OSI Explanation

Since computer networks can be very complex in their design, a model was created to
show network protocol in a series of layers which are each built upon its predecessor. The
OSI model (Open Systems Interconnection) is a protocol stack which was designed by
the ISO (International Standards Organization) in 1984 as a replacement for the then
existing protocols such as SNA from IBM.

This was a reference model which the ISO developed for worldwide communication
between end users. The model is a seven layer protocol stack which passes control
downward from top to bottom. At each layer, the specific duties are carried out while the
layer below prepares to receive information from the above layer. The OSI model
consists of seven layers. Each layer from top to bottom is a collection of related functions
that provide the above layer with services. The upper four layers are used when a
message is passed to or from a user; these layers of the protocol handle matters related to
software such as encryption, format, etc. The lower three layers are used to pass messages
through the host computer. These layers deal more with the physical communication
between the systems such as network connections with an Ethernet cable, etc.

The seven layers of the OSI model are Application, Presentation, Session, Transport,
Network, Data Link, and Physical.

At the application layer, communication partners are identified, user authentication is

considered and the quality of service and any errors in data syntax are identified. When
communication partners are identified, the application layer must find out if the
sufficiency of network resources exists for communication to take place. The application
layer is the coordinator for synchronization and other processes and manages the
communication between applications. Application services such as emailing and file
transfer such as FTP (File Transfer Protocol) exists entirely at this layer.

The next layer in the model is the presentation layer. The presentation level is usually a
part of the OS and converts in and outgoing data from presentation format to another
which is ordered and meaningful. Here, data is converted to a form which the application
layer can accept. Data compression schemes allow for compressed or encrypted data to
be easily decompressed or decrypted upon arrival at its destination. A variety of changes
such as encryption and ACSII conversion occur at this layer so that information can be
sent across a network with ease then presented to the host computer in a form which is
understandable and can be used by that host. This function is usually the conversion of
data into standard image, sound or text formats.

The next layer in the model is the session layer. An example of this layer is token
management where the layer controls who has the token. This layer manages and
coordinates communication sessions, establishes, manages and terminates conversations,
and handles exchanges and dialogs between applications at each end as timely as
possible.

Communication sessions are requests from the applications in the several network
devices.

The transport layer is responsible for reliable transmission of information across the
network which involves end-to-end error recovery. It does a transparent transfer of data
between end users or hosts. It ensures complete data transfer and it also handles the type
of connection to be created. Upper layer data packets are converted into smaller network
sized packets which are then transported across the network to the other end user as fast
as possible while maintaining the reliability of the data being sent. Due to the conditions
present, the layer will create more than one network connections.

The next layer in the OSI model is the network layer. This layer is the first of the
hardware based layers to receive control. This layer allows for the connection of routers
and other physical devices which support the connectivity of the network. These create
logical paths known as virtual circuits which allow the transmission of data from node to
node (station to station). In addition to routing, etc the network layer performs the
function of addressing, internetworking, error handling, congestion control and packet
sequencing.

The data link layer is responsible for encoding and decoding data into bits. Also, it
provides for reliable transfer of data from one end to the other at an electronic and
mechanical level. Hardware devices such as hubs, switches and bridges operate at the
data link layer. It also handles tasks such as flow regulation, error detection and control.
This layer is responsible for creating and managing the packets which are sent out on the
network. The data link layer is responsible for sending packets of data out, however it
does not cater for the receipt of data at the other end of the network. The network data
packets consist of a checksum, source address, destination address and the data which is
the message being sent. The Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU) is a term related to the
data link layer and is the largest set of packets or frames which can be sent.

The data link layer consist of two sub layers, these are the logical Link Control (LLC)
and the Medium Access Control (MAC). The Logical Link Control defines how data can
be transferred over cablewire connections and also provides the data link services to the
above layers.

Next, the Medium Access Control defines who is allowed to use the network when
many systems are trying to simultaneously access it. This involves token passing,
Ethernet and other protocols for networking; some of these protocols include Serial Line
IP (SLIP), Point to Point Protocol (PPP) and Multiple Transmission Unit (MTU).

