteristics and phase trajectories of a symmetrical system with the piecewise linear
elastic characteristic. Range IV: a) monoharmonic excitement; b) biharmonic excitement
69
69
for designing structural elements, for which the regular
dynamic regimes can be specified initially.
6. Conclusions
The analysis of results obtained allows to make a
conclusion that the systems with non-linear elastic char-
acteristics are rather sensitive to the dependence on an
outer excitement change. Therefore the widely used as-
sumptions about the monoharmonic dependence of an
outer excitement change in studies of actual mechanical
systems are not always correct. Thus rather small devia-
tions of the outer excitement form from monoharmonic
does not make considerable effect within wide ranges of
frequencies (resonances of frequencies ω and ω 3 ) but
can result in qualitative changes in other ranges The de-
velopment of qualitative methods of investigation of dy-
namic systems suggested by the authors is an effective
means of analysis and identification of dynamic systems.
Simultaneous use of all three types of signals. registered
in time, namely displacement, velocity and acceleration
allows to expand considerably the opportunities of tradi-
tional methods of investigation.
Unlike the existing asymptotic and stochastic meth-
ods [9, 10] of identification of dynamic systems, the
use of the suggested technique is not connected with the
use of a significant amount of computing procedures, and
also has a number of advantages when investigating the
explosive oscillations.
b)
70 V. Volkova / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 65–70

References 6. Gorbatsevitch, E. D.; Levinzon, F. F. Analog modelling of

the control systems. Moscow: Nauka, 1984. 304 p. (in
1. Andronov, A. A.; Leontovich, E. A.; Gordon, I. I.; Maier, Russian).
A. G. Qualitative theory of second-order systems. New
7. Tompson, J. M. T. Instabilities and catastrophes in science
York: Halsted Press Book, 1973. 524 p.
and engineering. New York: John Willey & Sons, 1982.
2. Kazakevich, M. I.; Volkova, V. E. Dynamics of systems 254 p.
with double-well potential. Dnepropetrovsk: Art-Press,
8. Butenin, N. V. Introduction into the theory of non-linear
2000. 159 p. (in Russian).
oscillations. Moscow: Nauka. 1976. 286 p. (in Russian).
3. Kazakevitch, M. I.; Volkova, V. E. Identification of non-
9. Lichtenberg, A. J.; Lieberman, M. A. Regular and stochas-
linear dynamic systems. In: Proceedings of the 7-th Inter-
tic motion. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1984. 573 p.
national Conference on Modern Building Materials, Struc-
tures and Techniques, Vol 3. Vilnius: Technika, 2001, 10. Adams, E. D.; Allemang, R. J. Survey of non-linear detec-
p. 145–150. tion and identification techniques for experimental vibra-
tions. In: Proceedings of ISMA 23, Vol 1. Davenport:
4. Blehman, I. I. (ed). Oscillations in engineering: Reference
Pergamon, 1998, p. 269–281.
book in 6 volumes, Vol 2. Moscow: Engineering, 1979.
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5. Zakrzhevskij, N. M. Oscillations in essential non-linear
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sian).

70
 71

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http:/www.vtu.lt/english/editions

2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 71–78

DAUGIAKRITERINËS NEKILNOJAMOJO TURTO ELEKTRONINËS PREKYBOS

SISTEMOS TAIKYMO YPATUMAI

Edmundas Kazimieras Zavadskas, Artûras Kaklauskas, Saulius Raslanas, Mindaugas Krutinis

Statybos technologijos ir vadybos katedra, Statybos ekonomikos ir nekilnojamojo turto vadybos katedra, Vilniaus
Gedimino technikos universitetas, Saulëtekio al. 11, LT-10223 Vilnius-40, Lietuva.
E-paðtas: property@st.vtu.lt
Áteikta 2003 11 27; priimta 2004 05 06

Santrauka. Viena ið pagrindiniø internetiniø informaciniø sistemø problemø yra ta, jog jose sunku rasti reikiamà gaminá
ar paslaugà. Internete siûloma tûkstanèiai to paties gaminio ar paslaugos rûðiø. Juos vartotojas paprastai nori palyginti
su kitais panaðiais gaminiais ar paslaugomis. Analogiðkø pasiûlymø palyginimà galima atlikti ðiais bûdais, tai gaminiø
paieðka hipertekstiniuose dokumentuose pagal tarpininkus, alternatyviø gaminiø paieðka duomenø bazëse, alternatyviø
gaminiø paieðka ir sugretinimas lentelëse, alternatyviø gaminiø ir paslaugø paieðka ávairiose elektroninës prekybos
svetainëse, paieðka ir daugiakriteriniø sprendimø priëmimas. Autoriai sukûrë internetinæ daugiakriterinæ nekilnojamojo
turto elektroninës prekybos (NTEP) sistemà. Pateikta NTEP sistema gali padidinti nekilnojamojo turto vertæ ðiais bûdais:
ði sistema vartotojams gali padëti nustatyti savo poreikius, nustatyti jø poreikius atitinkantá nekilnojamàjá turtà, palyginti
ir ávertinti ávairius siûlomus nekilnojamojo turto variantus, padëti vartotojams ávertinti nekilnojamojo turto naudingumà
já ásigijus ir pan.
Raktaþodþiai: internetinës informacinës sistemos, NTEP sistema, daugiakriterinë analizë.

1. Ávadas aspektus (ekonominius, kokybinius, techninius, teisinius,

Dauguma elektroninës prekybos sistemø bando rasti
ekonomiðkiausius sprendimus daugiausia siekdamos tik
ekonominiø tikslø [1–4]. Todël daugelis elektroninës pre-
kybos sistemø apdoroja ir teikia tik ekonominæ informa-
cijà bei taiko ekonominius modelius. Taèiau nagrinëja-
mas alternatyvas daþnai reikia vertinti ne tik ekonominiu,
bet taip pat ir kokybiniu, techniniu, teisiniu, socialiniu ir
kitokiu atþvilgiu [5–7]. Kuriant siûlomà sistemà buvo
stengiamasi iðvengti ðiø ir kitø sistemø trûkumø.
2. Daugiakriterinës nekilnojamojo turto elektroninës
prekybos sistemos apraðymas
Remiantis informaciniø, ekspertiniø, sprendimø pa-
ramos ir elektroninës prekybos sistemø analize buvo su-
kurta daugiakriterinë nekilnojamojo turto elektroninës pre-
kybos (NTEP) sistema, kurios trumpas apraðymas
pateiktas ðiame straipsnyje [8–9]. Ði sistema sudaryta ið
duomenø bazës bei duomenø bazës valdymo sistemos,
modeliø bazës bei modeliø bazës valdymo sistemos ir
vartotojo interfeiso.
Duomenø bazëje (http://193.219.145.99/PROJ2/
TEORIJA/teorija1.htm) nekilnojamàjá turtà apraðant kie-
kybine ir koncepcine formomis, pateikiama ávairius jo
socialinius, ekologinius ir pan.) apibûdinanti informacija
[10]. Ji gali bûti pateikta skaitmenine, tekstine, grafine
forma (schemos, grafikai, diagramos, brëþiniai), tai gali
bûti formulës, nuotraukos, garso ar vaizdo áraðai. Rem-
damasi ðia informacija NTEP sistema gali ávertinti ne-
kilnojamàjá turtà ávairiais aspektais (t. y. rinkos vertës,
investicinës vertës, esamo naudojimo rinkos vertës ir kt.
verèiø nustatymas); ji gali ávertinti atskirus kriterijus, tu-
rinèius átakos vertei (pavyzdþiui, nekilnojamojo turto vie-
tos, nusidëvëjimo, pasiûlos, paklausos ir pan. ávertinimas),
nustatyti optimalaus panaudojimo variantà (pavyzdþiui,
pirkëjas bûstà renkasi maksimaliai tenkindamas gyveni-
mo bûtinumo, komfortiðkumo bei asmeninius poreikius)
(http://193.219.145.99/PROJ2/TEORIJA/teorija1.htm).
Kadangi nekilnojamàjá turtà racionalu vertinti ávairiais as-
pektais, todël tarp sprendimø paramos sistemos modeliø
yra tokiø, kurie sprendimø priëmëjui padeda atlikti kom-
pleksinæ alternatyvø analizæ ir priimti sprendimà. Pavyz-
dþiui, teigiamas ir neigiamas nagrinëjamø alternatyvø sa-
vybes galima detaliai iðanalizuoti remiantis apskaièiuotais
kriterijø reikðmingumais, jø prioritetiðkumo, naudingumo
laipsnio ir rinkos verèiø reikðmëmis.
NTEP sistemos pagrindinis voratinklio svetainës
tinklalapis (http://193.219.145.99) turi nuorodas á kitus
tinklalapius:

