Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Vowels
The accent, if written, is placed on the single vowel or the second vowel of the
diphthong. If the diaeresis (two dots on top ΪΫϊϋ) is placed on the second, or the
accent is on the first, it is not a diphthong. For example, ρολοϊ (clock, from
ωρολογιον, whence French horloge) is pronounced roh-LOH-ee.
Consonants
Β βητα : as in very
Γ γαμμα : voiced version of χ. Before ε or ι, as in yet. Before γ, κ, or χ, as in sink
Δ δελτα : as in those Ζ
ζητα : as in zone ζωνη
Θ θητα : as in thesis θεσις
Κ καππα : as in kinetic κινητικος
Λ λαμβδα : as in linen λινον
Μ μυ : as in mixture μιγμα
Ν νυ : as in new νεος
Ξ ξι : as in ax αξινη
Π πι : as in plasma πλασμα
Ρ ρω : as in Spanish reloj ρολοϊ
Σ σιγμα ς : as in sack σακκος
Τ ταυ : as in type τυπος
Φ φι : as in phone φωνη
Χ χι : halfway between keel and heel
Ψ ψι : as in sepsis σηψις
Diphthongs
Problems
Numbers
The different forms of 1-4 are used with nouns of different genders.
deci δεκαστο
centi εκατοστο
milli χιλιαστο
The word λεπτο means both a euro cent and a minute of time. A second is
δευτερολεπτο, δευτερο meaning second (the ordinal).
Time
now τώρα (TOH-rah)
later αργότερα (ar-GHOH-teh-rah)
before πριν (preen)
morning πρωί (proh-EE)
afternoon απόγευμα (a-POH-ghev-ma)
evening βράδυ (VRAH-thee)
night νύχτα (NEE-htah)
Clock
noon το μεσημέρι (toh mess-ee-MEHR-ee)
midnight τα μεσάνυχτα (tah meh-SAH-neekh-tah)
Duration
_____ minute(s)
_____ λεπτο/λεπτα (LEP-toh/tah)
_____ hour(s)
_____ ωρα/ωρες (OH-rah/res) _____ day(s)
_____ μερα/μερες (MEH-rah/res) _____ week(s)
_____ εβδομαδα/δες (ev-dhoh-MAH-dhah/dhes) _____ month(s)
_____ μην/μηνες (MEEN / MEE-nes) _____ year(s)
_____ ετος/ετη (EH-tohs/tee)
Days
Months
Colors
black μάυρος/α/ο (MAHV-ros/rah/roh)
white άσπρος (AHS-prohs)
red (blood) έρυθρος (EH-ree-throhs)
red (fire) πυρρός (peer-ROHS)
red κοκκινο ("KOH-kih-noh")
blue μπλε (bleh)
yellow κιτρινο (KIT-ree-noh)
orange πορτοκαλη (POR-toh-kah-lee)
Transportation
How much is a ticket to _____? Πόσο κάνει ένα εισιτήριο για _____?
One ticket to _____, please. Eνα εισιτήριο για _____, παρακαλώ.
Where does this train/bus go? Που πάει αυτό το τραίνο/λεωφορείο?
Where is the train/bus to _____? Που είναι το τραίνο/λεωφορείο _____?
Does this train/bus stop in _____? Σταματάει το τραίνο στο _____?
When does the train/bus for _____ leave? Πότε φεύγει το τραίνο/λεωφορείο
για _____?
When will this train/bus arrive in _____? Πότε θα φτάσει το
τραίνο/λεωφορείο στο _____?
Directions
Turn left. Στρεψατε στην αριστερα. (STREP-sah-teh steen ah-riss-teh-RAH)
Turn right. Στρεψατε στη δεξια. (STREP-sah-teh stee dheh-xee-AH)
left αριστερα (ah-riss-teh-RAH)
right δεξια (dheh-xee-AH)
north βορρας (vor-RAHS)
south νοτος (NOH-toss)
east ανατολη (ah-nah-TOH-lee)
west δυση (DHEE-see)
Lesson 1
Το Ελληνικό Αλφάβητο - The Greek Alphabet
Capital Small Name & Greek Word Example English Sound
Α α άλφα = alfa Άννα Like a in father
Β β βήτα = veta βάρκα Like v in Victor
Γ γ γάμα = gama γάτα Like y in yes
Δ δ δέλτα = thelta δώρο Like th in this
Ε ε έψιλον = epselon εγώ Like e in bet
Ζ ζ ζήτα = zeta ζωή Like z in zebra
Η η ήτα = eta ήλιος Like ee in beet
Θ θ θήτα = theta θάλασσα Like th in think
Ι ι γιώτα = yota ιστός Like ee in beet
Κ κ κάπα = kapa καλός Like c in car
Λ λ λάμδα = lamtha* λουλούδι Like l in lemon
Μ μ μι = me μαμά Like m in mother
Ν ν νι = ne ναι Like n in no
Ξ ξ ξι = xe ξύλο Like x in ax
Ο ο όμικρον = omekron όλος Like o in only
Π π πι = pe πάγος Like p in poor
Ρ ρ ρο = ro ρολόι Like r in rain
Σ σ,ς** σίγμα = segma*** σαπούνι Like s in see
Τ τ ταυ = taf τώρα Like t in top
Υ υ ύψιλον = eepselon ύπνος Like ee in beet
Φ φ φι = fe φωτιά Like f in Frank
Χ χ χι = he χήνα Like h in hair
Ψ ψ ψι = pse ψάρι Like ps in lips
Ω ω ωμέγα = omega ώρα Like o in only
Lesson 2
Double Letters
Double Vowels Double Consonants
αι = like e in bet - αίμα μπ = b like b in boy - μπαμπάς
οι = like ee in beet - οικογένεια ντ = d like d in door - ντύνω
υι = like ee in beet - υιός γκ = g like g in get - άγκυρα
ει = like ee in beet - είμαι γγ = g like g in get -
Ευάγγελος
ου = like ou in Lou - ουρανός τσ = ts like ts in pots -
τσέπη
αυ = like af in "after" - αυτί, or τζ = dg like dg in lodge -
τζάκι
like av in "avocado" - αυγό
ευ = like ef in "cleff" - εύκολο, or
like ev in "evolution" - Εύα
Lesson 4
Vowels and Consonants
Here is an easy one. The 24 letters of the Greek alphabet are divided into two
parts. The vowels (φωνηεντα) and the consonants (συμφωνα).
There are 7 vowels and 17 consonants. They are:
Vowels (Φωνηεντα): α, ε, η, ι, υ, ο, ω.
Consonants (Συμφωνα): β, γ, δ, ζ, θ, κ, λ, μ, ν, ξ, π, ρ, σ,
τ, φ, χ, ψ.
Lesson 6
Punctuation Marks -Σημεία Στίξης
• η τελεία (.) (period)
• η άνω τελεία (·) (semicolon)
• το κόμμα (,) (comma)
• η διπλή τελεία (:) (colon)
• το ερωτηματικό (;) (question mark)
• το θαυμαστικό ( ! ) (exclamation mark)
• τα αποσιωπητικά (...) (ellipsis)
• η παρένθεση ( ) (parentheses)
• τα εισαγωγικά ( « ») (quotation marks)
• η παύλα (-) (dash)
_____________________________________________________________
These letters are written partly on and partly below the line: g h m r j x
These letters are written partly on and partly above the line: d q l
These letters are written on, above and below the line: b z c f y
The capital letters will only be used when they begin a proper noun. Sentences begin with
small letters.
Vowel Combinations
When two or more vowels (a e i o u) occur together they are pronounced as one letter.
The following chart will indicate the correct pronunciation of these vowel combinations
in Greek (called diphthongs):
ai as in aisle
ei as in height
oi as in oil
au as in kraut
eu as in feud
ou as in group
ui pronounced like wee
Whenever gg, or kg occur together, they are pronounced "ng" as in "angel"
Accent Marks
The marks found above letters in Greek are called accent marks (apart from the rough and
smooth breathing marks we have already discussed). These marks help in pronunciation of
words; but we will simply note them and not memorize them. Usage will, in the long run, make
these marks self explanatory.
Punctuation Marks
In Greek there are 4 punctuation marks; the comma (,) and period (.) correspond to the English
comma and period. The colon (:) appears above the line and corresponds to the English colon.
The question mark (;) is this sign.
When one talks about Greek verbs one must be very clear as to which kind of verb one is talking
about. Greek verbs, you see, have "Tense", which describes both kind and time of action. They
also have "Voice", which indicates whether the subject of the verb is acting (active voice) or being
acted upon (passive voice). Greek verbs also have "Mood", which shows the verb's relation to
reality. And finally, Greek verbs also have number (singular or plural). We will see many examples
of aong; so do not worry now about whether or not you fully grasp these ideas. You will!!!!
The first kind of verb we will discuss is the one which occurs most often in the New Testament:
Present, Active, Indicative. That is, the tense is present (describing action taking place now), the
voice is active (meaning that the verb's subject is acting and not being acted upon), and the mood
is indicative (which demonstrates true reality). Present, Active, Indicative verbs are translated by
a present tense English verb. (See the examples below in the vocabulary).
Before we go any further, the following words will need to be memorized by the student for
vocabulary. These words occur very frequently in the New Testament.
ginwskw = I know
grafw = I write
didaskw = I teach
pempw = I send
ASSIGNMENT: Memorize these vocabulary words and learn to correctly pronounce them.
You will notice that each of these verbs ends with the letter w. And they are all translated by "I...."
In Greek, the verb called the present, active, indicative, always ends with the following endings
(called conjugations):
Singular
-w = I ...
-omen = we...
-ete = you
-ousi= they
-ein = infinitive
Thus, to learn to recognize the Present, Active, Indicative, you simply need to recognize the
verbal ending. You can take any of the verbs ending, add the endings above, and have the
correct conjugation.
For instance:
legw= I say
legomen= We say
legein= to say
ASSIGNMENT: Take each of the verbs from the vocabulary above and conjugate them, then
translate them.
Example:
didask + w = I teach
Now, do the rest of the verbs for yourself (but don't include the + marker, it is simply there to show
you how conjugation is done).
a0gw- I lead
a0kouw- I hear
blepw- I see
e0xw- I have
a0ggeloj- messenger
a0delfoj- brother
karpoj- fruit
logoj- word
a0nqrwpoj- man
a0rtoj- bread
gamoj- marriage
dwron- gift
qanatoj- death
i&eron-- temple
liqoj- stone
nomoj- law
o0xloj- crowd
ui&oj- son
kai- and
ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the vocabulary words above. Note that list 1 are verbs, and list 2 are
nouns of the second declension.
There are three ways of classifying nouns in Greek. The second declension (class) are the most
frequent in the New Testament, so it is with these that we begin our study of nouns.
The following endings are attached to the noun root to obtain the endings of the second
declension:
Singular Plural Case
-oj -oi nominative
-ou -wn genitive
-w| -oij locative, instrumental, dative (note the w| subscript)
-on -ouj accusative
-e - (none) vocative
All that one needs to do to decline a noun in Greek, if it is a second declension noun, is add these
endings to the stem.