The last layer in the OSI model is the physical layer which literally deals entirely with the
physical components of the network. This layer is responsible for the physical transfer of
data in the form of bits from station to station. Items which operate at this level are for
example cables voltages (CAT5, etc) or pin outs. The physical layer is concerned with (1)
physical device interfaces such as mechanical and electronic specifications; (2) the
transmission type (duplex or half duplex) and (3) the amount of bits which are
transmitted per second.

A graphical illustration of how the OSI model is intended to work

Despite the introduction of the OSI model the TCPIP protocol is the one which is more
commonly used in the real life. This may be because the TCPIP protocol has fewer layers
and is easier on the eye and mind and also, the TCPIP protocol was designed to solve
problems which actually occur with networks.

(1) Physical Layer

Concerned with the transmission of bits.
How many volts for 0, how many for 1?
Number of bits of second to be transmitted.
Two way or one-way transmission
Standardized protocol dealing with electrical, mechanical and signaling interfaces.
Many standards have been developed, e.g. RS-232 (for serial communication lines).
Example : X.21

(2) Data Link Layer

Handles errors in the physical layer.
Groups bits into frames and ensures their correct delivery.
Adds some bits at the beginning and end of each frame plus the checksum.
Receiver verifies the checksum.
If the checksum is not correct, it asks for retransmission. (send a control message).
Consists of two sublayers:
Logical Link Control (LLC) defines how data is transferred over the cable and provides data link service
to the higher layers.
Medium Access Control (MAC) defines who can use the network when multiple computers are trying to
access it simultaneously (i.e. Token passing, Ethernet [CSMA/CD]).

(3) Network Layer

Concerned with the transmission of packets.
Choose the best path to send a packet ( routing ).
It may be complex in a large network (e.g. Internet).
Shortest (distance) route vs. route with least delay.
Static (long term average) vs. dynamic (current load) routing.
Two protocols are most widely used.
X.25
Connection Oriented
Public networks, telephone, European PTT
Send a call request at the outset to the destination
If destination accepts the connection, it sends an connection identifier
IP (Internet Protocol)
Connectionless
Part of Internet protocol suite.
An IP packet can be sent without a connection being established.
Each packet is routed to its destination independently.

(4) Transport Layer

Network layer does not deal with lost messages.
Transport layer ensures reliable service.
Breaks the message (from sessions layer) into smaller packets, assigns sequence number and sends
them.
Reliable transport connections are built on top of X.25 or IP.
In case IP, lost packets arriving out of order must be reordered.
TCP : (Transport Control Protocol) Internet transport protocol.
TCP/IP Widely used for network/transport layer (UNIX).
UDP (Universal Datagram Protocol) : Internet connectionless transport layer protocol.
Application programs that do not need connection-oriented protocol generally use UDP.
 (5) Sessions Layer
Just theory! Very few applications use it.
Enhanced version of transport layer.
Dialog control, synchronization facilities.
Rarely supported (Internet suite does not).

(6) Presentation Layer

Just theory! Very few applications use it.
Concerned with the semantics of the bits.
Define records and fields in them.
Sender can tell the receiver of the format.
Makes machines with different internal representations to communicate.
If implemented, the best layer for cryptography.

(7) Application Layer

Collection of miscellaneous protocols for high level applications
Electronic mail, file transfer, connecting remote terminals, etc.
E.g. SMTP, FTP, Telnet, HTTP, etc

The OSI Reference Model

The seven-layer reference model for Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) was
developed by members of the International Standards Organization (ISO). It provides a
common basis for the coordination of standards for the purpose of systems
interconnection. Each layer has a unique, defined function and, theoretically, each layer
is independent of the protocol layer above and below it. This independence of each
layer allows a system to be constructed that can use a mix & match approach to
communications that can be optimize for a given task.