71
72 E. K. Zavadskas, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 71–78
• Teorijos voratinklio tinklalapis (http://
193.219.145.99/PROJ2/TEORIJA/teorija1.htm).
Jame pateikta autoriø pasiûlyta teorija, kuria remian-
tis buvo sukurta NTEP sistema.
• Darbo su sistema instrukcijos voratinklio tinklalapis
(http://193.219.145.99/proj2/help2.pdf). Remiantis
ðiomis instrukcijomis gana nesudëtinga praktiðkai
naudotis NTEP sistema.
• Sistemos galimybiø apraðymo voratinklio tinklala-
pis (http://193.219.145.99/proj2/help1.pdf). Ðiame
voratinklio tinklalapyje trumpai apraðytos suintere-
suotosios grupës, kurios savo praktinëje veikloje gali
naudotis NTEP sistema ir sistemos galimybëmis.
• Komerciniø pastatø voratinklio tinklalapis (http://
193.219.145.99/PROJ2/PARDUOT/parduot.htm).
• Vienbuèiø gyvenamøjø namø voratinklio tinklalapis
(http://193.219.145.99/PROJ2/NAMAI/namai.htm).
• Sodybø voratinklio tinklalapis (http://193.219.145.99/
PROJ2/SODYBOS2/sodybos2_1.htm).
Ðios nuorodos iðryðkintos. Norint pasinaudoti nuo-
roda, reikia paspausti iðryðkintà vietà.
Taip atsiranda daugybë Lietuvos nekilnojamojo tur-
to rinkos dalyviø (pardavëjai, tarpininkai, agentai, inves-
tuotojai, ávairios organizacijos, ámonës, bankai, kitos fi-
nansø institucijos ir kt. kreditoriai, draudimo kompanijos,
pirkëjai, vertintojai, teismai), kurie nori turëti iðsamià in-
formacijà apie objektus, siûlomus rinkoje [11]. Ðios su-
interesuotosios grupës savo praktinëje veikloje taikyda-
mos NTEP sistemà savo tikslus ágyvendintø operatyviau
ir profesionaliau.
Ateityje tobulinant NTEP sistemà numatoma praplës-
ti pagrindinës tikslinës naudojimo paskirties nekilnoja-
mojo turto duomenø bazæ, sudaryti galimybæ atlikti jo
perleidimo operacijas (nuomos, lizingo, dovanojimo, pir-
kimo ir pardavimo), sumokëti uþ já, patikrinti, ar sumo-
këta uþ já, gauti informacijos apie kliento asmeninæ sà-
skaità (patikrinti, ar joje yra reikiama pinigø suma), keistis
informacija (skelbimø lenta, diskusijø forumai, reklama,
laiðkø dëþutë, straipsniai, kita informacija). Kadangi in-
formacija apie siûlomà nekilnojamàjá turtà nuolatos kei-
èiasi, todël naujausios informacijos reikia ieðkoti agen-
tûrø ir kitø suinteresuotø grupiø tinklalapiuose. Todël
numatoma pateikti nuorodas ir á suinteresuotø grupiø Web
mazgus. Be to, numatoma pateikti informacijà apie turto
vertintojø, agentûrø ir kitø asociacijø veiklà, ádëti ávai-
rius skelbimus, informacijà apie padëtá rinkoje, jos po-
kyèius ir prognozes ateièiai, apie leidþiamus periodinius
informacinius biuletenius, kità naujausià vartotojams rû-
pimà informacijà.
3. Praktinis pavyzdys
Kad bûtø lengviau suvokti daugiakriterinæ nekilno-
jamojo turto analizës esmæ, pateikiamas jos taikymo pa-
vyzdys [12]. Uþdavinys – nustatyti poilsio sodybos rin-
kos vertæ, esant lyginamøjø ir vertinamojo objekto
kiekybiniams, kokybiniams skirtumams, taip pat nustaty-
72
ti vertinamojo objekto ir parduotø objektø (lyginamøjø
objektø) konkurencingumà.
2003 m. balandþio mënesá nekilnojamojo turto rin-
koje buvo siûloma parduoti þemës sklypà su pastatais
poilsio sodybai ákurti. Kliento pageidavimu ðá nekilnoja-
màjá turtà reikëjo ávertinti rinkos verte. Tuo metu nekil-
nojamojo turto rinkos aktyvumas didëjo, parduotø lygi-
namøjø objektø netrûko, todël jie ðiam vertinimui buvo
parinkti ið to paties rajono. Ðiuo atveju apskaièiuota ly-
ginamoji vertë lygi rinkos vertei, be to, ávertinti visi kri-
terijai, darantys átakà ðios nekilnojamojo turto rûðies rin-
kos vertei. Kriterijø reikðmës ir pradiniai reikðmingumai
buvo ávertinti padedant nekilnojamojo turto ekspertams
ir atsiþvelgiant á turtu suinteresuotø asmenø nuomonæ.
3.1. Koncepcinis vertinamojo ir lyginamøjø nekilno-
jamojo turto objektø apraðymas
3.1.1. Pirmosios (vertinamosios) poilsio sodybos kon-
cepcinis apraðymas
Vietovës apraðymas. Sodyba yra Anomislio kaime,
Toliejø seniûnijoje, Molëtø rajone (1 pav.). Artimiausias
kaimynas – uþ 500 m á ðiauræ nuo sodybos. Uþ 600 m á
rytus nuo sodybos yra graþus Jaurio eþeras. Iki miðko –
100 m. Privaþiuojamieji keliai geri: 4 km ilgio þvyrke-
lis, toliau eina asfaltuotas kelias. Artimiausia gyvenvietë
Toliejai yra uþ 2 km. Molëtai – uþ 12 km. Vilnius – uþ
72 km.
1 pav. Vertinamoji poilsinë sodyba
Þemës sklypas. Þemës sklypo plotas – 1 ha. Uþsta-
tyta pastatais – 0,20 ha, visa kita – þemës ûkio naudme-
nos ir sodas. Sklype yra gyvenamasis namas, ûkinis pa-
statas, pirtis, darþinë, nedidelis tvenkinys ir lapuoèiø
miðkelis. Sodas – senas.
Pastatø fizinës charakteristikos. Visi minëti pastatai
yra ikikarinës statybos, iðskyrus ûkiná pastatà. Gyvena-
masis namas – vieno aukðto, medinis, ið ràstø, apkaltas
ðaliuote. Bendras plotas – 80 m2. Namas buvo gerai pri-
þiûrimas, remontuojamas. Jam reikëtø rekonstrukcijos
E. K. Zavadskas, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 71–78
arba nedidelio remonto. Darþinë taip pat statyta ið ràstø.
Jo bûklë patenkinama (reikëtø kapitalinio remonto arba
rekonstrukcijos). Ûkinis pastatas iðsilaikæs gerai, todël jam
reikëtø nedidelio remonto. Pirties bûklë gera. Ji buvo re-
konstruota 1992 m.
Patogumai. Elektra yra tik gyvenamajame pastate.
Ðildoma krosnimi. Vandentiekio ir telefono nëra. Kieme
stovi ðulinys.
Apribojimai. Servitutø þemës sklype nëra. Yra ap-
ribojimø pagal LR Vyriausybës nutarimo Nr. 343 XXIX
skyriø dël vandens telkiniø pakrantës apsaugos juostos,
apribojamas plotas – 0,05 ha.
Þemës sklypo padëties elementai. Atstumas iki Mo-
lëtø (rajono centro) – 12 km. Iki artimiausios gyvenvie-
tës – 3 km. Privaþiuojama prie þemës sklypo nuo gyven-
vietës þvyrkeliu – 3 km. Sklypas yra graþioje vietoje.
Galima uþsiimti ûkine veikla (ðalia yra laisvos valstybi-
nës þemës), kaimo turizmu. Aplinka neuþterðta, vieta
rami.
3.1.2. Antrosios poilsio sodybos (lyginamojo objekto)
koncepcinis apraðymas
Vietovës apraðymas. Sodyba yra Migiðkiø kaime,
Balninkø seniûnijoje, Molëtø rajone (2 pav.). Artimiau-
sias kaimynas – uþ 100 m nuo sodybos. Uþ 500 m á
pietryèius nuo sodybos yra Sabalos eþeras. Iki miðko –
300 m. Privaþiuojamieji keliai geri: 0,5 km ilgio þvyrke-
lis, toliau eina asfaltuotas kelias. Artimiausia gyvenvietë
Girsteitiðkis yra uþ 5 km, Molëtai – uþ 18 km, Vilnius –
uþ 78 km.
2 pav. Antroji (lyginamoji) poilsio sodyba
Þemës sklypas. Þemës sklypo plotas – 0,7 ha. Uþ-
statyta pastatais – 0,30 ha. Visa kita – þemës ûkio naud-
menos ir sodas. Þemës sklype yra gyvenamasis namas,
ûkinis pastatas, darþinë, pirtis. Sodas – senas.
Pastatø fizinës charakteristikos. Gyvenamasis na-
mas – ikikarinës statybos, vieno aukðto, medinis, ið ràs-
tø, apkaltas ðaliuote. Bendras plotas – 80 m2. Namas bu-
vo gerai priþiûrimas ir remontuojamas. Jam reikëtø
nedidelës rekonstrukcijos arba nedidelio remonto. Ûki-
73
73
nis pastatas, pirtis, darþinë ir du garaþai buvo nugriauti
ir perstatyti ið plytø 1994 m. Todël ðiø pastatø bûklë
gera (remonto nereikia).
Patogumai. Elektra yra visuose pastatuose. Gyvena-
masis namas ðildomas krosnimi. Vandentiekio ir telefo-
no nëra. Kieme stovi ðulinys.
Apribojimai. Servitutø þemës sklype nëra. Yra apri-
bojimø pagal LR Vyriausybës nutarimo Nr. 343 XXIX
skyriø dël vandens telkiniø pakrantës apsaugos juostos,
apribojamas plotas – 0,04 ha.
Þemës sklypo padëties elementai. Atstumas iki Mo-
lëtø (rajono centro) – 16 km. Iki artimiausios gyvenvie-
tës – 5 km. Prie þemës sklypo nuo gyvenvietës priva-
þiuojama asfaltu – 4,5 km ir þvyrkeliu – 0,5 km. Sklypas
yra graþioje vietoje. Galima vystyti ûkinæ veiklà (ðalia
yra laisvos valstybinës þemës), kaimo turizmà. Aplinka
neuþterðta, vieta rami.
Sodybos pardavimo kaina – 44 000Lt.
3.1.3. Treèiosios poilsio sodybos (lyginamojo objekto)
koncepcinis apraðymas
Vietovës apraðymas. Sodyba yra Juodënø kaime,
Èiulënø seniûnijoje, Molëtø rajone (3 pav.). Artimiau-
sias kaimynas – uþ 100 m á vakarus nuo sodybos. Uþ
500 m á pietvakarius nuo sodybos yra Virintø eþeras. Iki
miðko – 300 m. Privaþiuojamieji keliai geri: 1 km ilgio
þvyrkelis, toliau eina asfaltuotas kelias. Artimiausia gy-
venvietë Toliejai yra uþ 4 km. Rajono centras – Molëtai
yra uþ 10 km, Vilnius – uþ 70 km.
Þemës sklypas. Þemës sklypo plotas – 2 ha. Uþsta-
tyta pastatais – 0,20 ha, visa kita – þemës ûkio naudme-
nos ir sodas. Þemës sklype yra gyvenamasis namas, ûki-
nis pastatas, darþinë, sodas.
3 pav. Treèioji (lyginamoji) poilsio sodyba
Pastatø fizinës charakteristikos. Gyvenamasis na-
mas – ikikarinës statybos, vieno aukðto, medinis, ið ràs-
tø, apkaltas ðaliuote. Bendras plotas 80 m2. Jam reikëtø
rekonstrukcijos arba remonto. Ûkinis pastatas mûrinis.
Remonto nereikia. Darþinë taip pat mûrinë, geros bûk-
lës, jai reikëtø nedidelio remonto.
74 E. K. Zavadskas, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 71–78
Patogumai. Elektra yra visuose pastatuose. Gyvena-
masis namas ðildomas krosnimi. Yra telefonas. Vanden-
tiekio nëra. Kieme stovi ðulinys.
Apribojimai. Servitutø þemës sklype nëra. Yra apri-
bojimø pagal LR Vyriausybës nutarimo Nr. 343 XXIX
skyriø dël vandens telkiniø pakrantës apsaugos juostos,
apribojamas plotas – 0,07 ha.
Þemës sklypo padëties elementai. Privaþiuojama prie
sklypo nuo Molëtø á Utenos pusæ asfaltu (9 km) ir þvyr-
keliu á Juodënus (1 km). Atstumas iki Molëtø (rajono
centro) – 10 km. Sklypas graþioje vietoje. Galima vystyti
ûkinæ veiklà (ðalia yra laisvos valstybinës þemës), kaimo
turizmà. Aplinka neuþterðta, vieta rami.
Sodybos pardavimo kaina – 40 000 Lt.
3.1.4. Ketvirtosios poilsio sodybos (lyginamojo
objekto) koncepcinis apraðymas
Vietovës apraðymas. Sodyba yra Antamakiø kaime,
Balninkø seniûnijoje, Molëtø rajone (4 pav.). Artimiau-
sias kaimynas – uþ 300 m á pietus nuo sodybos. Uþ 700
m á vakarus nuo sodybos yra Makio eþeras. Iki miðko –
300 m. Privaþiuojamieji keliai geri: 3 km ilgio þvyrke-
lis, toliau eina asfaltuotas kelias. Artimiausia gyvenvietë
Balninkai yra uþ 3 km, Molëtai – uþ 20 km, Vilnius –
uþ 80 km.
4 pav. Ketvirtoji (lyginamoji) poilsio sodyba
Þemës sklypas. Þemës sklypo plotas – 0,5 ha. Uþ-
statyta pastatais – 0,10 ha. Visa kita – þemës ûkio naud-
menos ir sodas. Sklype yra gyvenamasis namas, ûkinis
pastatas, darþinë. Sodas – senas.
Pastatø fizinës charakteristikos. Visi pastatai yra iki-
karinës statybos. Gyvenamasis namas – vieno aukðto, me-
dinis, ið ràstø. Bendras plotas 70 m2. Pastato bûklë pa-
tenkinama (jam reikëtø rekonstrukcijos arba remonto).
Ûkinis pastatas ir darþinë taip pat mediniai. Jø bûklë pa-
tenkinama (reikëtø kapitalinio remonto arba rekonstruk-
cijos).
Patogumai. Elektra yra tik gyvenamajame name. Ðil-
doma krosnimi. Vandentiekio ir telefono nëra. Kieme
stovi ðulinys.
74
Apribojimai. Servitutø þemës sklype nëra. Yra apri-
bojimø pagal LR Vyriausybës nutarimo Nr. 343 XXIX
skyriø dël vandens telkiniø pakrantës apsaugos juostos,
apribojamas plotas – 0,07 ha.
Þemës sklypo padëties elementai. Atstumas iki Mo-
lëtø (rajono centro) – 20 km. Iki artimiausios gyvenvie-
tës – 3 km. Privaþiuojama prie þemës sklypo nuo Molë-
tø asfaltu (17 km) ir þvyrkeliu (3 km). Sklypas yra
graþioje vietoje. Galima vystyti ûkinæ veiklà (ðalia yra
laisvos valstybinës þemës), kaimo turizmà. Aplinka ne-
uþterðta ir rami.
Sodybos pardavimo kaina – 36 000 Lt.
3.1.5. Penktosios poilsio sodybos (lyginamojo
objekto) koncepcinis apraðymas
Vietovës apraðymas. Sodyba yra Anomisliø kaime,
Èiulënø seniûnijoje, Molëtø rajone (5 pav.). Artimiau-
sias kaimynas – uþ 500 m á pietus nuo sodybos. Uþ 300 m
á vakarus nuo sodybos yra graþus Susiedo eþeras. Iki mið-
ko – 100 m. Privaþiuojamieji keliai geri: 2 km ilgio þvyr-
kelis, toliau eina asfaltuotas kelias. Artimiausia gyven-
vietë Juodënai yra uþ 2 km, Molëtai – uþ 10 km, Vilnius –
uþ 70 km.
5 pav. Penktoji (lyginamoji) poilsio sodyba
Þemës sklypas. Þemës sklypo plotas – 0,6 ha. Uþsta-
tyta pastatais – 0,20 ha, kita þemë – naudmenos ir sodas.
Sklype yra gyvenamasis namas, ûkinis pastatas, sodas.
Pastatø fizinës charakteristikos. Visi pastatai yra iki-
karinës statybos. Gyvenamasis namas – vieno aukðto, me-
dinis, ið ràstø. Bendras plotas 65 m2. Pastato bûklë gera
(jam reikëtø rekonstrukcijos arba nedidelio remonto). Ûki-
nis pastatas taip pat medinis. Jo bûklë patenkinama (rei-
këtø kapitalinio remonto arba rekonstrukcijos).
Patogumai. Elektra yra tik gyvenamajame name. Jis
ðildomas krosnimi. Vandentiekio ir telefono nëra. Kieme
stovi ðulinys.
Apribojimai. Servitutø þemës sklype nëra. Yra ap-
ribojimø pagal LR Vyriausybës nutarimo Nr. 343 XXIX
skyriø dël vandens telkiniø pakrantës apsaugos juostos,
apribojamas plotas – 0,05 ha.
E. K. Zavadskas, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 71–78
Þemës sklypo padëties elementai. Atstumas iki Mo-
lëtø (rajono centro) – 10 km. Iki artimiausios gyvenvie-
tës – 3 km. Privaþiuojame prie sklypo nuo Molëtø asfal-
tu (8 km) ir þvyrkeliu (2 km). Sklypas yra graþioje
vietoje. Galima vystyti ûkinæ veiklà (ðalia yra laisvos vals-
tybinës þemës), kaimo turizmà. Aplinka neuþterðta, vieta
rami.
Sodybos pardavimo kaina – 38 000 Lt.
3.2. Pateikto uþdavinio sprendimas
3.2.1. Sprendimo priëmimo matricos sudarymas
Skaièiavimai atlikti pagal apraðytà [12] metodà. Re-
miantis pateiktu poilsio sodybø koncepciniu apraðymu 2.1
poskyryje buvo sudaryta sprendimo priëmimo matrica (1
lent.). Ðioje matricoje reikëjo nustatyti poilsio sodybos,
esanèios Anomislio kaime, Toliejø seniûnijoje, Molëtø
rajone, rinkos vertæ ir kompleksiðkai ávertinti vertinamo-
jo ir lyginamøjø objektø teigiamas ir neigiamas savybes.
Lyginamieji objektai, esantys tame paèiame Molëtø ra-
jone, buvo parduoti 2003 m., ir jø pardavimo kainos bu-
vo þinomos (1 lent.).
Kriterijø sistema sudaryta, atsiþvelgiant á visus gali-
mus kriterijus, apibûdinanèius vertinamojo ir lyginamøjø
objektø kokybines ir kiekybines savybes. Kokybiniø kri-
terijø reikðmës ir reikðmingumai nustatyti ekspertiniu bû-
du, apklausiant rinkos dalyvius, t. y. vertintojus-eksper-
tus, pirkëjus ir pardavëjus [9–10]. Lyginamøjø objektø
pardavimo kainos yra nepadidintos ir nesumaþintos dël
rinkos dalyviø asmeniniø prieþasèiø ir kitø nenumatytø
aplinkybiø. Galima teigti, kad visi kriterijai, turintys áta-
kos tiriamo turto rûðies rinkos vertei, yra numatyti. Ly-
ginamøjø objektø pardavimo laikas artimas objekto ver-
tinimo momentui, todël á laiko pataisos koeficientà
nebuvo atsiþvelgta. Pardavimo kainos kriterijaus reikð-
mingumas buvo imtas lygus visø kitø rinkos vertei turin-
èiø átakos kriterijø reikðmingumø sumai.
Sprendimo priëmimo matricoje kiekybiniø kriterijø,
pavyzdþiui, lyginamøjø objektø pardavimo kaina, atstu-
mai iki vertinamojo objekto, pagalbiniø pastatø skaièius,
gyvenamojo pastato bendrasis plotas, matavimo vienetai
buvo nustatyti kiekybiniais dydþiais: litais, kilometrais,
hektarais, vienetais, kvadratiniais metrais, o kokybiniai
kriterijai buvo matuojami balais, kurie nustatyti iðrenkant
konkretaus objekto geriausià reikðmæ, o kitiems objek-
tams suteikiant santykines reikðmes.
3.2.2. Pirmo artëjimo skaièiavimo rezultatai
Pirmame artëjimo cikle vertinamojo objekto pradi-
në vertë buvo prilyginta lyginamøjø objektø pardavimo
kainø vidurkiui, t. y. 39 500 Lt (1 lent.).
Sudarius kriterijø sistemà ir nustaèius jø reikðmes
bei reikðmingumus, buvo parengta sugrupuota sprendi-
mø priëmimo matrica (1 lent.). Remiantis ðia matrica bu-
vo suskaièiuoti kriterijø reikðmingumai (2 lent.):
75
75
d11 = 39,500 ⋅ 1,00 /(39,50 + 44,0 + 40,0 + 36,0 + 38,0) = 0, 2;
d12 = 44,00 ⋅ 1,00 /(39,50 + 44,0 + 40,0 + 36,0 + 38,0) = 0, 2228;
d13 = 40,00 ⋅ 1,00 /(39,50 + 44,0 + 40,0 + 36,0 + 38,0) = 0, 2025;
d14 = 36,00 ⋅ 1,00 /(39,50 + 44,0 + 40,0 + 36,0 + 38,0) = 0,1823;
d15 = 38,00 ⋅ 1,00 /(39,50 + 44,0 + 40,0 + 36,0 + 38,0) = 0,1924.
Kiekvieno kriterijaus gautø bedimensiø ávertintø
reikðmiø d ij suma visada lygi ðio kriterijaus reikðmin-
gumui, pavyzdþiui, poilsio sodybos atstumo iki eþero kri-
terijus apskaièiuojamas taip:
n
q3 = ∑ d 3 j =0,0341 + 0,0284 + 0,0284 +
j =1
0,0398 + 0,0170 = 0,1477.
Vertinant buvo nustatyta, kad didþiausios átakos
poilsio sodybos rinkos vertei turi ðie veiksniai: jos
nuotolis iki Vilniaus (q2 = 0,1358), atstumas iki eþero
(q3 = 0,1477), miðko (q4 = 0,1238), gyvenamojo namo
bûklë (q9 = 0,1065), vietovës kraðtovaizdis (q12 = 0,1106).
Vëliau buvo apskaièiuotos lyginamuosius ir vertina-
màjá objektus apibûdinanèiø minimizuojanèiø S− j ir
maksimizuojanèiø S+ j ávertintø normalizuotø rodikliø
sumos:
S −1 = 0,2000 + 0,0264 + 0,0341 +
0,0113 + 0,0317 + 0,0044 + 0,0049 = 0,3127;
S +1 = 0,0990; S − 2 = 0,3409; S + 2 = 0,0941;
S −3 = 0,3098; S + 3 = 0,0970;
S − 4 = 0,3148; S + 4 = 0,0710;
S −5 = 0,0284; S + 5 = 0,0760.
Ðiuo atveju S+ j ir S− j dydþiai iðreiðkia lygina-
maisiais objektais pasiektø tikslø lygá. Bet kuriuo atveju
visø lyginamøjø objektø pliusø S+ j ir minusø S− j su-
mos visada yra atitinkamai lygios visoms maksimizuo-
janèiø ir minimizuojanèiø kriterijø reikðmingumø sumoms:
S − = 0,3127 + 0,34091 + 0,3098 + 0,3148 + 0,0284 = 1,3066;
S + = 0,4371.
Nustatomas kiekvieno lyginamojo ir vertinamojo
objekto santykinis reikðmingumas:
Q1 =0,4104; Q2 =0,3798; Q3 =0,4113;
Q4 =0,3803; Q5 =0,4182.
Pirmame artëjimo cikle naudingiausiu pagal naudo-
jimo paskirtá buvo pripaþintas lyginamasis objektas, esan-
tis Anomisliø kaime N5 = 100 %, antrasis pagal naudin-
gumà – lyginamasis objektas, esantis Juodënø kaime
N3= 98,37 %, ir treèiasis – vertinamasis objektas, esantis
Anomisliø kaime (2 lent.). Vëliau buvo nustatytas lygi-
namøjø ir vertinamojo objektø efektyvumo lygis E xj . Jis
rodo, kiek procentø yra geresnis (blogesnis) vertinama-
sis objektas, palyginti su lyginamaisiais objektais, ir jie
lyginami tarpusavyje.
76 E. K. Zavadskas, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 71–78

