TORSION OF CIRCULAR AND NON-CIRCULAR SHAFTS

Shafts: The shafts are usually cylindrical in section, solid or hallow. They are mode at mild steel, allay steel and copper allay. Shafts may be subjected to the fallowing loads: 1. Torsional load 2. Bending load 3. Axial load 4. Combination at above three loads. The shafts are designed on the basis at strength and rigidity. The fallowing values are usually adopted for the design of shaft. = 112 MN/ , the maximum permissible tensile of compressive stress. = 56MN/ , the maximum permissible shear stress. The ultimate tensile stress for commercial shutting may be 315 MN/ for hot rolled and turned low carbon steel and 490 MN/ for cold finished low carbon steel, corresponding. Stress at the elastic limit would be about 160 MN/ and 315 MN/ respectively. In shafts with key ways the allowable stress are 75% of the values given. TORISION OF SHAFTS: To transmit energy by rotation it is necessary to apply a turning force of a shaft if the force is applied tangentially and in the plane of plane of transverse cross-section the torque or twisting moment may be calculated by multiplying the force with radius of the shaft. If the shaft is subjected to two opposite turning moments it is said to be in pure torsion and it will exhibit the tendency of shearing off at every cross-section which is perpendicular to longitudinal axis. CIRCULAR SHAFTS: TORSION EQUATION The torsion equation is based on the fallowing assumption: 1. The material of the shaft is uniform throughout. 2. The shaft circular in section remains circular after loading. 3. A plane section of shaft normal to its axis before loading remains the same after the application of torque. 4. The twist along the length of shafts is uniform throughout 5. The distance between any normal cross-section remains the after the application of torque.

6. Maximum shear stress induced in the shaft due to application of torque does not exceed its elastic limit value. Let, = Maximum twisting torque = Diameter of the shaft = Polar moment of inertia, = Shears stress = Modulus of rigidity = The angle of twist (radians), and = Length of the shaft In fig13.1

In is shown shaft fixed at one end torque being applied other end. If a line LM is drawn on the shaft, it will be distorted to LM on the application of the torque: thus cross-section will be twisted through angle and surface by angle Here, shear strain, Also, = = or, = = Refer to Consider an elementary ring of thickness dx at a radius x and let the shear stress at this radius be The turning force on the elementary ring = Turning moment due to this turning force To get total turning moment integrating both sides we get or, = = [ ]

= or, = = or, = =

| | (strength of solid shaft0 * + (13.2)

From equations(13.1)and (13.2), we have = This is called torsion equation (13.3)

= Note, = from the relation, we have

For a given shaft and R are constants and is thus a constant and is

know as polar modulus of the shaft section. Thus = For a shaft of given material the maximum permissible shear stress is fixed and thus the greatest twisting moment that the shaft can withstand is proportional to the polar modulus of the shaft. Polar modulus of the section is thus measure of strength of in torsion. HOLLOW CIRCULAR SHAFTS Fig.13.3

Torsion equation equally holds good for hollow shafts and can be established in the same way as in Article. Consider a hollow circular shaft subject to a torque T . Refer to Let, R = Outer radius of the shaft r = Inner radius of the shaft, and = Shear stress at radius R Following the same procedure, we have = Turning moment on the elementary ring = Integrating both sides, we get but, = = =

or,

or,

but,

or,

TORSINAL RIGIDITY From the relation = We have = Since C, l and are constant for a given shafts, the angle at twist is is known as

directly proportional to the twisting moment. The quantity

torsional rigidity and is represented by K or . From the above relation, we have. = =

POWER TRANSMITTED BY THE SHAFT Consider a force F newtons acting tangentially on the shaft of radius R. if the shaft due turning moment (FX R) starts rating at N r.p.m then Work supplied to the shaft/sec. = F X distance moved/sec. = FX or, = = Hence, =

Where T is the mean/average torque in Nm. IMPORTANCE OF ANGLE OF TWIST AND VARIOUS STRESS IN SHAFT Angle of Twist In many problems such as torsion of shafts of accurate milling and drilling machines the angle of twist ( ) is required to be restricted. In such application, the shafts are designed on the basis of limiting angle of twist and checked for shearing stresses. In torsional vibration problems, the angle of twist is also needed. These considerations make it necessary to find suitable expression for angle of twist.