For example, the stem of a0nqrwpoj is a0nqrwp- to which are added the endings of the second
declension as follows:
Singular Plural
a0nqrwp- a0nqtwp-
oj oi
a0nqrwp- a0nqrwp-
ou wn
a0nqrwp- a0nqrwp-
w| oij
a0nqrwp- a0nqrwp-
on ouj
a0nqtwp-
(none)
e
To find the stem of any noun, simply drop off the nominative ending (the way it is listed in the
dictionary) and add the endings above. (See how simple it is!)
ASSIGNMENT: Decline (or add the appropriate endings, as above) all the nouns in the
vocabulary at the beginning of lesson 4.
The Nominative case (or ending) is the case that the subject of the sentence is found in.
The Genitive case is the case used to describe ownership of something. For example, oi0kou
a0nqrwpou means "a man's house" or "a house of a man".
The Locative case indicates where something is located. "oi0kw| " means "in a house"
The Instrumental case indicates the means by which something is. "oi0kw| " means "by means
of a house".
The Dative case indicates the direction of something. "oi0kw| " means "to a house".
The astute reader will notice that the Locative, Instrumental and Dative cases are all the same in
form. The correct translation can only be gained by means of the context.
The Accusative case shows limits. "oi0kon" means "the house" (only).
The Vocative (which occurs only in the singular) is the case of address. "a0nqrwpe" means
"man!"
Accurate translation means that the translator must know these forms and their meanings.
Vocabulary:
a0gaph- love ei0rhnh- peace
a0lhqeia- truth e0kklhsia- church
e0ntolh-
a(martia- sin
commandment
basileia- kingdom h(mera- day
glwssa- tongue maqhthj- disciple
grafh- writing, Scripture messia- messiah
didach- teaching,
parabolh- parable
instruction
doca- glory profhthj- prophet
ASSIGNMENT: write and memorize this vocabulary list.
This lesson will help the student recognize and translate 1st declension nouns. The student is
urged to review lesson 4 and its description of the various cases. They also apply here, as in 2nd
declension nouns.
Now, when a 1st declension noun is masculine in gender, then it has the following endings:
Singular Plural Case
-aj -ai nominative
-ou -wn genitive
-a| -aij locative, instrumental, dative
-an -aj accusative
ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the table above.
Now we can turn to our last item of business in this lesson; an examination of the definite article.
Greek has no indefinite article (the english "a" or "an"). The definite article is declined like any
other noun, in the following manner (in the masculine, feminine and neuter genders):
Singular
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative o( h( to
Genitive tou thj tou
Loc., Ins., Dat. tw| th| tw|
Accusative ton thn to
Plural
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative oi( ai( ta
Genitive twn twn twn
Loc., Inst., Dat. toij taij toij
Accusative touj taj ta
ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the table above, and translate the following sentences:
Lesson 6: Adjectives
Vocabulary:
a0gaqoj- good kainoj- new
a0gaphtoj- beloved kakoj- bad
a0llon- another (of the same kind) kaloj- beautiful
basilikoj- royal mikroj- small
dikaioj- righteous monoj- only,
alone
e0sxatoj- last nekroj- dead
e(teroj- another (of a different
pistoj- faithful
kind)
prwtoj- first ponhroj- evil
ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the vocabulary list above.
Like nouns, adjectives have gender, number, and case. An adjective is a word that modifies a
noun- i.e., "a new house". the adjective is "new" and the noun is "house".
When an adjective is used in Greek it will agree (match) the noun in gender, case, and number.
For example:
a0nqrwpoj a0gaqoj = a good man
a0nqrwpwn a0gaqwn = good men
and so on.
Thus, there is nothing new to memorize here, since the student has already memorized the 1st
and 2nd declension nouns. What one MUST remember is that an adjective WILL agree with the
noun it modifies in gender (masculine or feminine), case (nominative, genitive, etc), and number
(singular or plural).
Of particular importance in translating Greek is whether or not the definite article is used
IMMEDIATELY before the adjective. Note the following sentences very carefully, paying particular
attention to the placement of the article and the translation given:
o( a0gaqoj logoj = the good word
o( logoj o( a0gaqoj = the good word
and
o( logoj a0gaqoj = the word IS good
a0gaqoj o( logoj = the word IS good
If you noticed, when the article immediately precedes the adjective then it is translated "the...
(whatever the adjective is). When the article does not precede the adjective, the English wore the
translation accurate.
(Note: all of these rules are subject to fine tuning as we learn more of this tremendous language).
Lesson 7: Prepositions
Vocabulary:
a0na- up, again
e0pi- upon, on, at (with genitive); over (with locative); up to (with accusative)
para- from (with genitive); beside (with locative); along (with accusative)
pro- before
The first thing the student will notice is that some of the prepositions have different meanings
when they occur with a particular case. These distincitions must be learned.
Prepositions are words that help nouns, verbs and adjectives express themselves clearly.
Prepositions do not change in form, as do nouns, verbs and adjectives. The forms above are the
forms that will always occur, with one small exception.
Prepositions ending with a vowel (except pro and peri) drop that vowel when the next word in the
sentence begins with a vowel. For example:
a0po a0delfou becomes a0p a0delfou
dia h(mera becomes di h(mera, etc.
Note: Prepositions have shades of meaning that are not indicated above. The translator must be
sensitive to the context to translate them correctly, as well as make liberal use of the lexicon.
ASSIGNMENT: Translate the following sentences:
The passive verb, (the topic of this lesson) is used when the subject of the verb is being acted
upon, rather than acting. For example:
luw- I loose
luomai- I am being loosed
The following table shows the endings of the present, passive, indicative:
-mai = I am being... -meqa = we are being...
- sqe = you (pl) are
-h| = you are being....
being...
-tai = he is being... - ntai = they are being...
- sqai = (infinitive)
These endings are added to the stem of the verb, and a connecting vowel is added (o before m
or n, e before any other letter). For instance:
lu-h| = you are being loosed lu-e-sqai = you are being loosed (pl)
The student will notice quite clearly the stem of the verb lu, the connecting vowel, and
the verbal ending. These must be memorized.
ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the endings and connecting vowels of the present, passive,
indicative. Then take the vocabulary verbs at the beginning of this lesson and conjugate
them all in the present, passive, indicative (as above).
ASSIGNMENT: Translate the following sentences:
1. (oi( oi0koi luontai u(po twn ponhrwn a0nqrwpwn
The present, middle, indicative is used to show that the subject is acting so as to participate in
some way in the results of the action. This means that such verbs should be translated
reflexively; i.e., o( a0nqrwpoj e0geiretai = the man is raising himself up.
Now, for the good news! The form of the present, middle, indicative is exactly the same as the
present, passive, indicative.
So, the difference is function rather than form. The context of the passage will indicate whether
the verb is middle or passive in function.
Since the student has already learned the form, the following table shows the function of the
present, middle, indicative:
luomeqa- we loose for
luomai- I loose for myself
ourselves
luh|- you loose for yourself luesqe- you loose for yourselve
luetai- he looses for luontai- they loose for
himself themselves
ASSIGNMENT: Translate the following sentences as present, middle, indicatives.
3. oi( o0xloi e0sqiousin (note the -n on the end of this verb. This letter is called a moveable -n
and it occurs quite frequently on the end of the 3rd person plural verb) a0rton kai o( messiaj
docazetai
In Greek the negative particle is normally found immediately in front of the word is negates.
A pronoun agrees with the noun it is replacing in case, gender and number (just like an adjective).
All of these pronouns must be carefully translated according to their context. Only practice in this
art can help one correctly render these pronouns.
The moveable -n occurs frequently in this verb. When it occurs, simply note it. It does not change
the translation at all. It was simply used as a syllable closer.
ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the verb ei0mi as it is conjugated above. Then, translate the following
sentences:
There are two demonstrative pronouns in Greek. The near demonstrative ou(toj points to
something near at hand; while the far demonstrative e0keinoj points to something further away.
For example:
ou(toj a0nqrwpoj = this man
blepw e0keinhn thn e0kklhsian = I see that church
The Demonstratives are declined like adjectives. See the table below:
Singular
masc fem neut
e0kein e0kein
Nom. e0keino
oj h
e0kein e0kein e0keino
Gen
ou hj u
e0kein e0kein e0kein
L.I.D.
w| h| w|
e0kein e0kein
Acc. e0keino
on hn
Plural
masc fem neut
e0keino e0keina
Nom e0keina
i i
e0keinw e0keinw e0keinw
Gen
n n n
e0keino e0keina e0keino
L.I.D.
ij ij ij
e0keino e0keina
Acc e0keina
uj j
ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the tables above, then translate the sentences below.
3. ou(toj didaskei touj a0gaqouj kai au0toj didasketai u(po tou kuriou
Deponent verbs are verbs which appear in the middle or passive form (which have already been
learned); but are translated as though in the active form. This makes it essential that the student
know which verbs are deponent in form, so that they can be translated correctly. A clue: when
verbs are listed in the dictionary as the vocabulary words are, with a middle/passive ending, they
are deponent in form, and should be translated actively.
a becomes h
e becomes h
o becomes w
For example:
a0kouw, becomes, in the imperfect, active, indicative, h0kouon and e0geirw becomes
h0geiron, etc.
ASSIGNMENT: Learn the endings of the imperfect, active, indicative as indicated above.
These endings are added to the stem of the verb, and e is added as the augment (unless there is
already a vowel beginning the word, in which case it is lengthened as demonstrated above).
The imperfect tense is used to indicate continuous action in past time. I.E., "I am loosing"
(present tense); "I was loosing" (imperfect tense).
2. o9 messiaj a0pestellen (note that when a preposition is attached to an imperfect verb, the
prefix of the verb itself is changed, and not the preposition) a0ggelouj proj h9maj
The imperfect middle and passive indicatives are identical in form. Thus, the translator must be
sensitive to the context to determine whether the verb should be translated middle e0luomhn (I
was loosing myself) or passive e0luomhn (I was being loosed).
The following table shows the form of both the middle and the passive (the translation is, of
course the passive. Yet it could also be middle, as stated above, since they are identical in form):
e0luomeqa- we are being
e0luomhn- I am being loosed
loosed
e0luesqe- you are being
e0luou- you are being loosed
loosed
e0lueto- he, she, it is being e0luonto- they are being
loosed loosed
Notice that the imperfect middle and passive have the e prefix just as does the imperfect active
(and the same rules apply to it). To this prefix is added the verbal stem, and then the connecting
vowel, and then the endings; thusly-
e0+lu+o+mhn, etc.
A Note On kai
Kai can mean "and" as learned above; but it can also mean "also, even". Only the context can
help decide between these options.
ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the imperfect middle and passive forms above, and translate the
following sentences.
As the student can see, the future simply adds s to the stem of the verb, and the rest remains the
same.
There are, unfortunately, exceptions to this simple rule which MUST be learned. They are as
follows:
The First Aorist Active Indicative is a vn that is completed in the past. The vocabulary words
above are all first aorist, active, indicatives, and the way they are translated are the way that all
first aorist verbs are translated.
1- add the augment e (as in the imperfect verb learned earlier; and all the same rules apply as
there) to the stem of the verb
2- add the endings of the first aorist active indicative as shown below:
-same
-sa
n
-saj -sate
-se
-san
(n)
For example, if the stem is luw-
e0+lu+sa e0+lu+samen
e0+lu+saj e0+lu+sate
e0+lu+sen e0+lu+san
The first aorist middle indicative form is given below: (with the stem of luw)
e0lusamhn- I loosed e0lusameqa- we loosed
myself ourselves
e0lusw- you loosed
e0lusasqe- you loosed yourself
yourself
e0lusato- he loosed e0lusanto- they loosed
himself themselves
The student will note that the augment and the stem remain, as above; but the endings change.