1 lentelë. Pradiniai duomenys poilsio sodybos daugiakriterinei analizei atlikti

* Kriterijaus Kriterijaus Vertinamoji Lyginamosios poilsio sodybos

Nagrinëjami kriterijai matavimo reikðmingumas sodyba
vienetas
1 2 3 4 5
Pardavimo kaina (pradinë – Lt(t) 1,0 X 44,0 40,0 36,0 38,0
vertë)
Atstumas nuo poilsio – km 0,1358 72 78 70 80 70
sodybos iki Vilniaus
Atstumas nuo poilsio – km 0,1477 0,60 0,50 0,50 0,70 0,30
sodybos iki eþero
Atstumas nuo poilsio – km 0,1238 0,10 0,30 0,30 0,30 0,10
sodybos iki miðko
Atstumas nuo poilsio – km 0,0951 0,50 0,10 0,10 0,30 0,50
sodybos iki kaimyno
Atstumas nuo poilsio – km 0,0215 4,00 8,00 3,00 3,00 1,50
sodybos iki plento
Atstumas nuo poilsio – km 0,0389 2,00 5,00 4,00 3,00 2,00
sodybos iki gyvenvietës
Gyvenamojo namo bendrasis + m2 0,0461 80,00 80,00 80,00 70,00 65,00
plotas
Gyvenamojo namo bûklë + balai 0,1065 0,80 0,80 0,70 0,60 0,70
Pagalbiniø pastatø skaièius + vnt. 0,0179 3 3 2 2 1
Þemës sklypo plotas + ha 0,0789 1,00 0,70 2,00 0,50 0,60
Vietovës kraðtovaizdis + balai 0,1106 1,00 1,00 0,60 0,60 0,80
Rajono prestiþas + balai 0,0120 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
Oro, aplinkos uþterðtumo ir + balai 0,0652 1,00 1,00 0,80 1,00 0,80
triukðmo lygis

* + (-) rodo, kad atitinkamai didesnë (maþesnë) kriterijaus reikðmë labiau atitinka suinteresuotos þmoniø grupës interesus.

Pavyzdþiui: 3.2.3. Galutiniai rezultatai

E11 = 98,14 % − 98,14 % = 0,000 %;
E12 = 98,14 % − 90,81 % = 7,33 %;
E13 = 98,14 % − 98,37 % = −0,23 %;
E14 = 98,14 % − 90,95 % = 7,19 %;
E 21 = −7,33 %; E 22 = 0,000 %; E 23 = −7,56 %;
E 24 = −0,14 %; E 25 = −9,19 %.
Vëliau buvo apskaièiuotas vertinamojo objekto nau-
dingumo procento vidutinis nukrypimas k x , nuo kurio ir
priklauso, ar kitu etapu iðkart bus nustatoma vertinamojo
objekto rinkos vertë, ar bus tik patikslinta pradinë vertë
ir kartojamas artëjimo ciklas. Po pirmojo artëjimo verti-
namojo objekto naudingumo procento vidutinis nukry-
pimas k x neatitiko metodo nelygybës  kax < 1 %,
gautas toks rezultatas:
kax =6,22>1.
Tuomet buvo patikslinta vertinamojo objekto vertë:
V1 = 39 500 (1+6,22/100) = 41 956,48 Lt.
Patikslinus vertinamojo objekto vertæ, pagal metodo
struktûrinæ schemà toliau eina metodo artëjimo ciklas.
Kaip matome ið 2 lentelës, pirmame artëjimo cikle
naudingiausias pagal naudojimo paskirtá yra lyginamasis
objektas, esantis Anomisliø kaime N5 =100 %, antrasis
pagal naudingumà – lyginamasis objektas, esantis Juo-
dënø kaime N3 = 98,37 %, ir treèiasis – vertinamasis ob-
jektas, esantis Anomisliø kaime (N1 = 98,14 %). Kaip
matome ið apskaièiuotø objektø naudingumo procento,
vertinamosios poilsio sodybos pradinë vertë x = 39 500 Lt
yra per maþa, dël to ðis objektas nëra vienodai konku-
rencingas rinkoje, palyginti su kitomis sodybomis, kom-
pleksiðkai ávertinus jø teigiamas ir neigiamas savybes.
Tà patvirtina ir nelygybë kax =6,22>1 %.
Remiantis ðia nelygybe buvo nustatyta, kad dar ne-
pakankamai tiksliai apskaièiuota vertinamosios poilsio so-
dybos vertë.
Todël, remiantis vertinamojo nekilnojamojo turto ob-
jekto rinkos vertës skaièiavimo struktûrine schema
(pateikta adresu http://193.219.145.99/PROJ2/TEORIJA/
teorija1.htm), skaièiavimø ciklai buvo tæsiami tol, kol ver-
tinamojo objekto naudingumo procento vidutinis nukry-
pimas atitiko nelygybæ  kax < 1 %.