Figure 1. The OSI 7-Layer Model

Layer 1: Physical Layer

The physical layer is responsible for the actual transmission of a bit stream across a
physical circuit. It allows signals, such as electrical signals, optical signals, or radio
 signals, to be exchanged among communicating machines. This layer addresses the
cables, connectors, modems, and other devices used to permit machines to physically
communicate and controls the generation and detection of signals that are interpreted as
0 bits and 1 bits.

Layer 2: Data Link Layer

The data link layer is responsible for providing data transmission over a single
connection from one system to another. Control mechanisms in the data link layer
handle the transmission of data units, often called frames, over a physical circuit. This
layer is also concerned with how bits are grouped and the beginning and ending of a
"frame" of data. With some types of data links, the data link layer may also perform
procedures for flow control (starting & stopping data), frame sequencing, and recovery
from transmission errors.

Layer 3: Network Layer

The network layer is concerned with making routing decisions and relaying data from
one device to another through the network. Within the network, intermediate systems
perform routing and relaying functions. The application programs running in two end
systems that wish to communicate should not need to be concerned with the route
packets take nor with how many data links they must cross.

Layer 4: Transport Layer

The transport layer builds on the services of the lower layers to ensure a reliable end-to-
end data transport service. This layer for example might the task of asking for
retransmission of a missing packet or reorder packets that arrive out of sequence. The
transport layer hides from the higher layers all the details concerning the actual moving
of packets and frames from one computer to another and shields network users from the
complexities of network operation.
The transport layer may also control the rate at which messages flow through the
network to prevent and control congestion.

Layer 5: Session Layer

The session layer is responsible for organizing the dialog between two application
programs and for managing the data exchanges between them. The top three layers are
more concerned with services that are oriented to the application programs
themselves. To do this, the session layer imposes a structure on the interaction between
two communicating programs.
The session layer defines three types of dialogs: two-way simultaneous interaction,
where both programs can send and receive concurrently; two-way alternate interaction,
where the programs take turns sending and receiving; and one-way interaction, where
one program sends and the other only receives.

Layer 6: Presentation Layer

The presentation layer is interested in the meaning of the bits and deals with preserving
the information content of data transmitted over the network. It is concerned with three
types of data syntax that can be used for describing and representing data including
abstract syntax, transfer syntax, and local concrete syntax.
The presentation layers between systems negotiate a common transfer syntax to be used
to transfer the messages defined by a particular abstract syntax. If the local concrete
 syntax in the two communicating systems are different, an implementation of the
presentation layer is responsible for transforming from the local concrete syntax to the
transfer syntax in the sending system and from the transfer syntax to the local concrete
syntax in the receiving system.

Layer 7: Application layer:

The application layer is concerned with high-level functions that provide support to the
application programs using the network for communication. This layer provides a
means for application programs to access the system interconnection facilities to
exchange information. As far as the application layer is concerned, a program running
in one computer sends a message, and the program running in the other computer
receives it. The application layer is not concerned with any of the details related to how
the message gets from the source computer to the destination computer.

The TCP/IP Internet Layering Mode

TCP and IP are separate layers within the "communications stack" and, in reality, there
are over 30 different protocols involved but generically people call the entire suite of
these protocols "TCP/IP".

Broadly, the TCP/IP software is organized into four conceptual layers that build on a
fifth layer of hardware. These layers are slightly different than the OSI layers but they
can be mapped onto it.
 Application Layer - Messages or streams
 Transport Layer - Transport protocol packets
 Internet Layer - Create IP datagrams
 Network Interface Layer - Network-specific frames

Functions of the TCP/IP Application Layer:

TCP/IP defines a wide range of application layer protocols that provide services to
network users, including remote login, file copying, file sharing, electronic mail,
directory services, and network management facilities. Some application protocols are
widely used, others are employed only for specialized purposes. The following are the
most commonly used TCP/IP application layer protocols:
 PING Connectivity Testing
 Telnet Remote Login
 Rlogin Remote Login
 Rsh Remote Execution
 FTP File Transfer
 TFTP File Transfer
 SMTP Electronic Mail
 Kerberos Authentication
 X Windows Presentation
 DNS Name Resolution
 NFS Remote File Service
 SNMP Network Management