These first aorist middle indicative endings must be learned.
ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the first aorist middle indicative endings above, and translate the
following sentences:
3. tauta ei0pete h(min e0n tw| i(erw| e0keina de e0n tw| oi0kw|
ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the future, passive indicative conjugation above, and translate the
following sentences.
1. e0didacqhte u(po twn e0n e0keinh| th| h(mera| oi( nekroi e0gerqhsontai e0n tw|
logw| tou qeou
Third declension nouns are irregular. They have irregular stems and irregular endings. The
endings below are those COMMONLY used; but there are many, many others. What the student
must do, therefore, is learn these basic endings and then learn to recognize these nouns when
they occur, and that will only happen with practice!
(NOTE: the definite article which comes before the normining case, gender and number)
This lesson is not quite over, dear student. Please continue on from here with what follows.
Vocabulary:
a0nastasij-
a(lieuj- fisherman
resurrection
a0rxiereuj- high
gnwsij- knowledge
priest
dunamij- power basileuj- king
krisij- judgment grammateuj- scribe
pistij- faith i(ereuj- priest
polij- city i0xquj- fish
stasij- dissension staxuj- grain
ASSIGNENT: Memorize the vocabulary above and translate the following sentences:
2. e0gw men baptizw u(maj e0n u(dati, e0keinoj de baptisei u(maj e0n tw| pneumati
The participle is a verbal adjective. The present participle of any regular verb may be formed by
adding the above endings to the stem.
A participle, as a verb, has tense, voice and mood. And, as an adjective, it has case, gender and
number.
The function of the participle. The participle is used in sentences to describe the action of the
subject. As a verb, it shares the tense of the main verb of the sentence, and as an adjective, it
shares the case, gender and number of the subject of the sentence.
Note the following sentences and the way that the participles are translated:
legwn tauta o( a0nqrwpoj blepei ton kurion
"While saying these things, the man sees the Lord".
blepw ton legonta tauta
"I See the one who is saying these things".
ebleya ton legonta tauta
"I saw the one who was saying these things"
Note: When the article precedes the participle it is translated "the one who...", "he who...". When
there is no article it is translated "while" or "as". I.e.,
e0bleya ton a0postolon legonta tauta
"I saw the apostle while he was saying these things".
e0bleya ton a0postolon ton legonta tauta
"I was the apostle who was saying these things".
Participles in Greek nt must grasp well these principles in order to correctly translate them.
NOTE: One of the most frequent uses of the participle is what is called the "genitive absolute". A
genitive absolute is a participle in the genitive case plus its noun or pronoun. These two words
are independent of the main clause and thus are translated as independent clauses.
• "The disciples having said these things; the apostles went away".
The participle, you see, with its noun is "absolute"; that is, loosed or seperated from the main part
of the sentence, and hence is in the genitive case. Practice will make this construction quite clear
to recognize and translate.
ASSIGNMENT: Translate the sentences below:
The perfect tense is used to show action completed in the past, but with results that last into the
present. For example: leluka = I have loosed (and it remains loosed!). This tense is VERY
important theologically, as the student will learn from translating it correctly in the New Testament.
The verbs we have studied so far have all been indicative in mood. (Remember, verbs have voice
(active or passive), tense (past, present, future, etc), and mood.
The subjunctive mood indicates action that is possible or potential. For example:
• Optative Mood- Oh, that the child would run! (indicating a wish).
ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the paradigms above, and translate the following sentences.
1. ei0 au0th e0stin h9 marturia tou i0dontoj ton kurion pisteuw au0thn
3. e0an ei0selqhte ei0j thn oi0kian tou maqhtou, didacai u9min touj logouj thj zwhj
The imperative mood appears in the New Testament in only the present and aorist tenses. There
is no 1st person in the imperative mood. The 2nd person is translated as a command, and the
third person with "let him..." etc.
ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the contract verb table above, and translate the following sentences.
As we learned in out study of the other nouns and pronouns, a noun or pronoun agrees in gender,
case and number with the word it is referring to. Please remember this VERY important rule
during this lesson as well.
4- The indefinite relative pronoun o9stij, who. This pronoun occurs ONLY in the nominative case
in the singular and plural.
Singular
Masc. Fem. Neut.
o9sti
Nom. h9tij o9ti
j
Plural
Masc. Fem. Neut.
oi9tin ai9tin a9tin
Nom.
ej ej a
5- The Reflexive pronouns.
This occurs only in these three forms in the New Testament: a0llhlwn, a0llhloij, and a0llhlouj.
In function it shows an interaction between two subjects. I.e., a0gapwmen a0llhlouj, "let us
love one another", etc.
The third person is i0dioj (masculine), i0dia, (feminine) and i0dion (neuter) and is also declined
as the first person.
The plurals are h9meteroj, -a, -on for the first person, and u9meteroj, -a, -on for the second
person.
The negative pronoun occurs only in the singular, and both are easily recognized in every case,
gender, and number.
ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the paradigms above for the pronouns and translate I John 1:5-10.
Verbs of the -mi conjugation are fairly frequent in the New Testament. The student will easily
recognize them because they will not have a stem that is relatively easy to spot! For instance, the
stem of luw is lu, while the stem of didwmi is do, and the stem of i9sthmi is sta, and the stem
of tiqhmi is qe.
So, when you are translating along and you cannot seem to locate a word in the dictionary, look
to see if it is -mi verb.
The endings of the -mi verb are in the present indicative are:
-
-mi
men
-j -te
-ti -asi
These verbs can be easily enough recognized as regular (in their irregularity!).
We have already discussed the general use of the definite article. In this lesson we will look at
some specialized uses of the article.
When two nouns have one article, they are both referring to the same thing, i.e., o9 a0postoloj
kai maqhthj means "the disciple (who is) the apostle".
The infinitive can be used as both a verb and a noun. When it is used as a verb it expresses the
purpose of the main verb; i.e., "the child likes to run". In this example, "likes" is the main verb, and
"to run", the infinitive, expresses what the child likes to do.
When the infinitive is used as a noun it is simply being used as the object of the main verb.
Examples of this kind of usage abound in the New Testament.
The Letters
The Alphabet
§1. The Greek alphabet has twenty-four letters.
Form Name Equivalents Sound
as in
A a alpha alpha a ă: aha; ā: father
B b bêta bēta b beg
G g gamma gamma g go
D d delta delta d dig
ĕpsīlo
E e ei, e (e psi_lon) ĕ met
n
Z z zêta zēta z daze
Ê ê êta ēta ē Fr. fête
Th th, u thêta thēta th thin
I i iôta iōta i ĕ: meteor; ī: police
K k kappa kappa c, k kin
L l lambda lambda l let
M m mu mu m met
N n nu nu n net
X x xei (xi) xi x lax
ŏmīcr
O o ou, o (o mi_kron) ŏ obey
on
P p pei (pi) pi p pet
R r rhô rho r run
S s, s sigma sigma s such
T t tau tau t tar
üpsīlo
U u u (u psi_lon) (u) y ŭ: Fr. tu; ū: Fr. sûr
n
Ph ph phei (phi) phi ph graphic
Ch ch chei (chi) chi ch Germ. machen
Ps ps psei (psi) psi ps gypsum
ōmĕg
Ô ô ô (ô mega) ō note
a
a. Sigma (not capital) at the end of a word is written s, elsewhere s. Thus, seismos
earthquake.
b. The names in parentheses, from which are derived those in current use, were given at a
late period, some as late as the Middle Ages. Thus, epsilon means ‘simple e,’ upsilon
‘simple u,’ to distinguish these letters from ai, oi, which were sounded like e and u. [p. 8]
c. Labda is a better attested ancient name than lambda.
§2. The Greek alphabet as given above originated in Ionia, and was adopted at Athens in
403 B.C. The letters from A to T are derived from Phoenician and have Semitic names.
The signs U to Ô were invented by the Greeks. From the Greek alphabet are derived the
alphabets of most European countries. The ancients used only the large letters, called
majuscules (capitals as E, uncials as [Eunc ]); the small letters (minuscules), which were
used as a literary hand in the ninth century, are cursive forms of the uncials.
a. Before 403 B.C. in the official Attic alphabet E stood for e, ê, spurious ei (6), O for o,
ô, spurious ou (6), H for the rough breathing, CHS for X, PHS for Ps. L was written for g,
and [lins ] for l. Thus:
EDOCHSENTEIBO[lins ]EIKAITOIDEMOI edoxen têi boulêi kai tôi dêmôi.
CHSULLRAPHESCHSUNELRAPHSAN xungraphês xunegrapsan.
EGITEDEIONENAIAGOTOARLURIO epitêdeion einai apo tou arguriou.
§3. In the older period there were two other letters: (1) W: Wau, uau, called digamma (i.e.
double-gamma) from its shape. It stood after e and was pronounced like ô. W was written
in Boeotian as late as 200 B.C. (2) ϟ: koppa, koppa, which stood after p. Another s,
called san, is found in the sign [sampi ], called sampi, i.e. san + pi. On these signs as
numerals, see 348.
§3 D. Vau was in use as a genuine sound at the time the Homeric poems were composed,
though it is found in no Mss. of Homer. Many apparent irregularities of epic verse (such
as hiatus, 47 D.) can be explained only by supposing that W was actually sounded.
Examples of words containing W are: astu town, anax lord, handanô please, eikô give
way (cp. weak), eikosi twenty (cp. viginti), hekastos each, hekôn willing, elpomai hope
(cp. voluptas), eoika am like, heo, hoi, he him, hex six, epos word, eipon said, ergon, erdô
work, hennu_mi clothe, fr. Wes-nu_mi (cp. vestis), ereô will say (cp. verbum), hesperos
evening (cp. vesper), ion violet (cp. viola), etos year (cp. vetus), hêdus sweet (cp. suavis),
idein (oida) know (cp. videre, wit), i_s strength (cp. vis), i_tea willow (cp. vitis, withy),
oikos house (cp. vicus), oinos wine (cp. vinum), hos his (123), ochos carriage (cp. veho,
wain). Vau was lost first before o-sounds (horaô see, cp. be-ware). W occurred also in the
middle of words: kleWos glory, aiWei always, oWis sheep (cp. ovis), klêWis key (Dor.
kla_ïs, cp. clavis), xenWos stranger, DiWi to Zeus, kalWos beautiful. Cp. 20, 31, 37 D.,
122, 123.
Breathings
§9. Every initial vowel or diphthong has either the rough (‘) or the smooth (’) breathing.
The rough breathing (spiritus asper) is pronounced as h, which is sounded before the
vowel; the smooth [p. 10] breathing (spiritus lenis) is not sounded. Thus, horos hóros
boundary, oros óros mountain.
§9 D. The Ionic of Asia Minor lost the rough breathing at an early date. So also before r
(13). Its occurrence in compounds (124 D.) is a relic of the period when it was still
sounded in the simple word. Hom. sometimes has the smooth where Attic has the rough
breathing in forms that are not Attic: Aïdês (Ha_idês), the god Hades, alto sprang
(hallomai), amudis together (cp. hama), êelios sun (hêlios), êôs dawn (heôs), i_rêx hawk
(hiera_x), ouros boundary (horos). But also in amaxa wagon (Attic hamaxa). In Laconian
medial s became ( (h): eni_ka_he eni_kêse he conquered.