76
E. K. Zavadskas, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 71–78 77

2 lentelë. Poilsio sodybø daugiakriterinës analizës rezultatai (1 artëjimo ciklas, X = 39 500)

* Poilsio sodybos (normalizuotø ávertintø kriterijø skaitmeninës
Nagrinëjami kriterijai reikðmës dij)
1 2 3 4 5
Pardavimo kaina (pradinë vertë) - 0,2000 0,2228 0,2025 0,1823 0,1924
Atstumas nuo poilsio sodybos iki Vilniaus - 0,0264 0,0286 0,0257 0,0294 0,0257
Atstumas nuo poilsio sodybos iki eþero - 0,0341 0,0284 0,0284 0,0398 0,0170
Atstumas nuo poilsio sodybos iki miðko - 0,0113 0,0338 0,0338 0,0338 0,0113
Atstumas nuo poilsio sodybos iki kaimyno - 0,0317 0,0063 0,0063 0,0190 0,0317
Atstumas nuo poilsio sodybos iki plento - 0,0044 0,0088 0,0033 0,0033 0,0017
Atstumas nuo poilsio sodybos iki gyvenvietës - 0,0049 0,0122 0,0097 0,0073 0,0049
Gyvenamojo namo bendras plotas + 0,0098 0,0098 0,0098 0,0086 0,0080
Gyvenamojo namo bûklë + 0,0237 0,0237 0,0207 0,0178 0,0207
Pagalbiniø pastatø skaièius + 0,0049 0,0049 0,0033 0,0033 0,0016
Þemës sklypo plotas + 0,0164 0,0115 0,0329 0,0082 0,0099
Vietovës kraðtovaizdis + 0,0277 0,0277 0,0166 0,0166 0,0221
Rajono prestiþas + 0,0024 0,0024 0,0024 0,0024 0,0024
Oro, aplinkos uþterðtumo ir triukðmo lygis + 0,0142 0,0142 0,0113 0,0142 0,0113
Maksimizuojanèiø normalizuotø ávertinimø rodikliø suma S+j 0,0990 0,0941 0,0970 0,0710 0,0760
Minimizuojanèiø normalizuotø ávertinimø rodikliø suma S-j 0,3127 0,3409 0,3098 0,3148 0,0284
Nekilnojamojo turto objektø reikðmingumas Qj 0,4104 0,3798 0,4113 0,3803 0,4182
Nekilnojamojo turto objektø prioritetas 3 5 2 4 1
Nekilnojamojo turto objektø naudingumo procentas Nj 98,14% 90,81% 98,37% 90,95% 100%
Nekilnojamojo turto objektø konkurencingumas kx 6,22% –12,10% 6,78% –11,77% 10,87%
Vertinamojo objekto patikslinta vertë Vxp 41956,48

• + (-) rodo, kad atitinkamai didesnë (maþesnë) kriterijaus reikðmë labiau atitinka suinteresuotos þmoniø grupës reikalavimus.

Ðiø skaièiavimø ciklø rezultatas – vertinamosios Kaip matome, pirmame cikle vertinamojo objekto
poilsio sodybos Anomisliø kaime patikslintos vertës naudingumo procento vidutinis nukrypimas neatitiko ne-
kitimas ir rinkos vertës nustatymas – pateiktas 3 lentelëje. lygybës  kax < 1 %, bet jau antrajame cikle ði nelygybë
buvo patenkinta, o tai reiðkia, kad vertinamosios sody-
3 lentelë. Vertinamojo objekto naudingumo lygio vidutinio bos rinkos vertë buvo nustatyta teisingai.
nukrypimo ir patikslintos vertës kitimas bei rinkos vertës
Paskutiniame – antrajame artëjimo cikle nustatyta,
nustatymas
kad vertinamojo objekto naudingumas lyginamøjø objek-
Artëjimo Vertinamojo Vertinamojo Vertinamojo tø atþvilgiu yra N1= 95,22 %, lyginamojo objekto, esan-
ciklas objekto objekto objekto rinkos èio Anomisliø kaime, N5 = 100 %, o kito lyginamojo ob-
patikslinta naudingumo vertë jekto, esanèio Juodënø kaime, jis liko nepakitæs per visus
vertë lygio vidutinis V (Lt) artëjimo ciklus – N3 = 98,30 %. Apskaièiuoti objektø nau-
x
Vxp (Lt) nukrypimas dingumo laipsniai rodo, kad vertinamas objektas yra nau-
kx (%) dingesnis 10,70 % uþ lyginamàjá objektà, esantá Magið-
kiø kaime, ir 12,44 % maþiau naudingas uþ lyginamàjá
1 39 500 ½6,22½>1
objektà, esantá Anomisliø kaime. Ðie skaièiai taip pat ro-
2 41 956,48 ½0,49½<1
41956,48 do, á kurá objektà labiau apsimoka investuoti pinigus.
(1+0,49:100)=
42 162,95 » 4. Iðvados
42 000 Lt
Daugelis elektroninës prekybos sistemø apdoroja ir
teikia tik ekonominæ informacijà, taiko ekonominius mo-
delius. Taèiau nagrinëjamas alternatyvas daþnai reikia ver-

77
78 E. K. Zavadskas, et al / JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, 71–78
tinti ne tik ekonominiu, bet taip pat ir kokybiniu, techni-
niu, teisiniu, socialiniu ir kitokiu atþvilgiu.
Remiantis informaciniø, ekspertiniø, sprendimø pa-
ramos ir elektroninës prekybos sistemø analize, buvo su-
kurta daugiakriterinë nekilnojamojo turto elektroninës pre-
kybos (NTEP) sistema. Ði sistema sudaryta ið duomenø
bazës bei duomenø bazës valdymo sistemos, modeliø ba-
zës bei modeliø bazës valdymo sistemos ir vartotojo in-
terfeiso.
Duomenø bazëje nekilnojamàjá turtà apraðant kie-
kybine ir koncepcine formomis, pateikiama ávairius jo
aspektus (ekonominius, kokybinius, techninius, teisinius,
socialinius, ekologinius ir kt.) apibûdinanti informacija.
Remdamasi ðia informacija NTEP sistema gali ávertinti
nekilnojamàjá turtà ávairiais aspektais (t. y. rinkos vertës,
mokestinës, investicinës vertës, esamo naudojimo rinkos
vertës ir kt. verèiø nustatymas); ji gali ávertinti kriteri-
jus, turinèius átakos vertei (pavyzdþiui, nekilnojamojo tur-
to vietos, nusidëvëjimo, pasiûlos, paklausos ir kt. áverti-
nimas), nustatyti maksimalaus ir geriausio panaudojimo
variantà (pavyzdþiui, pirkëjas bûstà renkasi maksimaliai
tenkindamas gyvenimo bûtinumo, komfortiðkumo bei as-
meninius poreikius).
Taikant sukurtà PEB sistemà, nustatyta poilsio so-
dybos, esanèios Anomislio kaime, Toliejø seniûnijoje,
Molëtø rajone, rinkos vertë (42 000 Lt) ir kompleksiðkai
ávertintos vertinamojo ir lyginamøjø objektø teigiamos ir
neigiamos savybës.
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KRONIKA
PROF. HABIL. DR. RIMGAUDO ABRAIÈIO MONOGRAFIJOS
„TECHNINËS KERAMIKOS TECHNOLOGIJA IR SAVYBËS“
II DALIES RECENZIJA
Atsirandant vis daugiau techninës keramikos panau-
dojimo galimybiø, pasigendama knygø valstybine kalba
apie mokslinius darbus ir technologijø ðioje srityje spartø
tobulëjimà. Profesoriaus habilituoto daktaro Rimgaudo
Abraièio 1999 m. iðleista knyga „Techninës keramikos
technologijos“ jau tapo retenybe. Todël jo sumanymas
iðleisti naujà knygà yra sveikintinas, tuo labiau, kad tai
pirmoji Lietuvoje didelë monografija techninës kerami-
kos klausimais.
Rengiant monografijà atliktas kruopðtus ir sudëtin-
gas darbas. Joje iðanalizuoti naujausi techninës kerami-
kos technologijos laimëjimai. Kadangi buvo parengta di-
delës apimties monografija, knygos recenzentas prof.
S. Boèkus pasiûlë jà iðspausdinti dviem knygomis. Pir-
moji knygos dalis, iðleista 2002 m., buvo gerai ávertinta
prof. A. Laukaièio recenzijoje, iðspausdintoje Lietuvos
mokslø akademijos þurnale „Energetika“ (2003, Nr. 1).
Antroji knygos dalis, iðvydusi ðviesà 2003 m., dar laukia
platesnio ávertinimo.
Monografijos antroji dalis pradedama oksidiniø me-
dþiagø, jø savybiø ir panaudojimo pristatymu. Apraðoma
korundinës keramikos jos gamybos technologija, chemi-
nis atsparumas. Pristatoma bioinertinë ir bioaktyvi kera-
mika. Sunkiai besilydanèiø medþiagø pluoðtinës formos
gaminiai – tai efektyvi keraminiø medþiagø klasë. Pir-
majame skyriuje aptariami monokristalai, kompozitai ir
padengimai.
Antrasis knygos skyrius skirtas urano junginiams ir
jø panaudojimo problemoms. Uranas su deguonimi su-
daro ávairaus oksidacijos laipsnio oksidus, todël jie ap-
raðomi plaèiau. Nagrinëjamos jø bûvio diagramos bei ter-
minis atsparumas. Apraðomas uranilo ryðys – pagrindinë
aukðèiausio valentinio bûvio urano egzistavimo forma.
Plaèiai apraðoma ir urano-plutonio-deguonies sistema.
Urano junginiø gaminiai ir jø panaudojimas nagrinëja-
mas pradedant nuo jø radioaktyvumo, branduoliø skili-
mo, baigiant reaktoriø tipais ir konkreèiai Ignalinos AE
branduoliniu reaktoriumi RBMK-1500. Pateikiami reak-
toriaus saugos principai ir skilimo produktø barjerai. Su-
paþindinama su ðilumos iðsiskyrimo procesu reaktoriaus
medþiagose. Iðnagrinëtos maþai apraðytos branduolinio
kuro gamybos technologijos ir charakteristikos. Pabrë-
þiami kuro tableèiø gamybos ypatumai. Nagrinëjamas ura-
no oksido milteliø sukepimo proceso sàryðys su produk-
cijos kokybe bei struktûriniø kuro tableèiø charakteristikø
tobulinimas, siekiant geresnio jø panaudojimo. Apraðo-
mi árenginiai ir mechaniniø medþiagø bandymø branduo-
liniuose reaktoriuose metodikos.
79
79
Magnio oksido ir cirkonio dioksido keramikos ana-
lizuojamos treèiajame ir ketvirtajame skyriuose. Tai aukð-
tatemperatûriai oksidai, plaèiai taikomi technikoje. Senë-
jant magnio oksido keramikai keièiasi jo struktûra, o
cirkonio dioksido stabilizavimo procesas vyksta labai pa-
tikimai. Tai ir leidþia iðsaugoti keramikos struktûrà. Pa-
teikta iðsami proceso analizë.
Elektrokeraminës medþiagos – tai titano oksido ar-
ba ðarminiø þemës metalø titanatai. Be to, tai junginiai,
kuriø didelë dielektrinë skvarba. Apraðoma kondensato-
rinë keramika ið titano oksido medþiagos, gamybos tech-
nologijoje kartais pasitaikantys ávairûs poliarizacijos me-
chanizmai, krûvio ir srovës susidarymas dielektrikuose.
Plaèiai apraðomos elektrotechninës porceliano medþiagos.
Visa tai pateikta penktajame skyriuje.
Techninës keramikos magnetinës savybës sukuriamos
ir valdomos gamybos metu, todël ypaè svarbu iðmanyti
ðià technologijà. Ðeðtajame skyriuje analizuojamos pagrin-
dinës polikristaliniø feroelektrikø ir pjezoelektrikø savy-
bës, bario titanato keramika ir pjezokeramikos sintezë.
Kermetø gamyboje taikoma daugybë technologijø.
Septintajame skyriuje aptariamos technikoje plaèiausiai
taikomos technologijos. Tam taikomos termitinës reakci-
jos. Ypaè svarbios yra þinios apie milteliø uþsiliepsnoji-
mo ir sprogimo savybes. Anksèiau ðios savybës bûdavo
aptariamos tik specialiuosiuose þinynuose. Ðioje monog-
rafijoje autorius atkreipia á tai dëmesá, stengdamasis ap-
saugoti technologus nuo galimø pavojø. Pateikiamas ir
keraminiø milteliø toksiðkumo ávertinimas bei jø povei-
kis gyvajam organizmui.
Plaèiai paplitusi silikatø ir aliumosilikatø keramika
sudaro didelæ medþiagø grupæ. Ðios medþiagos turi do-
minuojanèià fazæ ir dvigubas bei trigubas kristalines su-
dëtis. Gamybai naudojamos pigios ir plaèiai þinomos þa-
liavos – molis ir talkas. Sukepimo temperatûroje susidaro
kristalinës ir skystosios faziø pusiausvyra. Aðtuntajame
skyriuje nagrinëjami ir tirpikliai. Tai tokios medþiagos,
kurios iðdegant gaminius sàveikauja su ákrovos þalia-
vomis, sudarydamos lengvai besilydanèius junginius. Ap-
þvelgiamos steatitinës, mulitinës, mulitinës-korundinës,
divininës, kordieritinës, celzianinës, lièio, cirkonio, ðpi-
neliø keramikos gamybos technologijos.
Bedeguoniø junginiø keramikai skirtas devintasis
skyrius. Tai karbidai, nitridai, boridai, silicidai. Ðie jun-
giniai turi kovalentiná cheminio ryðio tipà, kartais su da-
line jonine dedamàja. Tai rodo mechaniniø savybiø sta-
bilumà plaèiu temperatûrø intervalu, didelá ðilumos
laidumà. Ðioms medþiagoms taikoma trapiøjø medþiagø
80
konstrukcinio stiprumo skaièiavimo metodika, kuria áver-
tinamas átempimø intensyvumo koeficientas.
Unikaliø savybiø techninës keramikos gamyba
remiasi naujausia teorija, technologijomis, kryptingai sin-
tetinant medþiagà, numatant bûsimà jos struktûrà. Tokios
struktûros dirbiniø paslaptys atskleistos deðimtajame sky-
riuje. Jame raðoma apie veiksnius, turinèius átakos me-
dþiagø savybëms, etapø tarpusavio ryðiams, agregacijos
átakai, reguliavimui modifikuojanèiais priedais, jø parin-
kimui, rekristalizacijos procesams ir greièiams bei gavi-
mo technologiniams metodams. Taip sukuriama ypaè stip-
ri cirkonio dioksido keramika. Ji plaèiai naudojama
elektronikoje, maðinø gamyboje, aviacijos technikoje, ra-
ketø gamyboje.
Kaip kompleksiðkai panaudoti techninæ keramikà,
apraðyta vienuoliktame knygos skyriuje. Nagrinëjami ke-
raminiai kuro elementai ir juose vykstantys procesai, ku-
riuose reakcijos cheminë energija paverèiama elektros
energija. Pristatytos tipiniø kuro elementø schemos, jø
80
KRONIKA
privalumai ir trûkumai. Iðnagrinëti ir oksidiniai kuro ele-
mentai, jø veikimo schemos, praktinis pritaikymas.
Techninës keramikos technologijos visà laikà tobu-
lëja – nuolat taikant naujus tyrimø metodus gaunami at-
sakymai ir á svarbius gamybos vystymo klausimus.
Knygoje yra neþymiø trûkumø. Pavyzdþiui, techno-
logijos naujoves galbût reikëtø apraðyti kiek plaèiau. Kai
kur neiðvengta ir korektûros klaidø.
Apskritai prof. R. Abraièio monografijos „Techni-
nës keramikos technologija ir savybës“ antroji dalis yra
informatyvi, lengvai skaitoma, joje apþvelgiama daug ðios
srities naujoviø.
Todël galime teigti, jog sulaukëme brandaus ilga-
meèio darbo rezultatø techninës keramikos savybiø ir
technologijø tema. Ði knyga bus naudinga mokslinin-
kams – medþiagotyros, ið dalies ir statybos inþinerijos
specialistams, ji pravers ir studentams, studijuojantiems
techninæ keramikà.
Prof. habil. dr. Romualdas Maèiulaitis
 Ia