Functions of the TCP/IP Network Interface Layer:

 The main function of the network interface layer is to handle hardware-dependent
functions and to present a standardized interface to the Internet layer of TCP/IP. The
TCP/IP suite of protocols does not specify details concerning the protocols to be used in
the network interface layer and below. The network interface layer of TCP/IP is
responsible for accepting messages from the Internet layer and preparing them for
transmission across any desired type of data link technology.

An individual TCP/IP network may be a local area network, using LAN data link
protocols such as Ethernet, Token Ring, or FDDI. An individual TCP/IP network may
also be implemented using a wide area network data link technology, such as a point-to-
point leased or dial-up line, satellite link, or specialized digital circuit. One of the
reasons TCP/IP has become widely used is that it can be used in conjunction with
almost any type of underlying physical circuit and data link technology.

One important function of the network interface layer is to examine each frame that the
network interface card receives and to determine, from the way in which control bits in
the frame are set, for which of the internet layer protocols the frame is intended, called a
demultiplexing function.

Functions of the TCP/IP Internet Layer:

The TCP/IP internet layer provides routing and relaying functions for carrying packets
of data from a source system to a destination system through an internet. This is the
layer at which routing decisions are made that determine the path over which each
packet travels. TCP/IP protocols that operate in the Internet layer include the Internet
Protocol (IP) and the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP), the Address
Resolution Protocol (ARP) and the Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP).

IP is the core protocol of the TCP/IP protocol suite. It provides a connectionless, best-
effort data delivery service that is used in moving packets from one system to another
through the internet. The ICMP employs the services of IP to allow systems to report
on error conditions and to provide information about unexpected circumstances.

The ARP helps a source system deliver data directly to a destination system when the
two systems are on the same physical network. It allows the source system to determine
the destination system's physical hardware address given the destination system's
internet address. The RARP allows a system that does not yet have its internet address
to obtain it. RARP is typically used to support workstations and intelligent terminals
that do not have their own disk storage.

Functions of the TCP/IP Transport Layer:

The transport layer provides an end-to-end data delivery service that application
processes use to exchange messages over the internet. Protocols operating in the
transport layer use the services or IP to deliver messages. The two major TCP/IP
transport layer protocols are User Datagram Protocol (UDP) and Transfer Control
Protocol (TCP).

UDP is the simpler of the two transport protocols. It is a best-effort, connectionless

transport layer protocol that adds little to the underlying IP datagram delivery service.
 TCP is a connection-oriented transport layer protocol that provides for reliable,
sequenced stream data delivery.

An application process can use either UDP or TCP to request data transfer services. The
protocol that an application developer chooses to use depends on whether the
application requires only a best-effort, datagram data delivery service or whether it
requires the reliability controls provided by a connection-oriented data transfer service.

Introduction
Asynchronous Transfer Mode or ATM, is a communications technology primarily used
in the backbone of high speed networks. It supports real-time voice and video as well as
data establishing connections between the two endpoints. These connections may
establish guarantees a quality of service (QoS) for that data transmission. However,
unlike telephone switches that dedicate circuits end to end, unused bandwidth in ATM's
logical circuits can be utilized whenever available. For example, idle bandwidth in a
videoconference circuit can be used to transfer data.

ATM works by transmitting all traffic as fixed-length units called cells which are 53-
bytes long. This fixed unit allows very fast switches to be built, because the processing
associated with variable-length packets is eliminated (finding the end of the frame). The
small ATM cells also ensure that voice and video can be intermixed because there are
no long delays encountered because of large packets.

ATM transfers information in fixed-size. Each cell consists of 53 octets, or bytes. The
first 5 bytes contain cell-header information, and the remaining 48 contain the
"payload" (user information). Figure 1 illustrates the basic format of an ATM cell.