§10. Initial u (u^ and u_) always has the rough breathing.
§10 D. In Aeolic, u, like all the other vowels (and the diphthongs), always has the smooth
breathing. The epic forms ummes you, ummi, umme (325 D.) are Aeolic.
§11. Diphthongs take the breathing, as the accent (152), over the second vowel: haireô
hairéo I seize, airô aíro I lift. But ai, êi, ôi take both the breathing and the accent on the
first vowel, even when i is written in the line (5): aidô Aidô I sing, haidês Ha_idês Hades,
but Aineia_s Aeneas. The writing aidêlos (Aidêlos) destroying shows that ai does not here
form a diphthong; and hence is sometimes written aï (8).
§12. In compound words (as in prooran to foresee, from pro + horan) the rough breathing
is not written, though it must often have been pronounced: cp. exedra_ a hall with seats,
Lat. exhedra, exedra, poluistôr very learned, Lat. polyhistor. On Attic inscriptions in the
old alphabet (2 a) we find EUÊORKON euhorkon faithful to one's oath.
§13. Every initial r has the rough breathing: rhêtôr orator (Lat. rhetor). Medial rr is
written rrh in some texts: Purrhos Pyrrhus.
§14. The sign for the rough breathing is derived from H, which in the Old Attic alphabet
(2 a) was used to denote h. Thus, HO ho the. After H was used to denote ê, one half
([rough ]) was used for h (about 300 B.C.), and, later, the other half ([smooth]) for the
smooth breathing. From [rough ] and [smooth] come the forms ‘and’.
CONSONANTS
§15. The seventeen consonants are divided into stops (or mutes), spirants, liquids, nasals,
and double consonants. They may be arranged according to the degree of tension or
slackness of the vocal chords in sounding them, as follows:
a. Voiced (sonant, i.e. sounding) consonants are produced when the vocal chords vibrate.
The sounds are represented by the letters b, d, g (stops), l, r (liquids), m, n, g-nasal (19 a)
(nasals), and z. (All the vowels are voiced.) r with the rough breathing is voiceless.
b. Voiceless (surd, i.e. hushed) consonants require no exertion of the vocal chords. These
are p, t, k, ph, th, ch (stops), s (spirant or sibilant), and ps and x.
c. Arranged according to the increasing degree of noise, nearest to the vowels are the
nasals, in sounding which the air escapes without friction through the nose; next come the
semivowels [uglide] and [iglide] (20 a), the liquids, and the spirant s, in [p. 11] sounding
which the air escapes with friction through the cavity of the mouth; next come the stops,
which are produced by a removal of an obstruction; and finally the double consonants.
§16. Stops (or mutes). Stopped consonants are so called because in sounding them the
breath passage is for a moment completely closed. The stops are divided into three
classes (according to the part of the mouth chiefly active in sounding them) and into three
orders (according to the degree of force in the expiratory effort).
Classes
Labial (lip sounds) p b ph
Dental (teeth sounds) t d th
Palatal (palate sounds) k g ch
Orders
Smooth p t k
Middle b d g
Rough ph th ch
a. The dentals are sometimes called linguals. The rough stops are also called aspirates
(lit. breathed sounds) because they were sounded with a strong emission of breath (26).
The smooth stops are thus distinguished from the rough stops by the absence of
breathing. ( (h) is also an aspirate. The middle stops owe their name to their position in
the above grouping, which is that of the Greek grammarians.
§17. Spirants.--There is one spirant: s (also called a sibilant).
a. A spirant is heard when the breath passage of the oral cavity is so narrowed that a
rubbing noise is produced by an expiration.
§18. Liquids.--There are two liquids: l and r. Initial r always has the rough breathing (13).
§19. Nasals.--There are three nasals: m (labial), n (dental), and g-nasal (palatal).
a. Gamma before k, g, ch, x is called g-nasal. It had the sound of n in think, and was
represented by n in Latin. Thus, anku_ra (Lat. ancora) anchor, angelos (Lat. angelus)
messenger, sphinx sphinx.
b. The name liquids is often used to include both liquids and nasals.
§20. Semivowels.--i, u, the liquids, nasals, and the spirant s are often called semivowels.
([iglide] becoming z, and W are also called spirants.)
a. When i and u correspond to y and w (cp. minion, persuade) they are said to be
unsyllabic; and, with a following vowel, make one syllable out of two. Semivocalic i and
u are written [iglide] and [uglide]. Initial [iglide] passed into ( (h), as in hêpar liver, Lat.
jecur; and into z in zugon yoke, Lat. jugum (here it is often called the spirant yod). Initial
[uglide] was written W (3). Medial [iglide], [uglide] before vowels were often lost, as in
ti_ma-([iglide]) ô I honour, bo([uglide])-os, gen. of bou-s ox, cow (43).
b. The form of many words is due to the fact that the liquids, nasals, and s may fulfil the
office of a vowel to form syllables (cp. bridle, even, pst). This is expressed by l?o?, m?o?,
n?o?, r?o?, s?o?, to be read ‘syllabic l,’ etc., or ‘sonant l’ (see 35 b, c).
§21. Double Consonants.--These are z, x, and ps. z is a combination of sd (or ds) or di
(26). x is written for ks, gt, cht; ps for ps, bs, phs. [p. 12]
Spirants ( Voiced s2
( Voiceless s, s
( Voiced b (middle) d (middle) g (middle)
Stops ( Voiceless p (smooth) t (smooth) k (smooth)
( Voiceless Aspirate ph (rough) th (rough) ch (rough)
Double ( Voiced z
consonants ( Voiceless ps x
1 * rh is voiceless.
2 † s was voiced only when it had the z sound (26).
VOWEL CHANGE
§27. Quantitative Vowel Gradation.--In the formation and inflection of words a short
vowel often interchanges with its corresponding long vowel. Thus
SHORT a e i o u
LONG ê (a_ after e, i, r, 31) ê i_ ô u_
ti_ma-ô ea-ô phile-ô hika_nô dêlo-ô phu-sis
I honour I permit I love I come I show nature
ti_mê-sô ea_-sô philê-sô hi_ka_non dêlô-sô phu-ma
future future future imperf. future growth
§28. Difference in quantity between Attic and Epic words is due chiefly either to (1)
metrical lengthening, or to (2) different phonetic treatment, as kalWos, tinWô become
Epic ka_los fair, ti_nô I pay (37 D. 1), Attic ka^los, ti^nô.
§28 D. Metrical lengthening.--Many words, which would otherwise not fit into the verse,
show in the Epic ei for e, ou (rarely oi) for o, and a_, i_, u_ for a, i, u. Thus, einalios in
the sea for enalios, eiarinos vernal for earinos, hupeirochos eminent for huperochos,
eilêloutha have come for elêloutha, oulomenos destructive, accursed for olomenos, ourea
mountains from oros, Oulumpoio of Olympus from Olumpos. o before a vowel appears as
oi in pnoiê breath. Similarly, êgatheos very holy for agatheos; but ênemoeis windy (from
anemos) has the ê of hupênemos under the wind (29), and tithêmenos placing (for
tithemenos) borrows ê from tithêmi.
A short syllable under the rhythmic accent (‘ictus’) is lengthened metrically: (1) in words
having three or more short syllables: the first of three shorts (oulomenos), the second of
four shorts (hupeirochos), the third of five shorts (apereisia boundless); (2) in words in
which the short ictus syllable is followed by two longs and a short (Oulumpoio). A short
syllable not under the rhythmic accent is lengthened when it is preceded and followed by
a long; thus, any vowel preceded by W (pneiô breathe = pneWô), i or u before a vowel
(prothu_mi_êisi zeal).
§29. The initial short vowel of a word forming the second part of a compound is often
lengthened: stratêgos general (stratos army + agein to lead 887 d).
§30. Attic ê, a_.--Attic has ê for original a_ of the earlier period, as phêmê report (Lat.
fāma). Ionic also has ê for original a_. Doric and Aeolic retain original a_ (pha_ma_).
[p. 15]
a. This is true also of the a_ which is the result of early compensative lengthening, by
which -ans-, -asl-, -asm-, and -asn- changed to -a_s-, -a_l-, -a_m-, and -a_n-. (See 37 b.)
But in a few cases like ta_s for tans, and in pasa for pansa (113) where the combination
ans arose at a later period, a_ was not changed to ê. huphanai for huphênai to weave
follows tetranai to pierce.
b. Original a_ became ê after u, as phuê growth. In some words, however, we find a_.
§30 D. 1. Doric and Aeolic retain original a_, as in malon apple (cp. Lat. mālum, Att.
mêlon), karux herald (Att. kêrux). But Doric and Aeolic have original ê when ê
interchanges with e, as in tithêmi I place, tithemen we place, ma_têr ma_tera mother,
poimên poimeni shepherd.
2. Ionic has ê after e, i, and r. Thus, geneê, skiê, hêmerê.
§31. In Attic alone this ê was changed back to a_:
1. When preceded by a r; as hêmera_ day, chôra_ country. This appears to have taken
place even though an o intervened: as akroa_ma a musical piece, athroa_ collected.
EXCEPTIONS: (a) But rWê was changed to rê: as korê for korWê maiden. (b) Likewise
rê, when the result of contraction of rea, remained: as orê from orea mountains. (c) And
rsê was changed to rrê: as korrê for korsê (79) one of the temples.
2. When preceded by e or i: as genea_ generation, skia_ shadow.
This change takes place even when the ê is the result of the contraction of ea: as hugia
healthy, endea lacking, for hugiê from hugie(s)a, endeê from endee(s)a; also, if originally
a W intervened, as nea_ for neWa_ young (Lat. nova).
EXCEPTIONS: Some exceptions are due to analogy: hugiê healthy, euphuê shapely (292
d) follow saphê clear.
§32. In the choruses of tragedy Doric a_ is often used for ê. Thus, ma_têr mother,
psu_cha_ soul, ga earth, dusta_nos wretched, eba_n went.
§33. The dialects frequently show vowel sounds that do not occur in the corresponding
Attic words.
§33 D. a for e: hiaros sacred, Artamis (for Artemis), trapô turn Dor.; e for a: thersos
courage Aeol., ersên male, horeô see, tesseres four ( = tettares) Ion.; a for o: dia_katioi
(for dia_kosioi) 200 Dor., upa under Aeol.; o for a: strotos (stratos) army, on (ana) up
Aeol., tetores (tettares) four Dor.; e for ê: hessôn inferior (hêttôn) Ion.; e for o: Apellôn
Dor. (also Apollôn); e for ei: mezôn greater Ion.; e for i: kerna_n mix ( = kirnanai for
kerannunai) Aeol.; i for e: histiê hearth Ion., histia_ Dor. (for hestia_), chru_sios
(chru_seos) golden Aeol., thios god Boeot., kosmiô arrange Dor.; u for a: pisures four
(tettares) Hom.; u for o: onuma name Dor., Aeol., apu from Aeol.; ô for ou: ôn
accordingly Ion., Dor.