SANTRAUKOS

P. Aliavdin, V. Simbirkin, V. Toropov. Mûriniø sienø plokðtumø atsparumas ðlyèiai ir gniuþdymui // Journal
of Civil Engineering and Management. Vilnius: Technika, 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, p. 3–9.
Pateikti mûriniø bandiniø – sienuèiø tyrimø rezultatai. Bandiniams naudotos efektyvios plytos, apkrauta sienuèiø plokðtuma:
• horizontaliàja (ðonine) koncentruota apkrova, esant skirtingam vertikalios priekrovos lygiui;
• sukoncentruota gniuþdymo jëga, pridëta ávairiais atstumais nuo sienos kraðto.
Iðvestos sienuèiø ðlyties stiprumo ir deformavimo priklausomybës nuo gniuþdymo átempiø, veikianèiø statmenai kirpimo
plokðtumai. Be to, ávertintas mûro glemþimo stipris priklausomai nuo koncentruotos apkrovos pridëjimo vietos sienutës
kraðto atþvilgiu. Atlikta tyrimø rezultatø analizë, o gauti rezultatai palyginti su rezultatais, gautais, taikant ávairiø projektavimo
normø metodikas. Atliktas eksperimentiniø bandiniø skaitinis modeliavimas taikant baigtiniø elementø metodà.
Raktaþodþiai: mûrinës konstrukcijos, natûralaus dydþio bandiniai, ðlytis, gniuþdymas, stipris, poslinkiai.

D. Baèinskas, G. Kaklauskas, E. Geda. Baigtiniø elementø programos ATENA pritaikymas aukðta temperatûra
paveiktø gelþbetoniniø sijø netiesinei analizei // Journal of Civil Engineering and Management. Vilnius: Technika,
2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, p. 11–18.
Gaisro paveiktø gelþbetoniniø elementø átempiø ir deformacijø bûvis yra sudëtingas. Pateikiama gelþbetoniniø konstrukcijø,
paveiktø aukðta temperatûra ir apkrautø iðorine apkrova, skaitinio modeliavimo strategija. Literatûroje apraðytø eksperi-
mentiniø sijø apkrovos ir álinkiø diagramos nustatytos, taikant baigtiniø elementø programà ATENA. Skaitiniam modeliavimui
naudoti Eurocode 2 fiziniai betono ir armatûros modeliai. Lyginami skaitinës analizës ir eksperimentiniai tyrimø rezultatai.
Raktaþodþiai: gelþbetoniniø konstrukcijø projektavimas gaisro atveju, baigtiniø elementø netiesinë analizë, gaisro bandymai,
atsparumas gaisrui, betono ir armatûros medþiagø modeliai.

Z. Bednarek, R. Kamoèka. Statybiniø plienø temperatûriniø deformacijø analizë, veikiant kintamiems tempera-
tûriniams laukams // Journal of Civil Engineering and Management. Vilnius: Technika, 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1,
p. 19–22.
Pateikta temperatûriniu lauku paveikto plieno deformacijø, sparèiai kylant temperatûrai, analizë. AIII klasës, 34GS markës
statybiniam plienui pateikti temperatûrinio plëtimosi sukeltø temperatûriniø deformacijø bei tiesinio temperatûrinio plëtimosi
koeficiento eksperimentiniø tyrimø rezultatai. Bandymai atlikti esant tiesiniam temperatûros kitimui bei skirtingiems kaitinimo
greièiams. Atlikta kaitinimo greièio átakos temperatûrinëms deformacijoms ir temperatûrinio plëtimosi koeficientui analizë.
Raktaþodþiai: temperatûrinis plëtimasis, temperatûrinës deformacijos, tiesinio temperatûrinio plëtimosi koeficientas, statybinis
plienas.

R. Èechavièius. Spragotiniø ilginiø dantytøjø „Bulldog“ tipo sprausteliø metalo-medþio jungèiø slinktis // Journal
of Civil Engineering and Management. Vilnius: Technika, 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, p. 23–29.
Kompozitiniai metalo-medþio spragotiniai ilginiai, sukurti AB „MacMillan“ (Kanada), pasiþymi daugeliu technologiniø ir
konstrukciniø privalumø. Tokiø ilginiø medinës juostos su metaliniais trikampio tinklelio elementais yra jungiamos vienpusiais
dantytaisiais „Bulldog“ tipo sprausteliais. Apraðyti keturiø tokiø natûralaus dydþio spragotiniø ilginiø (tarpatramis – 3,0 m)
bandymai. Bandymais nustatyta, kad metalo-medþio jungèiø su „Bulldog“ tipo sprausteliais atsparumas, slinkties modulis
bei statinës slinkties dydis priklauso nuo kampo tarp jëgos ir medienos pluoðtø krypties, slinkties modulio ir statinës
slinkties skaitinës reikðmës yra gerokai didesnës nei pateiktos eksperimentinëse Europos normose (Eurocode 5). Bandymais
nustatyta, kad áràþos tarp santvaros tinklelio elementø persiskirsto tuomet, kai metalo-medþio jungèiø su „Bulldog“ tipo
sprausteliais slinkties deformacijos tampa artimos ribiniam (2 mm) dydþiui.
Raktaþodþiai: kompozitinë konstrukcija, metalo-medþio jungtis, „Bulldog“ tipo spraustelis, slinktis, atsparumas, bandymas.

W. Lu, P. Makelainen, J. Kesti, J. Lindborg. Ðaltai formuotø plieno lakðtø optimalus projektavimas taikant
genetinius algoritmus // Journal of Civil Engineering and Management. Vilnius: Technika, 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1,
p. 31–37.
Profiliuoti ðaltai formuoti plieno lakðtai daþnai naudojami stogo, grindø sistemø bei sienø apdarui. Dël didelës rinkoje
esanèiø profiliø ávairovës naudinga nustatyti optimalià lakðto formà. Ðaltai formuotø profiliuotø plieno lakðtø matmenims
optimizuoti naudoti genetiniai algoritmai. Optimizavimo tikslas – nustatyti profiliuotø lakðtø optimalius matmenis, kai
lakðto svoris yra minimalus esant nustatytai atrëmimo schemai. Lakðtai projektuojami remiantis Eurocode 3 1.3 dalies
nurodymais. Gautos nesudëtingos lakðtø formos gali bûti pateiktos plieniniø konstrukcijø projektuotojams bei plieno
gamintojams.
Raktiniai þodþiai: ðaltai formuotas plienas, profiliuoti lakðtai, optimizavimas, genetinis algoritmas.
Ib ................................................................................................................................................................................... SANTRAUKOS

A. Naujokaitis. Relations between the characteristics of components of decorative compact silicate concrete
mix // Journal of Civil Engineering and Management. Vilnius: Technika, 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, p. 39–43.
The article investigates the influence of components of decorative compact silicate concrete mix and the dependence of its
characteristics. The work reveals the characteristics of components influencing the properties of silicate decorative con-
cretes with precise dimensions. The greatest influence is produced by the granulometric composition of a mix. It has an
effect on the homogeneity of mix compaction, the precision of dimensions of formed product and on the product compac-
tion. The analysis was performed by means of computer-registered data of a new press. For the investigation under
production conditions the quartz sands from Giraitë deposit, medium fine to fine ones and practically free of any impuri-
ties, were used. A new technique for selecting the mix compositions with colouring pigments is offered. It takes into
account the characteristics of binders with a pigment. The research results can be used in the production of decorative
products with precise dimensions.
Keywords: components, silicate concrete, concrete composition, sand, grain composition, pigments, sand fineness, prod-
ucts with precise-dimensions, compaction rate.