A shaft, for which the angle of twist is significant, should always be designed or checked for angle of twist in addition to the design stress in shafts. Stresses in shafts: In a shaft the following significant stress occurs: 1. A maximum shear stress occurs on the cross-section of the shaft at its outermost surface. 2. The maximum longitudinal shear stress occurs at the surface of the shaft on the longitudinal planes passing through the longitudinal axis of the shaft. 3. The maximum tensile stress (i.e., major principal stress) occurs at planes to the maximum shearing stress planes at the surface of the shaft. This stress is equal to the maximum shear stress on the cross-section of the shaft. 4. The maximum compressive stress (i.e., minor principal stress) occurs on the planes at the to the longitudinal and the cross-section planes at the surface of the shaft. This stress is equal to the maximum shear stress on the cross-section. The stresses are important/significant because they govern the failure of the shaft. These stresses develop simultaneously and therefore they should be consider simultaneously for design purposes. - For most engineering materials, fortunately the shear strength is the a smallest as compared to the tensile and compressive stress and in such cases only the maximum shear stress on the cross=section of the shaft is the signification stress for design. - For materials for which tensile and compressive strength are lower than the shear strength, the shaft design should be carried for the low=west strength. MODULUS OF RUPTURE A modulus of rupture, corresponding to the modulus of rupture in bending, may be defined as follows The maximum fictitious shear stress calculated by the torsion formula by using the experimentally found maximum torque (i.e., ultimate torque) required to rupture a shaft. Mathematically, where = = Modulus of rupture in torsion (also called

computed ultimate twisting strength), = Ultimate torque at failure, and = Outer radius of the shaft. gives fictitious value of shear stress at is not applicable

The above expression for

the ultimate torque because the torsion formula

beyond the limit of proportionality. The actual shear stress at the ultimate torque different from the shearing modulus of rupture because the shear stress does not vary linearly from zero to maximum but it is uniformly distributed at the ultimate torque. Although shearing modulus of rupture is a fictitious shear stress, still it can be used as a convenient tool for knowing the maximum torque carrying capacity of shafts by using the normal torsion formula. COMPARISON OF SOLID AND HOLLOW SHAFTS (a) Comparison by strength: In this it is assumed that both the shaft have same length, material, same weight and hence the same maximum shear stress. Let, = Diameter of the solid shaft = Internal diameter of the hollow shaft, = External diameter of the hollow shaft = Cross=section area of solid shaft = Cross-section area of hollow shaft = Torque transmitted by the solid shaft, and = Torque transmitted by the hollow shaft, Now, = = * +

= = Let, = = n Substituting it in equation, we get

(13.7)

( = = (

) ) (13.8)

AS the weight, material and length of the shafts are same, cross-section area of solid shaft = Cross-section area of hollow shaft ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) in equation (13.8), we get ( ) (
( ( )( ) )

= = = =

= = (13.9)

Substituting the value of = = Since than unity. N Then,

) (13.10) it is obvious that the value of n is greater = = 2

This shows that the torque transmitted by the hollow shaft is greater than the solid shaft thereby proving that the hollow shaft is stronger than the solid shaft. (b) Comparison by weight: In the case it is assumed that both the shafts have same length and material. Now, if the torque applied to both shafts is same, then, the maximum shear stress will also be same in both the cases. Now, = =
( )

Let,

(13.11) = N = and substituting this value in equation

(13.12) Torque applied in both the cases is same i.e., = = * + = = =

= * * + +

(13.3)
in equation we have

Substituting the value of ( = If n=2 then = ( ( ( ) ) )

( (

) )

(13.14)

( ) )

This shows that for same material, length and given torque, weight of hollow shafts will be less. So, hollow shaft are economical compared to solid shafts as regards torsion. SHAFTS IN SERIES In order to from a composite shaft sometimes two shafts are connected in series. In such cases, each shaft transmits the same torque. The angle is the sum of the angle of twist of the two shafts connected in series. Thus, total angle of twist is given by = Where T , = = = = = = * + (13.15)

Torque transmitted by each shaft Respective length of the two shafts Respective moduli of rigidity, and Respective polar moment of interties.