§34. Transfer of Quantity.--êo, êa often exchange quantities, be coming eô, ea_. Thus,
lêos (Epic la_os folk) becomes leôs, as polêos becomes poleôs of a city; tethnêotos
tethneôtos dead; basilêa basilea_ king.
§34 D. Often in Ionic: Atreïdeô from earlier Atreïda_o son of Atreus, hiketeô from
hiketa_o suppliant. This eô generally makes a single syllable in poetry (60). The êo
intermediate between a_o and eô is rarely found. [p. 16]
§35. Qualitative Vowel Gradation.--In the same root or suffix we find an interchange
among different vowels (and diphthongs) similar to the interchange in sing, sang, sung.
a. This variation appears in strong grades and in a weak grade (including actual expulsion
of a vowel--in diphthongs, of the first vowel). Thus, pher-ô I carry, phor-o-s tribute, phôr
thief, phar-e-tra_ quiver, di-ph r-o-s chariot (twocarrier), leip-ô I leave, le-loip-a I have
left, lip-ein to leave. The interchange is quantitative in phor-o-s phôr (cp. 27).
b. When, by the expulsion of a vowel in the weak grade, an unpronounceable
combination of consonants resulted, a vowel sound was developed to render
pronunciation possible. Thus, ra or ar was developed from r between consonants, as in
pa-tra-si from ṛatr-si (262); and a from n, as in auto-ma-to-n for auto-mṇ-ton automaton
(acting of its own will), cp. men-o-s rage, me-mon-a I yearn. So in onomainô name for
onomṇ-[iglide]ô; cp. onoma.
c. A vowel may also take the place of an original liquid or nasal after a consonant; as
elu_sa for elu_sṃ. This r, l, m, n in b and c is called sonant liquid or sonant nasal.
§36. TABLE OF THE CHIEF VOWEL GRADES
Strong Grades Weak Grade
1. 2.
a. e: o --or a
b. ei: oi i
c. eu: ou u
1. 2.
d. a_: ô a
e. ê: ô e or a
f. ô o
a. ( e-gen-o-mên I became : ge-gon-a I am born gi-g n-o-mai I become
( trepô I turn : trop-ê rout e-trap-ên I was put to flight
b. peith-ô I persuade : pe-poith-a I trust (568) pith-anos persuasive
c. eleu(th)s-o-mai I shall go : el-êlouth-a I have gone êluth-o-n I went (Epic)
d. pha_-mi (Dor., 30) I say : phô-nê speech pha-men we speak
e. ( ti-thê-mi I place : thô-mo-s heap the-to-s placed, adopted
( rhêg-nu_-mi I break : e-rrôg-a I have broken e-rrag-ê it was broken
f. -- di-dô-mi I give di-do-men we give
N. 1.--Relatively few words show examples of all the above series of grades. Some have
five grades, as pa-têr, pa-ter-a, eu-pa-tôr, eu-pa-tor-a, pa-t r-os.
N. 2.--e and i vary in petannu_mi pitnêmi spread out.
COMPENSATORY LENGTHENING
§37. Compensatory lengthening is the lengthening of a short vowel to make up for the
omission of a consonant. [p. 17]
The short vowels a e i o u
are lengthened to a_ ei i_ ou u_
Thus the forms tan-s e-men-sa eklin-sa tons deiknunt-s
become ta_s emeina ekli_na tous deiknu_s
the I remained I leaned the showing
a. Thus are formed kteinô I kill for kten-[iglide]ô, phtheirô I destroy for phther-[iglide]ô,
doteira giver for doter-[iglide]a, kli_nô I lean for klin-[iglide]ô, olophu_rô I lament for
olophur-[iglide]ô.
b. a becomes ê in the s-aorist of verbs whose stems end in l, r, or n, when not preceded by
i or r. Thus, ephan-sa becomes e-phêna I showed, but eperan-sa becomes epera_na I
finished. So selêWê moon for selas-nê (selas gleam).
c. The diphthongs ei and ou due to this lengthening are spurious (6).
§37 D. 1. Ionic agrees with Attic except where the omitted consonant was W, which in
Attic disappeared after a consonant without causing lengthening. Thus, xeinos for xenos
stranger, heineka on account of (also in Dem.) for heneka, ouros boundary for horos,
kouros boy for koros, mounos alone for monos. These forms are also used generally in
poetry.
2. Doric generally lengthens e and o to ê and ô: xênos, hôros, kôros, mônos. So môsa
muse from monsa for mont[iglide]a, tôs for tons the, êmi am for esmi, chêlioi 1000 for
cheslioi, Ionic cheilioi. (In some Doric dialects W drops as in Attic (xenos, horos); and
ans, ons may become a^s, os: despota^s lords, tos the.)
3. Aeolic has ais, eis (a genuine diphth.), ois from ans, ens, ons. Thus, paisa all (Cretan
pansa, Att. pasa), lu_oisi they loose from lu_onti. Elsewhere Aeol. prefers assimilated
forms (emenna, eklinna, xennos, enneka, orros, emmi, chellioi). But single n, r are also
found, as in kora_, monos. Aeolic has phtherrô, klinnô, olophurrô; cp. 37 a.
§38. a_ arises from ai upon the loss of its i (43) in a_ei always (from aiei), a_etos eagle
(aietos), kla_ei weeps (klaiei), ela_a_ olive-tree (elaia_, cp. Lat. oliva).
a. This change took place only when ai was followed by W (aiWei, aiWetos from
aWietos, klaiWei from klaWiei, 111, 128) or i (Thêba_is the Thebaïd from Thêbaiis); and
only when W or i was not followed by o.
EUPHONY OF VOWELS
c. When a long final syllable is shortened before an initial vowel (weak , or improper,
hiatus): aktêi eph' hupsêlêi ([macrdot]˘˘[macrdot]¯[macrdot]).
d. When the concurrent vowels are separated by the caesura; often after the fourth foot:
all' ag' emôn ocheôn epibêseo, i ophra idêai; very often between the short syllables of the
third foot (the feminine caesura): as, all' akeousa kathêso, i emôi d' epipeitheo mu_thôi;
rarely after the first foot: autar ho egnô A 333.
e. Where W has been lost.
2. In Attic poetry hiatus is allowable, as in 1 c, and after ti what? eu well, interjections,
peri concerning, and in oude (mêde) heis (for oudeis, mêdeis no one).
CONTRACTION
§48. Contraction unites in a single long vowel or diphthong two vowels or a vowel and a
diphthong standing next each other in successive syllables in the same word.
a. Occasion for contraction is made especially by the concurrence of vowel sounds which
were once separated by s, [uglide] (W), and [iglide] (17, 20 a).
The following are the chief rules governing contraction:
§49. (I) Two vowels which can form a diphthong (5) unite to form that diphthong: geneï
genei, aidoï aidoi, klêïthron klêithron.
§50. (II) Like Vowels.--Like vowels, whether short or long, unite in the common long; ee,
oo become ei, ou (6): geraa gera_, phileête philête; ephilee ephilei, dêloomen dêloumen.
a. i is rarely contracted with i (ophi + idion ophi_dion small snake) or u with u (hu_s son
in inscriptions, from hu(i)us huios, 43).
§50 D. i + i i_ occurs chiefly in the Ionic, Doric, and Aeolic dative singular of nouns in
-is (268 D.), as in polii poli_; also in the optative, as in phthi-i_-to phthito.
§51. (III) Unlike Vowels.--Unlike vowels are assimilated, either the second to the first
(progressive assimilation) or the first to the second (regressive assimilation).
a. An o sound always prevails over an a or e sound: o or ô before or after a, and before ê,
forms ô. oe and eo form ou (a spurious diphthong, 6). Thus, ti_maomen ti_mômen, aidoa
aidô, hêrôa hêrô, ti_maô ti_mô, dêloête dêlôte; but phileomen philoumen, dêloeton
dêlouton.
b. When a and e or ê come together the vowel sound that precedes prevails, and we have
a_ or ê: horae hora_, ti_maête ti_mate, orea orê.
c. u rarely contracts: u + i u_ in ichthu_dion from ichthuidion small fish; u + e strictly
never becomes u_ (273).
§52. (IV) Vowels and Diphthongs.--A vowel disappears before a diphthong beginning
with the same sound: mnaai mnai, phileei philei, dêlooi dêloi.
§53. A vowel before a diphthong not beginning with the same sound generally contracts
with the first vowel of the diphthong; the last vowel, if i, is subscript (5): ti_maei ti_mai,
ti_maoimen ti_môimen, leipeai leipêi, memnêoimên memnôimên.
a. But e + oi becomes oi: phileoi philoi; o + ei, o + êi become oi: dêloei dêloi, dêloêi
dêloi.
§54. Spurious ei and ou are treated like e and o: ti_maein ti_man, dêloein dêloun,
ti_maousi ti_môsi (but ti_maei ti_mai and dêloei dêloi_, since ei is here genuine; 6). [p.
20]
§55. (V) Three Vowels.--When three vowels come together, the last two unite first, and
the resulting diphthong may be contracted with the first vowel: thus, ti_mai is from
ti_ma-êi out of ti_ma-e(s)ai; but Perikleous from Perikleeos.
§55 D. In Hom. deios of fear from dee(s)-os the first two vowels unite.
§56. Irregularities.--A short vowel preceding a or any long vowel or diphthong, in
contracts of the first and second declensions, is apparently absorbed (235, 290): chru_sea
chru_sa (not chru_sê), haploa hapla (not haplô), by analogy to the a which marks the
neuter plural, chru_seais chru_sais. (So hêmeas hêmas to show the -as of the accus. pl.)
Only in the singular of the first declension does ea_ become ê (or a_ after a vowel or r):
chru_sea_s chru_sês, argureai argurai. In the third declension eea becomes ea_ (265); iea
or uea becomes ia_ (ua_) or iê (uê). See 292 d.
Various special cases will be considered under their appropriate sections.
§57. The contraction of a long vowel with a short vowel sometimes does not occur by
reason of analogy. Thus, nêï (two syllables) follows nêos, the older form of neôs (275).
Sometimes the long vowel was shortened (39) or transfer of quantity took place (34).
§58. Vowels that were once separated by s or [iglide] (20) are often not contracted in
dissyllabic forms, but contracted in polysyllabic forms. Thus, the(s)os god, but
Thouku_didês Thucydides (theos + kudos glory).
SYNIZESIS
§60. In poetry two vowels, or a vowel and a diphthong, belonging to successive syllables
may unite to form a single syllable in pronunciation, but not in writing. Thus, belea
missiles, poleôs city, Pêlêïadeô son of Peleus, chru_seôi golden. This is called
Synizēsis (sunizêsis settling together).
§61. Synizesis may occur between two words when the first ends in a long vowel or
diphthong. This is especially the case with dê [p. 22] now, ê or, ê (interrog.), mê not, epei
since, egô I, ô oh; as ê ou' O 18.
a. The term synizesis is often restricted to cases where the first vowel is long. Where the
first vowel is short, e, i were sounded nearly like y; u nearly like ô. Cp. 44 a. The single
syllable produced by synizesis is almost always long.
CRASIS
§62. Crasis (krasis mingling) is the contraction of a vowel or diphthong at the end of a
word with a vowel or diphthong beginning the following word. Over the syllable
resulting from contraction is placed a ' called corōnis (korônis hook), as ta_lla from ta
alla the other things, the rest.
a. The coronis is not written when the rough breathing stands on the first word: ho
anthrôpos ha_nthrôpos.
b. Crasis does not occur when the first vowel may be elided. (Some editors write talla,
etc.)