M. J. Sulewska. Pylimø tankinimo kontrolë ðiuolaikiniu metodu // Journal of Civil Engineering and Management.
Vilnius: Technika, 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, p. 45–50.
Lengvasis dinaminis zondas – prietaisas lauko bandymams. Jis taikomas ávairiø tipø grunto pylimø laikomosios galios ir
sutankinimo kokybës greitai kontrolei. Tai ðiuolaikinis átaisas, kuris daþnai taikomas Vokietijoje, o ðiuo metu ir Lenkijoje.
Straipsnyje pateikti lengvojo dinaminio zondo kalibravimo laboratorijoje ir statybos aikðtelëje pavyzdys bei ðio átaisø
pritaikymas realaus pylimo tyrimui.
Raktiniai þodþiai: pylimai, sutankinimo kontrolë, lengvas dinaminis zondas, grunto dinaminis deformacijø modulis.

R. Ðukys. Perspectives and problems of health and safety in construction // Journal of Civil Engineering and
Management. Vilnius: Technika, 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, p. 51–55.
Now, when Lithuania became a part of the EU, it is important to estimate results of integration effects in social, economic
and other areas. One of underlying areas is workers’ health and safety. Building is one of the most dangerous work areas
(work nature and place often changes, a lot of work is done under dangerous conditions and in bad weather).
The purpose of research is to estimate qualitative and quantitative effects, which Lithuania’s building companies experi-
ence while implementing EU Councils Directive 92/57EEC “About minimal health and safety requirements on temporal
and movable building sites”.
Statistical analytical, poll, analysis, analogical, financial reports summation and other methods were used in this research.
Financial costs, costs at the government level, positive consequences are determined and recommendations are elaborated.
Keywords: integration, health and safety, EU Councils Directive 92/57EEC, financial costs, contracts.

S. Vakrinienë, P. Èyras, R. Ðukys. Traumata prevention resources optimization in construction // Journal of

Civil Engineering and Management. Vilnius: Technika, 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, p. 57–63.
Analysis of data on accidents in construction companies shows that their main reasons are non-compliance of standard
acts, wrongly organised work, the absence of security measures, wrongly organised work place, insufficient training of
workers. Employers must know how to optimally distribute resources for accident prevention. That would help (on the
average or with a particular probability) to reduce number of accidents and reduce social insurance costs. In this article the
task of stochastic programming is analysed which models the resources reserved for preventing an accidents in construc-
tion. To get resources for accidents prevention at work, optimal distribution strategy, with desirable precision, we need to
solve task of separable programming, whose zone of allowable plan is not prominent. In the article Lagrange multiplier’s
essence for the studied problem and global extremums abstraction rule are estimated. When solving problems, pretty
precise and reliable function dependencies between tasks parameters and solution are achieved. They allow to optimize the
use of resources reserved for accidents at work in construction and shows expected numbers of avoided injuries depen-
dence on confidence level and on variation of resources reserved for accidents at works in construction.
Keywords: Accidents, prevention, optimal distribution of resources, stochastic programming, Lagrange function, Kuhn-
Tucker conditions, confidence level, resources variation.

V. Volkova. Dinamiðkai netiesiniø sistemø poliharmoniniø svyravimø identifikacija // Journal of Civil Engineering
and Management. Vilnius: Technika, 2004, Vol X, Suppl 1, p. 65–70.
Atliekant svyravimø analitiná tyrimà, bûtina turëti matematinius modelius. Tam naudojami techniniø brëþiniø ir apraðymø
duomenys bei kita dokumentacija, susijusi su atskirø parametrø reikðmëmis. Kai kuriais atvejais ðios informacijos nepakanka.
Pastaruoju atveju efektyviausi yra identifikacijos metodai. Juose matematiniai modeliai sudaromi pagal eksperimentiniø
tyrimø duomenis.
Raktaþodþiai: identifikacija, fazinës trajektorijos, poliharmoniniai svyravimai, dinamiðkai netiesinës sistemos.
SANTRAUKOS ..................................................................................................................................................................................... Ic

E. K. Zavadskas, A. Kaklauskas, S. Raslanas, M. Krutinis. Pecularities of multi-criteria e-trade system

application in real estate sector // Journal of Civil Engineering and Management. Vilnius: Technika, 2004, Vol X,
Suppl 1, p. 71–78.
One of the major problems in Internet based information systems is to find what you want. Thousands of alternative
products and services may be found on the Internet. How can customers find the rational products and services there?
Once product or service information is found, the customer usually wants to compare alternatives. There are five types of
aids to comparison shopping: search on hypertext files by agents, search alternatives on databases, alternative search and
tabular comparison, comparison of alternative products and services from multiple malls, search and multiple criteria
decision-making. Therefore, the efficiency of Internet based information systems may be increased by applying multiple
criteria decision support systems developed by the authors. The authors have developed Internet Based DSS for Real
Estate. Proposed Internet Based DSS for Real Estate can create value in the following ways: help customers assess their
needs, identify suitable real estate to fulfil needs, compare and evaluate real estate, help customers evaluate the usefulness
of the real estate in the after-purchase evaluation stage, etc.
Keywords: Internet based information systems, DSS, multi-criteria analysis.
IIa

ÐÅÔÅÐÀÒÛ

Ï. Àëÿâäèí, Â. Ñèìáèðêèí, Â. Òîðîïîâ. Ñîïðîòèâëåíèå êèðïè÷íûõ ñòåí ñäâèãó è ñæàòèþ â èõ

ïëîñêîñòè // Journal of Civil Engineering and Management. Âèëüíþñ: Òåõíèêà, 2004, X ò., Ïðèë. 1. C. 3–9.
Ïðåäñòàâëåíû ðåçóëüòàòû èñïûòàíèé êèðïè÷íûõ îáðàçöîâ–ñòåíîê, âûïîëíåííûõ èç ýôôåêòèâíîãî êèðïè÷à, ïðè
íàãðóæåíèè èõ â ñâîåé ïëîñêîñòè:
• ãîðèçîíòàëüíîé (áîêîâîé) ñîñðåäîòî÷åííîé íàãðóçêîé ïðè ðàçëè÷íîì óðîâíå âåðòèêàëüíîãî ïðèãðóçà;
• ñîñðåäîòî÷åííîé ñæèìàþùåé ñèëîé, ïðèëîæåííîé íà ðàçëè÷íîì ðàññòîÿíèè îò êðàÿ ñòåíêè.
Âûÿâëåíû çàâèñèìîñòè ïðî÷íîñòè è äåôîðìàòèâíîñòè ñòåíîê ïðè ñäâèãå îò óðîâíÿ ñæèìàþùèõ íàïðÿæåíèé,
äåéñòâóþùèõ ïåðïåíäèêóëÿðíî ïëîñêîñòè ñðåçà. Äàíà îöåíêà ïðî÷íîñòè êëàäêè íà ñìÿòèå â çàâèñèìîñòè îò ìåñòà
ïðèëîæåíèÿ ñîñðåäîòî÷åííîé íàãðóçêè îòíîñèòåëüíî êðàÿ ñòåíêè. Âûïîëíåí àíàëèç ðåçóëüòàòîâ èñïûòàíèé è
ñîïîñòàâëåíèå ðàñ÷åòíûõ ìåòîäèê, ïðèíÿòûõ â ðàçëè÷íûõ íîðìàõ ïðîåêòèðîâàíèÿ, à òàêæå ïðîâåäåíî ÷èñëåííîå
ìîäåëèðîâàíèå ðàáîòû îïûòíûõ îáðàçöîâ íà îñíîâå ìåòîäà êîíå÷íûõ ýëåìåíòîâ.
Êëþ÷åâûå ñëîâà: êàìåííûå êîíñòðóêöèè, êðóïíîìàñøòàáíûå èñïûòàíèÿ, ñäâèã, ñæàòèå, ïðî÷íîñòü, ïåðåìåùåíèÿ.

Ä. Áà÷èíñêàñ, Ã. Êàêëàóñêàñ, Å. Ãåäà. Ïðèìåíåíèå ïðîãðàììû ATENA â íåëèíåéíîì àíàëèçå

æåëåçîáåòîííûõ áàëîê ïîäâåðæåííûõ âîçäåéñòâèþ âûñîêèõ òåìïåðàòóð // Journal of Civil Engi-
neering and Management. Âèëüíþñ: Òåõíèêà, 2004, X ò., Ïðèë. 1. C. 11–18.
Ñëîæíûì ÿâëÿåòñÿ íàïðÿæåííî-äåôîðìèðîâàííîå ñîñòîÿíèå æåëåçîáåòîííûõ ýëåìåíòîâ, ïîäâåðæåííûõ
âîçäåéñòâèþ ïîæàðà. Ïðåäñòàâëåíà ñòðàòåãèÿ ÷èñëåííîãî ìîäåëèðîâàíèÿ íàãðóæåííûõ æåëåçîáåòîííûõ
êîíñòðóêöèé, ïîäâåðæåííûõ âîçäåéñòâèþ âûñîêèõ òåìïåðàòóð. Äëÿ áàëîê äèàãðàììû íàãðóçêà-ïðîãèá áûëè
ïîëó÷åíû ïðè ïîìîùè ïðîãðàììû ÀÒÅNÀ, èñïîëüçóþùåé â ðàñ÷¸òàõ ìåòîä êîíå÷íûõ ýëåìåíòîâ. Ïðè ÷èñëåííîì
ìîäåëèðîâàíèè ïðèìåíÿëèñü ôèçè÷åñêèå ìîäåëè Eurocode 2 äëÿ áåòîíà è àðìàòóðû. Ïðåäñòàâëåí ñðàâíèòåëüíûé
àíàëèç ðåçóëüòàòîâ ÷èñëåííîãî ìîäåëèðîâàíèÿ è ýêñïåðèìåíòàëüíûõ äàííûõ, ïîëó÷åííûõ èç ëèòåðàòóðíûõ
èñòî÷íèêîâ.
Êëþ÷åâûå ñëîâà: ïðîåêòèðîâàíèå æåëåçîáåòîííûõ êîíñòðóêöèé, ïîäâåðæåííûõ âîçäåéñòâèþ ïîæàðà, íåëèíåéíûé
àíàëèç ñ èñïîëüçîâàíèåì ìåòîäà êîíå÷íûõ ýëåìåíòîâ, èñïûòàíèÿ ïðè ïîæàðå, îãíåñòîéêîñòü, ìîäåëè ìàòåðèàëîâ
áåòîíà è àðìàòóðû.

Ç. Áåíäàðåê, Ð. Êàìî÷êà. Àíàëèç òåìïåðàòóðíûõ äåôîðìàöèé ñòðîèòåëüíûõ ñòàëåé ïîä âîçäåéñòâèåì

ïåðåìåííûõ òåìïåðàòóðíûõ ïîëåé // Journal of Civil Engineering and Management. Âèëüíþñ: Òåõíèêà,
2004, X ò., Ïðèë. 1. C. 19–22.
Ïðåäñòàâëåí àíàëèç äåôîðìàöèé ñòàëüíûõ ýëåìåíòîâ ïðè áûñòðîì ðîñòå òåìïåðàòóðû, âûçâàííûõ âîçäåéñòâèåì
òåìïåðàòóðíûõ ïîëåé. Ïðåäñòàâëåíû ðåçóëüòàòû ýêñïåðèìåíòàëüíûõ èññëåäîâàíèé êîýôôèöèåíòà ëèíåéíîãî
òåìïåðàòóðíîãî ðàñøèðåíèÿ è òåìïåðàòóðíûõ äåôîðìàöèé ñòðîèòåëüíîé ñòàëè êëàññà ÀIII, ìàðêè 34ÃÑ. Èñïûòàíèÿ
ïðîâîäèëèñü ïðè ëèíåéíîì èçìåíåíèè òåìïåðàòóðû ñ ðàçëè÷íîé ñêîðîñòüþ å¸ ðîñòà. Ïðåäñòàâëåí àíàëèç
âîçäåéñòâèÿ ñêîðîñòè ðîñòà òåìïåðàòóðû íà âåëè÷èíó òåìïåðàòóðíûõ äåôîðìàöèé è çíà÷åíèå êîýôôèöèåíòà
òåìïåðàòóðíîãî ðàñøèðåíèÿ.
Êëþ÷åâûå ñëîâà: òåìïåðàòóðíîå ðàñøèðåíèå, òåìïåðàòóðíûå äåôîðìàöèè, êîýôôèöèåíò ëèíåéíîãî
òåìïåðàòóðíîãî ðàñøèðåíèÿ, ñòðîèòåëüíàÿ ñòàëü..