Figure 1. The ATM cell

The ATM standard actually consists of many different aspects required to effectively
transmit information and manage the network. The various aspects of the standard
include establishing connections, Quality of Service (QoS), User-to-Network Interface
(UNI), Network-to-Network Interface (NNI), Management, and Interface Diagnostics.
ATM Reference Model
Computer users want to transmit messages and in order to do that, they need multiple
layers of communications protocols. For example, users wanting to browse the web use
TC/IP. These packets are carried over Ethernet and somewhere in the network, these
packets may get converted into ATM cells. The ATM reference model, shown in Figure
2, is composed of the following OSI layers:
 Physical layer --- Analogous to the physical layer of the OSI reference model, the
ATM physical layer manages the medium-dependent transmission.
 ATM layer --- Combined with the ATM adaptation layer, the ATM layer is roughly
analogous to the data-link layer of the OSI reference model. The ATM layer is
responsible for establishing connections and passing cells through the ATM
network. To do this, it uses information in the header of each ATM cell.
 ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) --- Combined with the ATM layer, the AAL is
roughly analogous to the data-link layer of the OSI model. The AAL is responsible
for isolating higher-layer protocols from the details of the ATM processes.

Figure 2. Comparing the OSI reference model with the ATM reference model

For a more complete explanation of the OSI layers, please see our seminar
Communications Layers.

The ATM physical layer performs the following functions: Bits are converted into cells;
the transmission and receipt of bits on the physical medium are controlled; ATM cell
boundaries are tracked; and cells are packaged into the appropriate type of frame for the
physical medium.

The ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) performs the function of taking packets from the
upper layer protocols such as Ethernet or TCP/IP and segmenting them. There are
actually several different ways larger packets may be segmented into the smaller ATM
cells. The selection of the proper AAL is dependent on the physical links being used and
the type of data being transmitted.

For more information on the process used to segment larger packets into cells and then
reassemble the cells back into packets, please see the seminar ATM Adaptation Layers.

ATM Networks
An ATM network consists of a set of ATM switches interconnected by point-to-point
ATM links or interfaces. ATM switches support two primary types of interfaces: user-
network interface (UNI) and network-node interface (NNI). The UNI connects ATM
end-systems (such as hosts and routers) to an ATM switch. The NNI connects two ATM
switches.

Depending on whether the switch is owned and located at the customer's premises or
publicly owned and operated by the telephone company, UNI and NNI can be further
subdivided into public and private UNIs and NNIs. A private UNI connects an ATM
endpoint and a private ATM switch. Its public counterpart connects an ATM endpoint or
private switch to a public switch. A private NNI connects two ATM switches within the
same private organization. A public one connects two ATM switches within the same
public organization.

An additional specification, the Broadband Interexchange Carrier Interconnect (B-ICI),

connects two public switches from different service providers. Figure 3 illustrates the
ATM interface specifications for private and public networks.

Figure 3. ATM interface specifications differ for private and public networks

ATM Cell-Header Format

An ATM cell header can be one of two formats: UNI, or the NNI. The UNI header is
used for communication between ATM endpoints and ATM switches in private ATM
networks. The NNI header is used for communication between ATM switches. Figure 3
depicts the basic ATM cell format, the ATM UNI cell-header format, and the ATM NNI
cell-header format.

Unlike the UNI, the NNI header does not include the Generic Flow Control (GFC)
field. Additionally, the NNI header has a Virtual Path Identifier (VPI) field that occupies
the first 12 bits, allowing for larger trunks between public ATM switches.
 Figure 4. Two forms of ATM cells, UNI and NNI Formats