§63. Crasis occurs in general only between words that belong together; and the first of the
two words united by crasis is usually the less important; as the article, relative pronoun
(ho, ha), pro, kai, dê, ô. Crasis occurs chiefly in poetry.
a. It is rare in Hom., common in the dialogue parts of the drama (especially in comedy),
and frequent in the orators.
§64. p, t, k become ph, th, ch when the next word begins with the rough breathing (124):
têi hêmerai thêmerai the day, kai hoi and the = choi' (68 c).
§65. Iota subscript (5) appears in the syllable resulting from crasis only when the first
syllable of the second word contains an i: egô oida egôida I know (but tôi organôi
tôrganôi the instrument, 68 a).
§66. The rules for crasis are in general the same as those for contraction (48 ff.). Thus, to
onoma tounoma the name, ho en houn, ô aner ôner oh man, pro echôn prouchôn
excelling, to hi_mation thoimation the cloak (64), ha egô ha_gô.
But the following exceptions are to be noted (67-69):
§67. A diphthong may lose its final vowel: hoi emoi houmoi, soi esti sousti, mou esti
mousti. Cp. 43, 68.
§68. The final vowel or diphthong of the article, and of toi, is dropped, and an initial a of
the next word is lengthened unless it is the first vowel of a diphthong. The same rule
applies in part to kai.
a. Article.--ho anêr ha_nêr, hoi andres ha_ndres, hai agathai ha_gathai, hê agêtheia
ha_lêtheia, tou andros ta_ndros, tôi andri ta_ndri, ho autos hautos the same, tou autou
tautou of the same.
b. toi.--toi ara ta_ra, mentoi an menta_n.
c. kai.--(1) ai is dropped: kai autos kautos, kai ou kou', kai hê chê', kai hoi choi', kai
hiketeuete chi_keteuete and ye beseech (64). (2) ai is contracted chiefly before e and ei:
kai en ka_n, kai egô ka_gô, kai es ka_s, kai eita kaita (note however kai ei kei', kai eis
keis); also before o in kai hote chôte. kai hopôs chôpôs (64). [p. 23]
N.--The exceptions in 68 a-c to the laws of contraction are due to the desire to let the
vowel of the more important word prevail: ha_nêr, not hônêr, because of anêr.
§68 D. Hom. has ôristos ho aristos, ôutos ho autos. Hdt. has houteros ho heteros, hônêr
ho anêr, hôutoi hoi autoi, tôuto to auto, tôutou tou autou, heôutou heo autou, hôndres hoi
andres. Doric has kêpi kai epi.
§69. Most crasis forms of heteros other are derived from hateros, the earlier form: thus,
ho heteros ha_teros, hoi heteroi ha_teroi; but tou heterou thouterou (64).
ELISION
§70. Elision is the expulsion of a short vowel at the end of a word before a word
beginning with a vowel. An apostrophe (') marks the place where the vowel is elided.
all' (a) age, edôk' (a) ennea, eph' (= epi) heautou (64), echoim' (i) an, genoit' (o) an.
a. Elision is often not expressed to the eye except in poetry. Both inscriptions and the
Mss. of prose writers are very inconsistent, but even where the elision is not expressed, it
seems to have occurred in speaking; i.e. hode eipe and hod' eipe were spoken alike. The
Mss. are of little value in such cases.
§71. Elision affects only unimportant words or syllables, such as particles, adverbs,
prepositions, and conjunctions of two syllables (except peri, achri, mechri, hoti 72 b, c),
and the final syllables of nouns, pronouns, and verbs.
a. The final vowel of an emphatic personal pronoun is rarely elided.
§72. Elision does not occur in
a. Monosyllables, except such as end in e (te, de, ge).
b. The conjunction hoti that? (hot' is hote when).
c. The prepositions pro before, achri, mechri until, and peri concerning (except before i).
d. The dative singular ending i of the third declension, and in si, the ending of the dative
plural.
e. Words with final u.
§72 D. Absence of elision in Homer often proves the loss of W (3), as in kata astu X 1.
Epic admits elision in sa thy, rha, in the dat. sing. of the third decl., in -si and -ai in the
personal endings, and in -nai, -sthai of the infinitive, and (rarely) in moi, soi, toi. ana oh
king, and ana anastêthi rise up, elide only once, ide and never. Hdt. elides less often than
Attic prose; but the Mss. are not a sure guide. peri sometimes appears as per in Doric and
Aeolic before words beginning with other vowels than i. oxei odunai L 272. Cp. 148 D. 1.
§73. Except esti is, forms admitting movable n (134 a) do not suffer elision in prose. (But
some cases of e in the perfect occur in Demosthenes.)
§73 D. In poetry a vowel capable of taking movable n is often cut off.
§74. ai in the personal endings and the infinitive is elided in Aristophanes; scarcely ever,
if at all, in tragedy; its elision in prose is doubtful. oi is elided in tragedy in oimoi alas.
[p. 24]
§75. Interior elision takes place in forming compound words. Here the apostrophe is not
used. Thus, oudeis no one from oude heis, kathoraô look down upon from kata horaô,
methi_êmi let go from meta hi_êmi (124).
a. hodi_, touti_ this are derived from the demonstrative pronouns hode, touto + the
deictic ending i_ (333 g).
b. Interior elision does not always occur in the formation of compounds. Thus,
skêptouchos sceptre-bearing from skêpto + ochos (i.e. sochos). Cp. 878.
c. On the accent in elision, see 174.
§75 D. Apocope (apokopê cutting off) occurs when a final short vowel is cut off before an
initial consonant. In literature apocope is confined to poetry, but in the prose inscriptions
of the dialects it is frequent. Thus, in Hom., as separate words and in compounds, an, kat,
par (ap, hup rarely) for ana, kata, para (apo, hupo). Final t is assimilated to a following
consonant (but katthanein to die, not kaththanein, cp. 83 a); so final n by 91-95. Thus,
allexai to pick up, am ponon into the strife; kabbale threw down, kallipe left behind,
kakkeiontes lit. lying down, kauaxais break in pieces, for kaWWaxais kat-Waxais, kad de,
kaddusai entering into, kap pedion through the plain, kag gonu on the knee (kag not
kang), kar rhoon in the stream; hubballein interrupt, appempsei will send away. When
three consonants collide, the final consonant of the apocopate word is usually lost, as
kaktane slew, from kakktane out of kat(e)ktane. Apocope occurs rarely in Attic poetry.
pot for poti (= pros in meaning) is frequent in Doric and Boeotian.
N.--The shorter forms may have originated from elision.
EUPHONY OF CONSONANTS
§77. Assimilation.--A consonant is sometimes assimilated to another consonant in the
same word. This assimilation may be either partial, as in e-pemph-thên I was sent for e-
pemp-thên (82), or complete, as in emmenô I abide by for en-menô (94).
a. A preceding consonant is generally assimilated to a following consonant. Assimilation
to a preceding consonant, as in ollu_mi I destroy for ol-nu_-mi, is rare.
DOUBLING OF CONSONANTS
§78. Attic has tt for ss of Ionic and most other dialects: pra_ttô do for pra_ssô, thalatta
sea for thalassa, kreittôn stronger for kreissôn.
a. Tragedy and Thucydides adopt ss as an Ionism. On chariessa see 114 a.
b. tt is used for that ss which is regularly formed by k or ch and i (112), sometimes by t,
th, and i (114). On tt in Attikos see 83 a. [p. 25]
§79. Later Attic has rr for rs of older Attic: tharros courage = tharsos, arrên male = arsên.
a. But rs does not become rr in the dative plural (rhêtor-si orators) and in words
containing the suffix -sis for -tis (ar-sis raising).
b. Ionic and most other dialects have rs. rs in Attic tragedy and Thucydides is probably an
Ionism. Xenophon has rs and rr.
§80. An initial r is doubled when a simple vowel is placed before it in inflection or
composition. Thus, after the syllabic augment (429), e-rrei was flowing from rheô; and in
kali-rroos fair flowing. After a diphthong r is not doubled: eu-roos fair flowing.
a. This rr, due to assimilation of sr (e-rrei, kali-rroos), or Wr (errêthê was spoken), is
strictly retained in the interior of a word; but simplified to single r when standing at the
beginning, i.e. rheô is for rreô. In composition (eu-roos) single r is due to the influence of
the simplified initial sound.
b. A different rr arises from assimilation of rs (79), re (sounded like py, 44, 117), and nr
(95).
§80 D. In Hom. and even in prose r may remain single after a vowel: e-rexe did from
rhezô, kalli-roos. So iso-rropos and iso-ropos (by analogy to rhopos) equally balanced. ek
cheirôn belea_ rheon M 159 represents belea rreon. Cp. 146 D.
§81. b, g, d are not doubled in Attic (cp. 75 D.). In ng the first g is nasal (19 a). ph, ch, th
are not doubled in Attic; instead, we have pph, kch, tth as in Sapphô Sappho, Bakchos
Bacchus, Atthis (Atthis) Attic. Cp. 83 a.
§81 D. 1. Hom. has many cases of doubled liquids and nasals: ellabe took, allêktos
unceasing, ammoros without lot in, philommeidês fond of smiles, aganniphos very snowy,
argennos white, ennepe relate. These forms are due to the assimilation of s and l, m, or n.
Thus, aga-nniphos is from aga-sniphos, cp. sn in snow.
2. Doubled stops: hotti that (sWod-ti), hoppote as (sWod-pote), eddeise feared (edWeise).
3. ss in messos middle (for methios medius, 114), opissô backward, in the datives of s-
stems, as epessi (250 D. 2), and in verbs with stems in s (tresse).
4. One of these doubled consonants may be dropped without lengthening the preceding
vowel: Oduseus from Odusseus, mesos, opisô. So in Achileus from Achilleus. On dd, bb,
see 75 D. Aeolic has many doubled consonants due to assimilation (37 D. 3).
STOPS BEFORE M
§85. Before m, the labial stops (p, b, ph) become m; the palatal stops k, ch become g; g
before m remains unchanged.
omma eye for op-ma (cp. opôpa), leleimmai I have been left for leleip-mai from leip-ô
leave, tetri_mmai for tetri_b-mai from tri_b-ô rub, gegrammai for gegraphmai from
graph-ô write, peplegmai for peplek-mai from plek-ô plait, teteugmai for teteuch-mai
from teuch-ô build.
a. k and ch may remain unchanged before m in a noun-suffix: ak-mê edge, drach-mê
drachma. km remains when brought together by phonetic change (128 a), as in ke-kmê-
ka am wearied (kam-nô).
§85 a D. So in Hom. ikmenos favoring (hika_nô), akachmenos sharpened.
b. ngm and mmm become gm and mm. Thus, elêlegmai for elêleng-mai from elêlench-
mai (elench-ô convict), pepemmai for pepemm-mai from pepemp-mai (pemp-ô send).
§86. A dental stop (t, d, th) before m often appears to become s. Thus, ênusmai for ênut-
mai (anut-ô complete), pephrasmai for pephrad-mai (phrazô declare), pepeismai for
pepeith-mai (peith-ô persuade).