Ð. ×åõàâè÷þñ. Ïîäàòëèâîñòü çóá÷àòûõ øïîíîê òèïà "Áóëüäîã" â ìåòàëëî-äåðåâÿííûõ ñîåäèíåíèÿõ

ñêâîçíûõ ïðîãîíîâ // Journal of Civil Engineering and Management. Âèëüíþñ: Òåõíèêà, 2004, X ò., Ïðèë. 1.
C. 23–29.
Êîìïîçèòíûå ìåòàëëî-äåðåâÿííûå ñêâîçíûå ïðîãîíû, ñîçäàííûå â ÀÎ "ÌàêÌèëëàí" (Êàíàäà), îáëàäàþò ðÿäîì
òåõíîëîãè÷åñêèõ è êîíñòðóêòèâíûõ ïðåèìóùåñòâ. Äåðåâÿííûå ïîÿñà òàêèõ ïðîãîíîâ ñ ìåòàëëè÷åñêèìè ýëåìåíòàìè
òðåóãîëüíîé ðåøåòêè ñîåäèíÿþòñÿ ïðè ïîìîùè îäíîñòîðîííèõ çóá÷àòûõ øïîíîê òèïà "Áóëüäîã".  ñòàòüå îïèñàíû
èñïûòàíèÿ ÷åòûðåõ òàêèõ ïðîãîíîâ â íàòóðàëüíóþ âåëè÷èíó (ïðîëåò – 3 ì). Èñïûòàíèÿìè óñòàíîâëåíî, ÷òî íåñóùàÿ
ñïîñîáíîñòü, ìîäóëü ïîäàòëèâîñòè è âåëè÷èíà ñòàòè÷åñêîé ïîäàòëèâîñòè çóá÷àòûõ øïîíîê òèïà Áóëüäîã" â ìåòàëëî-
äåðåâÿííûõ ñîåäèíåíèÿõ çàâèñÿò îò óãëà ìåæäó óñèëèåì è ñëîÿìè äðåâåñèíû. Óñòàíîâëåíî, ÷òî âåëè÷èíû ìîäóëÿ
ïîäàòëèâîñòè è ñòàòè÷åñêîé ïîäàòëèâîñòè îêàçàëèñü çíà÷èòåëüíî áîëüøèìè, ÷åì âåëè÷èíû, ïðåäñòàâëåííûå â
ýêñïåðèìåíòàëüíûõ íîðìàõ Åâðîïû (Eurocode 5). Èñïûòàíèÿìè òàêæå óñòàíîâëåíî, ÷òî ïåðåðàñïðåäåëåíèå óñèëèé
ìåæäó ñòàëüíûìè ýëåìåíòàìè ðåøåòêè íà÷èíàåòñÿ ïðè ïðèáëèæåíèè ïîäàòëèâîñòè çóá÷àòûõ øïîíîê òèïà
"Áóëüäîã" ê ïðåäåëüíîé âåëè÷èíå (2 ìì).
Êëþ÷åâûå ñëîâà: êîìïîçèòíàÿ êîíñòðóêöèÿ, ìåòàëëî-äåðåâÿííîå ñîåäèíåíèå, øïîíêà òèïà "Áóëüäîã",
ïîäàòëèâîñòü, íåñóùàÿ ñïîñîáíîñòü, èñïûòàíèå..
ÐÅÔÅÐÀÒÛ ....................................................................................................................................................................... IIb

Â. Ëó, Ï. Ìàêåëàéíåí, È. Êåñòè, Þ. Ëèíäáîðã. Îïòèìàëüíîå ïðîåêòèðîâàíèå õîëîäíî ôîðìîâàííûõ

ñòàëüíûõ ëèñòîâ ñ èñïîëüçîâàíèåì ãåíåòè÷åñêèõ àëãîðèòìîâ // Journal of Civil Engineering and
Management. Âèëüíþñ: Òåõíèêà, 2004, X ò., Ïðèë. 1. C. 31–37.
Ïðîôèëèðîâàííûå õîëîäíî ôîðìîâàííûå ñòàëüíûå ëèñòû ÷àñòî èñïîëüçóþòñÿ äëÿ ïîêðûòèÿ êðûø, íàñòèëà ïîëîâ
è îòäåëêè ñòåí. Èç-çà îáèëèÿ âèäîâ ðàçëè÷íûõ ïðîôèëåé íà ðûíêå âûãîäíî îáëàäàòü ïðîôèëåì îïòèìàëüíîé ôîðìû.
 ñòàòüå îïèñàí ïîäáîð îïòèìàëüíûõ ðàçìåðîâ ëèñòà äëÿ õîëîäíî ôîðìîâàííîãî ïðîôèëÿ ñ èñïîëüçîâàíèåì
ãåíåòè÷åñêèõ àëãîðèòìîâ. Öåëüþ îïòèìèçàöèè áûëî ïðè èçâåñòíîé îïîðíîé ñõåìå ïîäîáðàòü îïòèìàëüíûå ðàçìåðû
ïðîôèëèðîâàííîãî ëèñòà ñ öåëüþ ìèíèìèçèðîâàòü åãî âåñ. Ëèñòû ïðîåêòèðóþòñÿ ñîãëàñíî ðåêîìåíäàöèÿì ÷àñòè
3.1 Eurocode 3. Ïðîôèëèðîâàííûå ëèñòû íåñëîæíîé ôîðìû, ïîëó÷åííîé ñ èñïîëüçîâàíèåì îïèñàííîé ïðîöåäóðû,
ìîãóò áûòü ïðåäñòàâëåíû ïðîèçâîäèòåëÿì è ïðîåêòèðîâùèêàì.
Êëþ÷åâûå ñëîâà: õîëîäíî ôîðìîâàííàÿ ñòàëü, ïðîôèëèðîâàííûå ëèñòû, îïòèìèçàöèÿ, ãåíåòè÷åñêèé àëãîðèòì.

À. Íàóéîêàéòèñ. Âëèÿíèå ñâîéñòâ ñìåñè äåêîðàòèâíîãî ïëîòíîãî ñèëèêàòíîãî áåòîíà íà êà÷åñòâî

èçäåëèé // Journal of Civil Engineering and Management. Âèëüíþñ: Òåõíèêà, 2004, X ò., Ïðèë. 1. C. 39–43.
Èññëåäîâàíà çàâèñèìîñòü òåõíîëîãè÷åñêèõ ôàêòîðîâ îò ñâîéñòâ ñìåñè äåêîðàòèâíîãî ïëîòíîãî ñèëèêàòíîãî áåòîíà.
Öåëüþ èññëåäîâàíèÿ áûëî îïðåäåëèòü, êàêèå òåõíîëîãè÷åñêèå ôàêòîðû ñèëèêàòíûõ ñìåñåé âëèÿþò íà ìèíèìàëüíûå
îòêëîíåíèÿ îò ñòàíäàðòíûõ ðàçìåðîâ èçäåëèé äåêîðàòèâíîãî ñèëèêàòíîãî áåòîíà. Âûÿâëåíî, ÷òî íàèáîëüøåå
çíà÷åíèå èìååò ãðàíóëîìåòðè÷åñêèé ñîñòàâ ñìåñè, âëèÿþùèé íà îäíîðîäíîñòü óïëîòíåíèé, ðàçìåðû è ïëîòíîñòü
èçäåëèé. Èññëåäîâàíèå ïðîâîäèëîñü íà íîâîì ïðåññå, ðåãèñòðèðîâàâøåì äàííûå èññëåäîâàíèé â êîìïüþòåðå. Äëÿ
èññëåäîâàíèé â ïðîèçâîäñòâåííûõ óñëîâèÿõ ïðèìåíÿëñÿ ïåñîê èç ìåñòîðîæäåíèÿ «Ãèðàéòå», ïðàêòè÷åñêè ìàëî
çàãðÿçí¸ííûé ïðèìåñÿìè, ñðåäíåé òîíêîñòè è ìåëêèé. Ïðè èññëåäîâàíèè îïðåäåë¸í íîâûé ìåòîä ïîäáîðà ñîñòàâà
äåêîðàòèâíîãî ñèëèêàòíîãî áåòîíà ñ êðàñÿùèìè ïèãìåíòàìè è îöåíêè ñâîéñòâ âÿæóùåãî ïèãìåíòà.
Äàííûå èññëåäîâàíèé ïðèìåíÿþòñÿ äëÿ èçãîòîâëåíèÿ äåêîðàòèâíûõ ñèëèêàòîáåòîííûõ èçäåëèé â ïðîèçâîäñòâåííûõ
óñëîâèÿõ.
Êëþ÷åâûå ñëîâà: êîìïîíåíòû, ñèëèêàòíûé áåòîí, ñîñòàâ áåòîíà, ïåñîê, ãðàíóëîìåòðè÷åñêèé ñîñòàâ, äèñïåðñíîñòü
ïåñêà, èçäåëèå òî÷íûõ ðàçìåðîâ, êîýôôèöèåíò óïëîòíåíèÿ.

Ì. È. Ñóëåâñêà. Êîíòðîëü óïëîòíåíèÿ íàñûïåé ñ èñïîëüçîâàíèåì ñîâðåìåííûõ ìåòîäîâ // Journal

of Civil Engineering and Management. Âèëüíþñ: Òåõíèêà, 2004, X ò., Ïðèë. 1. C. 45–50.
Ëåãêèé äèíàìè÷åñêèé çîíä – ýòî ïðèñïîñîáëåíèå äëÿ ïîëåâûõ èñïûòàíèé. Îí èñïîëüçóåòñÿ äëÿ áûñòðîãî êîíòðîëÿ
íåñóùåé ñïîñîáíîñòè è êà÷åñòâà óïëîòíåíèÿ ãðóíòîâûõ íàñûïåé ðàçëè÷íîãî òèïà. Ýòîò ñîâðåìåííûé ìåòîä øèðîêî
ïðèìåíÿåòñÿ â Ãåðìàíèè, à òåïåðü è â Ïîëüøå. Ïðåäñòàâëåíû ïðèìåðû êàëèáðîâêè ýòîãî ïðèñïîñîáëåíèÿ â
ëàáîðàòîðíûõ óñëîâèÿõ è íà ñòðîèòåëüíîé ïëîùàäêå, à òàêæå ïðèìåíåíèå ë¸ãêîãî äèíàìè÷åñêîãî çîíäà äëÿ
èññëåäîâàíèÿ ðåàëüíîé íàñûïè.
Êëþ÷åâûå ñëîâà: íàñûïü, êîíòðîëü óïëîòíåíèÿ, ë¸ãêèé äèíàìè÷åñêèé çîíä, ìîäóëü äèíàìè÷åñêîé äåôîðìàöèè
ãðóíòà.