ATM Cell-Header Fields

In: addition to GFC and VPI header fields, several others are used in ATM cell-header
fields. The following descriptions summarize the ATM cell-header fields illustrated in
Figure 4:
 Generic Flow Control (GFC) --- Provides local functions, such as identifying
multiple stations that share a single ATM interface. This field is typically not used
and is set to its default value.
 Virtual Path Identifier (VPI) --- In conjunction with the VCI, identifies the next
destination of a cell as it passes through a series of ATM switches on the way to its
destination.
 Virtual Channel Identifier (VCI) --- In conjunction with the VPI, identifies the next
destination of a cell as it passes through a series of ATM switches on the way to its
destination.
 Payload Type (PT) --- Indicates in the first bit whether the cell contains user data or
control data. If the cell contains user data, the second bit indicates congestion, and
the third bit indicates whether the cell is the last in a series of cells that represent a
single AAL5 frame.
 Congestion Loss Priority (CLP) --- Indicates whether the cell should be discarded
if it encounters extreme congestion as it moves through the network. If the CLP bit
equals 1, the cell should be discarded in preference to cells with the CLP bit equal
to zero.
 Header Error Control (HEC) --- Calculates checksum only on the header itself.

A Communication Model
There is always a sender and a receiver in communication. At least there is an intended
receiver. In the diagram above A is the sender, B is the receiver.

A and B have different personal realities. They each have their own world formed by
their experiences, their perceptions, their ideas, etc. They will perceive, experience, and
interpret things differently. The same event will always be perceived a little different by
each of two people.

For the consideration to communicate to appear at all there must be some kind of shared
space. The participants must have some kind of concept of each other's location and of a
possible channel of communication existing between them. They must agree sufficiently
on these to agree that communication is taking place.

The sender will have some kind of meaning she wishes to convey to the receiver. It might
not be conscious knowledge, it might be a sub-conscious wish for communication. What
is desired to be communicated would be some kind of idea, perception, feeling, or datum.
It will be a part of her reality that she wishes to send to somebody else.

Something will be transmitted across a distance in the shared space. We can regard it as
an object, a particle, or as a wave, or flow. It might be sound vibrations, rays of light,
words, pieces of paper, cannon balls, body language, telepathy, or whatever.

Between humans there will be several layers of the message being sent. There will often
be a verbal portion, something that is being expressed in language, spoken or written.
And there is also a non-verbal portion, covering everything else, most notably body
language. Sometimes the verbal and non-verbal messages don't agree with each other,
they are incongruent. If they do agree we say that they are congruent.

Based on what the receiver perceives, and based on her interpretation of the verbal and
non-verbal input, she will form a concept in her reality of what the meaning of the
message is. It will mean something to her. It might or might not be what was intended by
the sender. In successful communication the perceived message will approximate the
intended message to the sender's satisfaction. However, the sender will only know that if
she receives a message back that is congruent with what she had in mind.
One can never take for granted that the receiver has the same reality as the sender. One
can never take for granted that the receiver will interpret the message the same way as the
sender intended it.

Communication is not an absolute finite thing. Particularly, communication with

language is always vague and misleading to some extent.

If A says a word, like for example "trust", she has a certain meaning attached to it in her
reality. She has had certain experiences with the subject matter, she has made certain
conclusions about it, and she has certain perceptual filters concerning it. The meaning of
the word is all the stuff it is associated with in her reality. However, because words also
have nice, finite dictionary definitions it might appear as if the word is something very
precise.

What travels across the communication channel is NOT all the associations that A made
about the word, and NOT the intentions she had with using it. What crosses the distance
is symbols.

When B hears the word or sentence she will interpret it based on her experiences,
perceptions, and opinions. She might supplement the verbal information with non-verbal
information such as body language. She might also hallucinate what it is supposed to
mean. In one way or another she arrives at the meaning she assigns to it.

There is wide agreement, at least within a particular culture, on what common physical
objects are. When you say "car" or "refrigerator" most people will have an understanding
very close to yours. But if you say words for abstract qualities, like "trust", "love",
"right", "wrong", and so forth, then there is wide variance on what people mean.

To have effective communication one needs to take all the factors into consideration. The
different realities, the space the communication takes place in, verbal as well as non-
verbal messages, the intended meaning versus the perceived meaning.