§87. On the other hand, since these stops are actually retained in many words, such as
eretmon oar, potmos fate, arithmos number, s must be explained as due to analogy. Thus,
ênusmai, pephrasmai, pepeismai have taken on the ending -smai by analogy to -stai
where s is in place (pephrastai for pephrad-tai). So ismen we know (Hom. idmen) follows
iste you know (for id-te). osmê odor stands for od-smê.
CONSONANTS BEFORE N
§88. b regularly and ph usually become m before n. Thus, semnos revered for seb-nos
(seb-omai), stumnos firm for stuph-nos (stu_phô contract).
§89. gignomai become, gignôskô know become gi_nomai, gi_nôskô in Attic after 300
B.C., in New Ionic, late Doric, etc.
§90. ln becomes ll in ollu_mi destroy for ol-nu_mi.
ln is kept in pilnamai approach. On sigma before n see 105.
§90 D. Aeolic bolla council, attic boulê and Doric bôla_ (with compensatory
lengthening), probably for bolna_.
N BEFORE CONSONANTS
§91. n before p, b, ph, ps becomes m: empi_ptô fall into for en-pi_ptô, emballô throw in
for en-ballô, emphainô exhibit for en-phainô, empsu_chos alive for en-psu_chos.
§92. n before k, g, ch, x becomes g-nasal (19 a): enkaleô bring a charge for en-kaleô,
engraphô inscribe for en-graphô, suncheô pour together for sun-cheô, sunxu_ô grind up
for sun-xi_ô.
§93. n before t, d, th remains unchanged. Here n may represent m: bron-tê thunder (brem-
ô roar).
§94. n before m becomes m: emmetros moderate for en-metros, emmenô abide by for en-
menô.
a. Verbs in -nô may form the perfect middle in -smai (489 h); as in pephasmai (from
phainô show) for pephan-mai (cp. pephag-ka, pephan-tai).
b. Here n does not become s; but the ending -smai is borrowed from verbs with stems in a
dental (as pephrasmai, on which see 87).
§95. n before l, r is assimilated (ll, rr): sullogos concourse for sun-logos, surreô flow
together for sun-reô.
§96. n before s is dropped and the preceding vowel is lengthened (e to ei, o to ou, 37):
mela_s black for melan-s, heis one for hen-s, titheis placing for tithen(t)-s, tous for ton-s.
a. But in the dative plural n before -si appears to be dropped without compensatory
lengthening: melasi for melan-si, daimosi for daimon-si divinities, phresi for phren-si
mind. But see 250 N.
CONSONANTS BEFORE S
§97. With s a labial stop forms ps, a palatal stop forms x.
leipsô shall leave for leip-sô kêrux herald for kêruk-s
tri_psô shall rub “ tri_b-sô axô shall lead “ ag-sô
grapsô shall write “ graph-sô bêx cough “ bêch-s
[p. 28]
a. The only stop that can stand before s is p or k, hence b, ph become p, and g, ch become
k. Thus, graph-sô, ag-sô become grap-sô, ak-sô.
§98. A dental stop before s is assimilated (ss) and one s is dropped.
sômasi bodies for sômassi out of sômat-si, posi feet for possi out of pod-si, orni_si birds
for orni_ssi out of orni_th-si. So paschô suffer for passchô out of path-skô (cp. path-ein
and 126).
a. d and th become t before s: pod-si, orni_th-si become pot-si, orni_t-si.
§98 D. Hom. often retains ss: possi, dassasthai for dat-sasthai (dateomai divide).
§99. k is dropped before sk in dida(k)-skô teach (didak-tos taught).
p is dropped before sph in bla(p)s-phêmia_ evil-speaking.
§100. nt, nd, nth before s form nss (98), then ns, finally n is dropped and the preceding
vowel is lengthened (37).
pasi all for pans-si out of pant-si, titheisi placing for tithens-si out of tithent-si. So giga_s
giant for gigant-s, lu_ousi loosing for lu_ont-si, speisô shall make libation for spend-sô,
peisomai shall suffer for penth-somai (penthos grief).
§101. a. en in, sun with in composition are treated as follows:
en before r, s, or z keeps its n: en-ruthmos in rhythm, en-skeuazô prepare, enzeugnu_mi
yoke in.
sun before s and a vowel becomes sus-: sus-sôizô help to save. before s and a consonant
or z, becomes su-: su-skeuazô pack up, su-zugos yoked together.
b. pan, palin before s either keep n or assimilate n to s: pan-sophos all-wise, pan-selênos
or passelênos the full moon, palin-skios thick-shaded, palis-sutos rushing back.
§102. On rs see 79 a. ls is retained in alsos precinct. rs, ls may become r, l with
lengthening of the preceding vowel: êgeira I collected, êngeila I announced for êger-sa,
êngel-sa.
§102 D. Hom. has ôrse incited, kerse cut, eelsai to coop up, kelsai to put to shore.
S BEFORE CONSONANTS
§103. Sigma between consonants is dropped: êngel(s)the you have announced,
gegraph(s)thai to have written, hek(s)mênos of six months (hex six, mên month).
a. But in compounds s is retained when the second part begins with s: en-spondos
included in a truce. compounds in dus- ill omit s before a word beginning with s:
duschistos hard to cleave for dus-schistos (schizô).
§104. ex out of (= eks) drops s in composition before another consonant, but usually
retains its k unaltered: ekteinô stretch out, ekdidômi surrender, [p. 29] ekpherô carry out,
ekthu_ô sacrifice, eksôizô preserve from danger (not exôizô), ekmanthanô learn
thoroughly. Cp. 82 N. 2, 136.
§105. s before m or n usually disappears with compensatory lengthening (37) as in eimi
for es-mi. But sm stays if m belongs to a suffix and in compounds of dus- ill: dus-menês
hostile.
a. Assimilation takes place in Peloponnêsos for Pelopos nêsos island of Pelops,
hennu_mi clothe for hes-nu_mi (Ionic heinu_mi), errei was flowing for e-srei, 80 a.
§105 D. s is assimilated in Aeol. and Hom. emmenai to be for es-menai (einai), argennos
white for arges-nos, erebennos dark (erebes-nos, cp. Erebos), amme we, ummes you
(asme, usmes). Cp. 81 D.
§106. sd becomes z in some adverbs denoting motion towards. Thus, Athênaze for
Athênas-de Athens-wards (26, 342 a).
§106 D. Aeolic has sd for medial z in usdos branch (ozos), melisdô make melody
(melizô).
§107. Two sigmas brought together by inflection become s: belesi for beles-si missiles,
epesi for epes-si words (98), telesai for teles-sai (from teleô accomplish, stem teles-).
a. ss when = tt (78) never becomes s.
§107 D. Homer often retains ss: belessi, epessi, telessai.
§108. Many of the rules for the euphony of consonants were not established in the
classical period. Inscriptions show a much freer practice, either marking the etymology,
as sunmachos for summachos ally (94), enkalein for enkalein to bring a charge (92), or
showing the actual pronunciation (phonetic spelling), as tog (= ton) kakon (92), têm (=
tên) boulên (91), tol (= ton) logon, egdosis for ekdosis surrendering (104), echpherô,
echthu_ô for ekpherô, ekthu_ô (104).
DISAPPEARANCE OF S AND W
§118. The spirant s with a vowel before or after it is often lost. Its former presence is
known by earlier Greek forms or from the cognate languages.
§119. Initial s before a vowel becomes the rough breathing.
hepta seven, Lat. septem; hêmisus half, Lat. semi-; histêmi put for si-stê-mi, Lat. si-st-o;
heipomên I followed from e-sep-o-mên, Lat. sequor.
a. When retained, this s is due to phonetic change (as sun for xun, si_gê silence for
s[uglide]i_gê Grm. schweigen), or to analogy. On the loss of ( see 125 e.
§120. Between vowels s is dropped.
genous of a race from gene(s)-os, Lat. gener-is, lu_ei thou loosest from lu_êi for lu_e-
(s)ai, elu_ou from elu_e-(s)o thou didst loose for thyself, titheio for titheiso, eiên from es-
iê-n Old Lat. siem, alêthe-ia truth from alêthes-ia. [p. 31]
a. Yet s appears in some -mi forms (tithesai, histaso), and in thrasus tharsus 128. s
between vowels is due to phonetic change (as s for ss 107, plousios for ploutios 115) or to
analogy (as elu_sa for elu_a, modelled on edeik-s-a), cp. 35 c.
§121. s usually disappears in the aorist of liquid verbs (active and middle) with
lengthening of the preceding vowel (37): esteila I sent for estel-sa, ephêna I showed for
ephan-sa, ephênato for ephan-sato. Cp. 102.
§122. Digamma (3) has disappeared in Attic.
The following special cases are to be noted:
a. In nouns of the third declension with a stem in au, eu, or on (43). Thus, naus ship, gen.
neôs from nêW-os, basileus king, gen. basileôs from basilêW-os (34).
b. In the augment and reduplication of verbs beginning with W: eirgazomên I worked
from e-Wergazomên, eoika am like from WeWoika. Cp. 431, 443.
c. In verbs in eô for eWô: rheô I flow, fut. rheu-somai.
§123. Some words have lost initial sW: hêdus sweet (Lat. sua(d)vis), hou, hoi, he him,
hos his (Lat. suus), ethos custom, êthos character (Lat. con-suetus).
§123 D. Hom. euade pleased stands for eWWade from esWade.
ASPIRATION
§124. A smooth stop (p, t, k), brought before the rough breathing by elision, crasis, or in
forming compounds, is made rough, becoming an aspirate (ph, th, ch). Cp. 16 a.
aph' hou for ap(o) hou, nuchth' holên for nukt(a) holên (82); tha_teron the other (69),
thoimation for to hi_mation the cloak (66); methi_êmi let go for met(a) hi_êmi, autha_dês
selfwilled from autos self and hadein please.
a. A medial rough breathing, passing over r, roughens a preceding smooth stop: phrouros
watchman from pro-horos, phroudos gone from pro and hodos, tethrippon four-horse
chariot (tetr + hippos).
§124 D. New Ionic generally leaves p, t, k before the rough breathing: ap' hou, metiêmi,
touteron. But in compounds (9 D.) ph, th, ch may appear: methodos method (meta after +
hodos way).
§125. Two rough stops beginning successive syllables of the same word are avoided in
Greek. A rough stop is changed into a smooth stop when the following syllable contains a
rough stop.
a. In reduplication (441) initial ph, th, ch are changed to p, t, k. Thus, pepheuga for phe-
pheu-ga perfect of pheugô flee, ti-thê-mi place for thi-thê-mi, ke-chê-na for che-chê-na
perf. of chaskô gape.
b. In the first aorist passive imperative -thi becomes -ti after -thê-, as in lu-thê-ti for lu-
thê-thi; elsewhere -thi is retained (gnôthi).
c. In the aorist passive, the- and thu- are changed to te- and tu- in e-te-thên was placed
(tithêmi) and e-tu-thên was sacrificed (thu_ô).
d. From the same objection to a succession of rough stops are due ampechô ampischô
clothe for amph-, eke-cheiria_ truce for eche-cheiria_ (from echô and cheir). [p. 32]
e. The rough breathing, as an aspirate (16 a), often disappeared when either of the two
following syllables contains ph, th, or ch. echô have stands for echô sechô (119, cp. e-
schon), the rough changing to the smooth breathing before a rough stop. The rough
breathing reappears in the future hexô. Cp. ischô restrain for hischô from si-sch-ô,
edethlon foundation, but hedos seat, Lat. sedes.
f. In thrix hair, gen. sing. trich-os for thrichos, dat. pl. thrixi; tachus swift, comparative
tachi_ôn (rare) or tha_ttôn (tha_ssôn) from thachi_ôn (112).
g. In taph- (taphos tomb), pres. thap-t-ô bury, fut. thapsô, perf. tetham-mai (85); trephô
nourish, fut. threpsô, perf. te-thram-mai; trechô run, fut. threxomai; truph- (truphê
delicacy), pres. thruptô enfeeble, fut. thrupsô; tu_phô smoke, perf. te-thu_m-mai.