Ð. Øóêèñ. Ïðîáëåìû è ïåðñïåêòèâû áåçîïàñíîñòè òðóäà è çäîðîâüÿ ðàáîòíèêîâ â ñòðîèòåëüñòâå

// Journal of Civil Engineering and Management. Âèëüíþñ: Òåõíèêà, 2004, X ò., Ïðèë. 1. C. 51–55.
 Ïîñëå âñòóïëåíèÿ Ëèòâû â Åâðîïåéñêèé Ñîþç åé âàæíî îïðåäåëèòü ïîñëåäñòâèÿ èíòåãðàöèè â ñîöèàëüíîé,
ýêîíîìè÷åñêîé, õîçÿéñòâåííîé è äðóãèõ îáëàñòÿõ. Îäíîé èç íàèáîëåå ïðèîðèòåòíûõ îáëàñòåé ÿâëÿåòñÿ áåçîïàñíîñòü
è çäîðîâüå òðóäÿùèõñÿ. Ñòðîèòåëüñòâî èç-çà ñïåöèôèêè ðàáîò (÷àñòîé ñìåíû âèäà è ìåñòà ðàáîòû, ðàáîò ñ
ïîâûøåííûì ðèñêîì è â ðàçëè÷íûõ êëèìàòè÷åñêèõ óñëîâèÿõ) ÿâëÿåòñÿ îäíîé èç îïàñíåéøèõ ñôåð â õîçÿéñòâåííîé
îáëàñòè. Öåëüþ èññëåäîâàíèé áûëî êàê ìîæíî òî÷íåå îïðåäåëèòü êîëè÷åñòâåííûå è êà÷åñòâåííûå âîçäåéñòâèÿ,
èñïûòûâàåìûå ñòðîèòåëüíûìè îðãàíèçàöèÿìè Ëèòâû ïðè âíåäðåíèè äåðåêòèâû Åâðîïåéñêîãî Ñîþçà 92/52/ÅÅÑ
COUNCIL DIRECTIVE 92/57/EEC of 24 June 1992 on the implementation of minimum safety and health requirements at
temporary or mobile constructions sites (eighth individual Directive within the meaning of Article 16 (1) of Directive 89/
391/EEC). Èññëåäîâàíèÿ ïðîâîäèëèñü ñ èñïîëüçîâàíèåì ñòàòèñòèêî-àíàëèòè÷åñêèõ ìåòîäîâ íàó÷íîãî èññëåäîâàíèÿ,
îïðîñà, àíàëèçà, àíàëîãèé, îáîáùåíèÿ ôèíàíñîâûõ îò÷åòîâ è äð. Âî âðåìÿ èññëåäîâàíèÿ áûëè îïðåäåëåíû
ôèíàíñîâûå ðàñõîäû îðãàíèçàöèé, ðàñõîäû íà ãîñóäàðñòâåííîì óðîâíå, ïîëîæèòåëüíîå âîçäåéñòâèå äèðåêòèâû,
ïîäãîòîâëåíû ðåêîìåíäàöèè ïî ïðèìåíåíèþ ðóêîâîäÿùèõ ïðèíöèïîâ äèðåêòèâû.
 Êëþ÷åâûå ñëîâà: èíòåãðàöèÿ, áåçîïàñíîñòü è çäîðîâüå òðóäÿùèõñÿ, äèðåêòèâà Åâðîïåéñêîãî ñîþçà 92/52/ÅÅÑ,
ôèíàíñîâûå ðàñõîäû, ñòðîèòåëüñòâî.

Ñ. Âàêðèíåíå, Ï. ×èðàñ, Ð. Øóêèñ. Îïòèìèçàöèÿ ñðåäñòâ äëÿ ïðåâåíöèè òðàâì â ñòðîèòåëüñòâå //

Journal of Civil Engineering and Management. Âèëüíþñ: Òåõíèêà, 2004, X ò., Ïðèë. 1. C. 57–63.
Àíàëèç ñòàòèñòè÷åñêèõ äàííûõ î íåñ÷àñòíûõ ñëó÷àÿõ â ñòðîèòåëüñòâå ïîêàçûâàåò, ÷òî îñíîâíûìè ïðè÷èíàìè
íåñ÷àñòíûõ ñëó÷àåâ ÿâëÿþòñÿ íåñîáëþäåíèå òðåáîâàíèé íîðìàòèâíûõ äîêóìåíòîâ, íåóäîâëåòâîðèòåëüíàÿ
îðãàíèçàöèÿ ðàáîò, íåèñïîëüçîâàíèå ñðåäñòâ çàùèòû, ïëîõàÿ îðãàíèçàöèÿ ðàáî÷åãî ìåñòà è íåäîñòàòî÷íîå îáó÷åíèå
IIc ..................................................................................................................................................................................... ÐÅÔÅÐÀÒÛ

ðàáî÷èõ. Ðàáîòîäàòåëþ âàæíî çíàòü, êàê îïòèìàëüíî ðàñïðåäåëèòü ñðåäñòâà äëÿ ïðåäîòâðàùåíèÿ íåñ÷àñòíûõ ñëó÷àåâ.
Ýòî ïîçâîëèëî áû â ñðåäíåì èëè ñ îïðåäåëåííîé ñòåïåíüþ âåðîÿòíîñòè óìåíüøèòü ÷èñëî íåñ÷àñòíûõ ñëó÷àåâ è
òåì ñàìûì ñíèçèòü âûïëàòû ñîöèàëüíîãî ñòðàõîâàíèÿ.
 ñòàòüå ðåøàåòñÿ çàäà÷à ñòîõàñòè÷åñêîãî ïðîãðàììèðîâàíèÿ, êîòîðàÿ ìîäåëèðóåò ïðîáëåìó îïòèìàëüíîãî
ðàñïðåäåëåíèÿ ñðåäñòâ äëÿ ïðåâåíöèè íåñ÷àñòíûõ ñëó÷àåâ â ñòðîèòåëüñòâå. ×òîáû ñ äîñòàòî÷íîé íàä¸æíîñòüþ
ïîëó÷èòü îïòèìàëüíóþ ñòðàòåãèþ ðàñïðåäåëåíèÿ ñðåäñòâ äëÿ ïðåâåíöèè íåñ÷àñòíûõ ñëó÷àåâ â ñòðîèòåëüñòâå,
íåîáõîäèìî ðåøèòü çàäà÷ó ñåïàðàáåëüíîãî ïðîãðàììèðîâàíèÿ. Îïðåäåëåíî çíà÷åíèå ìíîæèòåëÿ Ëàãðàíæà è ïðàâèëà
âûäåëåíèÿ ãëîáàëüíîãî ýêñòðåìóìà äëÿ ýòîé çàäà÷è è èññëåäóåìîé ïðîáëåìû. Ðåøåíèåì ïðèìåðîâ ïîëó÷åíû òî÷íûå
è íàä¸æíûå ôóíêöèîíàëüíûå çàâèñèìîñòè ìåæäó ðåøåíèåì çàäà÷è è åãî ïàðàìåòðàìè. Ýòî ïîçâîëÿåò
îïòèìèçèðîâàòü ñðåäñòâà, âûäåëÿåìûå äëÿ ïðåäîòâðàùåíèÿ íåñ÷àñòíûõ ñëó÷àåâ â ñòðîèòåëüñòâå, è ïîêàçûâàåò
çàâèñèìîñòü âîçìîæíîãî ïðåäîòâðàùåíèÿ ÷èñëà òðàâì îò óðîâíÿ äîñòîâåðíîñòè è âàðèàöèè ñðåäñòâ, âûäåëÿåìûõ
äëÿ ýòèõ öåëåé â ñòðîèòåëüñòâå.
Êëþ÷åâûå ñëîâà: íåñ÷àñòíûå ñëó÷àè, ïðåâåíöèÿ, îïòèìàëüíîå ðàñïðåäåëåíèå ñðåäñòâ, ñòîõàñòè÷åñêîå
ïðîãðàììèðîâàíèå, ôóíêöèÿ Ëàãðàíæà, óñëîâèÿ Êóíî-Òàêåðà, óðîâåíü äîñòîâåðíîñòè, âàðèàöèÿ ñðåäñòâ..

Â. Âîëêîâà. Èäåíòèôèêàöèÿ ïîëèãàðìîíè÷åñêèõ êîëåáàíèé íåëèíåéíûõ äèíàìè÷åñêèõ ñèñòåì //

Journal of Civil Engineering and Management. Âèëüíþñ: Òåõíèêà, 2004, X ò., Ïðèë. 1. C. 65–70.
Ïðè àíàëèòè÷åñêîì èññëåäîâàíèè êîëåáàíèé âîçíèêàåò íåîáõîäèìîñòü ïîñòðîåíèÿ ìàòåìàòè÷åñêîé ìîäåëè. Ñ ýòîé
öåëüþ èñïîëüçóþò äàííûå òåõíè÷åñêèõ ÷åðòåæåé, îïèñàíèé è äðóãóþ äîêóìåíòàöèþ î ñòðóêòóðå è çíà÷åíèÿõ
îòäåëüíûõ ïàðàìåòðîâ.  íåêîòîðûõ ñëó÷àÿõ ýòà èíôîðìàöèÿ íåäîñòàòî÷íà, òîãäà íàèáîëåå ýôôåêòèâíûì ñòàíîâèòñÿ
ïðèìåíåíèå ìåòîäîâ èäåíòèôèêàöèè. Îíè çàêëþ÷àþòñÿ â ïîñòðîåíèè ìàòåìàòè÷åñêîé ìîäåëè îáúåêòà ïî
ýêñïåðèìåíòàëüíûì çàïèñÿì.
Êëþ÷åâûå ñëîâà: èäåíòèôèêàöèÿ, ôàçîâûå òðàåêòîðèè, ïîëèãàðìîíè÷åñêèå êîëåáàíèÿ, íåëèíåéíûå äèíàìè÷åñêèå
ñèñòåìû.

Ý.-Ê. Çàâàäñêàñ, À. Êàêëàóñêàñ, Ñ. Ðàñëàíàñ, Ì. Êðóòèíèñ. Îñîáåííîñòè ïðèìåíåíèÿ ìíîãîêðèòå-

ðèàëüíîé ñèñòåìû ýëåêòðîííîé òîðãîâëè íåäâèæèìûì èìóùåñòâîì // Journal of Civil Engineering
and Management. Âèëüíþñ: Òåõíèêà, 2004, X ò., Ïðèë. 1. C. 71–78.
Îäíîé èç îñíîâíûõ ïðîáëåì, êàñàþùèõñÿ èíòåðíåòíûõ èíôîðìàöèîííûõ ñèñòåì, ÿâëÿåòñÿ òî, ÷òî â íèõ òðóäíî
íàéòè íóæíîå èçäåëèå èëè óñëóãó.  èíòåðíåòå ïðåäëàãàþòñÿ òûñÿ÷è âèäîâ îäíîãî è òîãî æå èçäåëèÿ èëè óñëóãè.
Êàê ïîòðåáèòåëÿì íàéòè íóæíûå èì èçäåëèÿ è óñëóãè? Íàéäÿ èçäåëèå èëè óñëóãó, ïîòðåáèòåëü îáû÷íî õî÷åò
ñðàâíèòü èõ ñ àëüòåðíàòèâíûìè ïðåäëîæåíèÿìè. Ñóùåñòâóåò íåñêîëüêî òèïîâ èíñòðóìåíòîâ, ïîçâîëÿþùèõ ñðàâíèòü
àíàëîãè÷íûå ïðåäëîæåíèÿ: ïîèñê â ãèïåðòåêñòîâûõ äîêóìåíòàõ ñ èñïîëüçîâàíèåì ïîñðåäíèêîâ, ïîèñê
àëüòåðíàòèâíûõ èçäåëèé â áàçàõ äàííûõ, ïîèñê è ñðàâíåíèå àëüòåðíàòèâíûõ èçäåëèé â òàáëèöàõ, ïîèñê
àëüòåðíàòèâíûõ èçäåëèé è óñëóã â ýëåêòðîííûõ òîðãîâûõ ñàéòàõ, ïîèñê è ïðèíÿòèå ìíîãîêðèòåðèàëüíûõ ðåøåíèé.
Àâòîðû ñîçäàëè èíòåðíåòíóþ ýëåêòðîííóþ ñèñòåìó òîðãîâëè íåäâèæèìûì èìóùåñòâîì (ÝÒÍÈ). Ïðåäëàãàåìàÿ
ñèñòåìà ÝÒÍÈ ìîæåò ïîâûñèòü ñòîèìîñòü íåäâèæèìîãî èìóùåñòâà ñëåäóþùèì îáðàçîì: ñ åå ïîìîùüþ ïîòðåáèòåëè
ìîãóò ëåã÷å îïðåäåëèòü ñâîè ïîòðåáíîñòè, íåäâèæèìîå èìóùåñòâî, ñîîòâåòñòâóþùåå ýòèì ïîòðåáíîñòÿì, ñðàâíèòü
è îöåíèòü ðàçíûå ïðåäëàãàåìûå âàðèàíòû íåäâèæèìîãî èìóùåñòâà, îöåíèòü ïîëåçíîñòü íåäâèæèìîãî èìóùåñòâà
ïîñëå åãî ïðèîáðåòåíèÿ è ò. ä.
Êëþ÷åâûå ñëîâà: èíòåðíåòíûå èíôîðìàöèîííûå ñèñòåìû, ÝÒÍÈ, ìíîãîêðèòåðèàëüíûé àíàëèç.
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