When shafts are made of same material,

= Then =

= C say * +

Here, the driving torque is applied at one end the resisting at the other SHAFTS IN PARALLEL The shafts are said to be in parallel when the driving torque is applied at the junction of the shafts and the resisting torque is at the other ends of the shafts. Here, the angle of twist is same for shafts and shafts, but the applied torque is divided between the two shafts. i.e., = Or, = (13.16) (13.17)

And, = T1+T2 If the shafts are made of same material C1=C2 Then, or When torque is shared equally by both the shaft T1 = T 2 Then,

(13.18)(a)

(13.18)

TORSIONAL RESILENCE Consider a hollow shaft of external diameter D, internal diameter d, and length l, subjected to a gradually applied torque T. let be angle of twist. Energy is stored in the shaft due to this angular distortion. This is called torsional energy or the torsional resilience, denoted by U. Torsional energy = Work done by the torque = Average torque X angular twist. i.e. = From torsion equation: = Or, And, = = = Substituting the value of T and in eqn. (13.19), we get

= = = ( ) * +

U = = *

* +

+*

+ (13.20)

Average torsional energy/unit volume = For solid shaft, d=0 U= For very thin hollow shaft D is nearly equal to d In the case, U =

(13.21) (13.22) (13.23)

SAFT COUPLINGS A number of devices are used to connect section of co-axial shafting. The simplest and most widely used of these devices is the bolted flanged coupling. This type of coupling provides a clear application of torsional of torsional shearing stress induced by power transmission represent such a coupling. The torque is transmitted from one shaft to other as follows. - From shaft A to key B. - From key B to the left side of the coupling C, - From the bolts D to the right side of the coupling E, - From the right side of the coupling E to the key F, - From key F to the other shaft G, Bolts. The transmitted torque will develop a resisting torque in the bolts equal and opposite to it. T = T = (13.24) Where, = = = = Number of bolts, Diameter of bolt Shear stress in bolt, and Radius of bolt-circle.

Keys. There is tendency for the key to shear on the cross hatched rectangular area at a the surface of the shaft. The force F which produces shear at section AA is equal to T/R (R being radius of the shaft). Thus, T= (13.25) Fig.13.1and 13.14

Where and are the length, breadth and maximum permissible shear stress in the key respectively. The analysis of the key may be carried further to determine the bearing/crushing stress. The force F will tend to crush the key at the cross-hatched area. This force may be taken as the same force in shear analysis of the key. Therefore, the bearing stress developed in the key is = = (13.26)

COMBINED BENDING AND TORSION Generally we assume that shaft is subjected to torsion only but in actual practice due to weight of the pulley, coupling, pull in belts or ropes etc. the shaft is subjected to bending too. Thus, actually ,in the shaft, both the shear stress due to torsion and direct stress due to bending are induced. As per torsion equation, = Where, = = or Or, M M = = = (in case of solid shaft) (13.27) (in case of solid shaft) Where, is the bending stress Also the bending stress is given by the relation,

If a certain material is loaded in such a way at a point a direct stress (due to bending and a shear stress in the plane of is indicted then the maximum principal stress and maximum in the material are given by

= and, Again, = ( =

( ) (

(13.28) (13.29)

Multiplying both sides by = = Or, Where, Also, =

, we get ( ( ) ( ) ) ( ) ( )

(13.30) is the equation bending moment. = ( ) , we get ) ( )

Multiplying both sides by = (

= (13.31) Where is the equivalent torque? is also used to evaluate the magnitude of the maximum shear stress. It does not given the location of the plane of maximum shear stress which are at angle of 450 to the principal planes.