N.--The two rough stops remain unchanged in the aorist passive ethrephthên was
nourished, ethruphthên was enfeebled, ephanthên was shown forth, ôrthôthên was set
upright, ethelchthên was charmed, ekatharthên was purified; in the perfect inf.
pephanthai, kekatharthai, tethaphthai; in the imperatives graphêthi be written, straphêthi
turn about, phathi say.
§126. Transfer of Aspiration.--Aspiration may be transferred to a following syllable:
paschô for path-skô (cp. 98).
§126 D. Hdt. has enthauta there (entautha), entheuten thence (enteuthen), kithôn tunic
(chitôn).
§127. Some roots show variation between a final smooth and a rough stop; dechomai
receive, dôrodokos bribe-taker; aleiphô anoint, lipos fat; plekô weave, plochuos braid of
hair; and in the perfect, as êcha from agô lead.
§127 D. Hom. and Hdt. have autis again (authis), ouki not (ouchi). All the dialects except
Attic have dekomai.
FINAL CONSONANTS
§133. No consonant except n, r, or s (including x and ps) can stand at the end of a Greek
word. All other consonants are dropped.
a. Exceptions are the proclitics (179) ek out of, derived from ex (cp. 104, 136), and ouk
not, of which ou is another form (137).
b. Examples of dropped final consonants: sôma body for sômat (gen. sômatos); pai oh
boy for paid (gen. paid-os); gala milk for galakt (gen. galakt-os); pheron bearing for
pheront (gen. pheront-os); kêr heart for kêrd, cp. kard-ia_; allo for al[iglide]od (110), cp.
Lat. aliud; ephere- (t) was carrying, ephero-n (t) were carrying (464 c, e).
c. An original final m preceded by a vowel becomes n, cp. hippon with Lat. equum. So
hen one from hem (349 a), Lat. sem-el, hama once.
MOVABLE CONSONANTS
§134. Movable N may be added at the end of a word when the next word begins with a
vowel. Movable n may be annexed to words ending in -si; to the third person singular in
-e; and to esti is.
Thus, pasin elegen ekeina he said that to everybody (but pasi legousi tauta), legousin
emoi they speak to me (but legousi moi), estin allos there is another (187 b), Athênêsin
êsan they were at Athens.
a. Except esti, words that add n do not elide their final vowel (73).
b. Verbs in -eô never (in Attic) add -n to the 3 sing. of the contracted form: eu epoiei
auton he treated him well. But êei went and pluperfects (as êidei knew) may add n.
N.--Movable n is called n ephelkustikon (dragging after).
§134 D. Hom. has egô (n) I, ammi (n) to us, ummi (n) to you, sphi (n) to them. The
suffixes -phi and -the vary with -phin and -then: theophi(n), prosthe(n). Also ke(n) = Attic
an, nu (n) now. The Mss. of Hdt. avoid movable n, but it occurs in Ionic inscriptions. Hdt.
often has -the for -then (prosthe before, opisthe behind).
§135. Movable n is usually written at the end of clauses, and at the end of a verse in
poetry. To make a syllable long by position (144) the poets add n before words beginning
with a consonant. Prose inscriptions frequently use n before a consonant.
§136. Movable S appears in houtôs thus, ex out of, before vowels, houtô, ek before
consonants. Thus, houtôs epoiei he acted thus but houtô poiei he acts thus; ex agoras but
ek tês agoras out of the market-place.
a. euthus means straightway, euthu straight towards.
§136 D. Several adverbs often omit s without much regard to the following word: amphi
about, amphis (poet.), mechri, achri until (rarely mechris, achris), atremas and atrema
quietly, pollakis often (pollaki Hom., Hdt.).
§137. ouk not is used before the smooth breathing, ouch (cp. 124) before the rough
breathing: ouk oligoi, ouch hêdus. Before all consonants ou is written: ou polloi, ou
rhaidios. Standing alone or at the end of its clause ou is written ou (rarely ouk), as pôs gar
ou; for how not? Cp. 180 a.
a. A longer form is ouchi (Ion. ouki) used before vowels and consonants.
b. mêketi no longer derives its k from the analogy of ouketi no longer.
QUANTITY OF SYLLABLES
§142. A syllable is short when it contains a short vowel followed by a vowel or a single
consonant: the-os god, e-no-mi-sa I thought.
§143. A syllable is long by nature when it contains a long vowel or a diphthong: chô-ra_
country, dou-los slave.
§144. A syllable is long by position when its vowel precedes two consonants or a double
consonant: hippos horse, ex out of.
a. One or both of the two consonants lengthening a final syllable by position may belong
to the next word: allo_s poli_tês, allo_ ktêma.
b. Length by position does not affect the natural quantity of a vowel. Thus, both le-xô I
shall say and lê-xô I shall cease have the first syllable long by position; but the first
vowel is short in lexô, long in lêxô.
§144 D. W may be one of the two consonants: pros (W) oikon (¯ ¯ ˘).
§145. A stop with a liquid after a short vowel need not make the preceding syllable long
by position. A syllable containing a short vowel before a stop and a liquid is common
(either short or long). When short, such syllables are said to have weak position.
Thus, in dakru, patros, hoplon, teknon, ti drai the first syllable is either long or short as
the verse requires. In Homer the syllable before a stop with a liquid is usually long; in
Attic it is usually short. [p. 36]
a. The stop and the liquid making weak position must stand in the same word or in the
same part of a compound. Thus, in ek-lu_ô I release the first syllable is always long, but
in e-klue he heard it is common.
b. b, g, d before m, or n, and usually before l, make the preceding syllable long by
position. Thus, hagnos (¯˘) pure, biblion (ע˘) book.
2. This shortening does not occur when the rhythmic accent falls upon the final syllable:
antithiôi Odusêi ([macrdot]˘˘[macrdot]˘˘[macrdot]˘), hôi eni ([macrdot]˘˘).
3. The shortening rarely occurs in the interior of a word. Thus, Hom. hêrôos (¯˘˘), huion
(˘˘), in the Attic drama hautêï (¯˘¯), toioutos (˘:¯˘), poiô (˘¯), often written poô in
inscriptions (cp. 43).
QUANTITY OF SYLLABLES
§142. A syllable is short when it contains a short vowel followed by a vowel or a single
consonant: the-os god, e-no-mi-sa I thought.
§143. A syllable is long by nature when it contains a long vowel or a diphthong: chô-ra_
country, dou-los slave.
§144. A syllable is long by position when its vowel precedes two consonants or a double
consonant: hippos horse, ex out of.
a. One or both of the two consonants lengthening a final syllable by position may belong
to the next word: allo_s poli_tês, allo_ ktêma.
b. Length by position does not affect the natural quantity of a vowel. Thus, both le-xô I
shall say and lê-xô I shall cease have the first syllable long by position; but the first
vowel is short in lexô, long in lêxô.
§144 D. W may be one of the two consonants: pros (W) oikon (¯ ¯ ˘).
§145. A stop with a liquid after a short vowel need not make the preceding syllable long
by position. A syllable containing a short vowel before a stop and a liquid is common
(either short or long). When short, such syllables are said to have weak position.
Thus, in dakru, patros, hoplon, teknon, ti drai the first syllable is either long or short as
the verse requires. In Homer the syllable before a stop with a liquid is usually long; in
Attic it is usually short. [p. 36]
a. The stop and the liquid making weak position must stand in the same word or in the
same part of a compound. Thus, in ek-lu_ô I release the first syllable is always long, but
in e-klue he heard it is common.
b. b, g, d before m, or n, and usually before l, make the preceding syllable long by
position. Thus, hagnos (¯˘) pure, biblion (ע˘) book.
2. This shortening does not occur when the rhythmic accent falls upon the final syllable:
antithiôi Odusêi ([macrdot]˘˘[macrdot]˘˘[macrdot]˘), hôi eni ([macrdot]˘˘).
3. The shortening rarely occurs in the interior of a word. Thus, Hom. hêrôos (¯˘˘), huion
(˘˘), in the Attic drama hautêï (¯˘¯), toioutos (˘:¯˘), poiô (˘¯), often written poô
in inscriptions (cp. 43).
[p. 37]
ANASTROPHE
§175. Anastrophe (anastrophê turning-back) occurs in the case of oxytone prepositions of
two syllables, which throw the accent back on the first syllable. [p. 41]
a. When the preposition follows its case: toutôn peri (for peri toutôn) about these things.
No other preposition than peri follows its case in prose.
N. 1.--In poetry anastrophe occurs with the other dissyllabic prepositions (except anti,
amphi, dia). In Homer a preposition following its verb and separated from it by tmesis
(1650) also admits anastrophe (lousêi apo for apolousêi).
N. 2.--When the final vowel of the preposition is elided, the accent is dropped if no mark
of punctuation intervenes: chersin huph' hêmeterêisin B 374.
b. When a preposition stands for a compound formed of the preposition and esti. Thus,
para for paresti it is permitted, eni for enesti it is possible (eni is a poetic form of en).
N.--In poetry, para may stand for pareisi or pareimi; and ana arise! up! is used for
anastêthi. Hom. has eni eneisi.
PROCLITICS
§179. Ten monosyllabic words have no accent and are closely connected with the
following word. They are called proclitics (from prokli_nô lean forward). They are:
The forms of the article beginning with a vowel (ho, hê, hoi, hai); the prepositions en, eis
(es), ex (ek); the conjunction ei if; hôs as, that (also a preposition to); the negative adverb
ou (ouk, ouch, 137). [p. 42]
§180. A proclitic sometimes takes an accent, thus:
a. ou at the end of a sentence: phêis, ê ou; do you say so or not? pôs gar ou; for why not?
Also ou no standing alone.
b. ex, en, and eis receive an acute in poetry when they follow the word to which they
belong and stand at the end of the verse: kakôn ex out of evils X 472 .
c. hôs as becomes hôs in poetry when it follows its noun: theos hôs as a god. hôs
standing for houtôs is written hôs even in prose (oud' hôs not even thus).
d. When the proclitic precedes an enclitic (183 e): en tisi.
N.--ho used as a relative (for hos, 1105) is written ho. On ho demonstrative see 1114.
§179. Ten monosyllabic words have no accent and are closely connected with the
following word. They are called proclitics (from prokli_nô lean forward). They are:
The forms of the article beginning with a vowel (ho, hê, hoi, hai); the prepositions en, eis
(es), ex (ek); the conjunction ei if; hôs as, that (also a preposition to); the negative adverb
ou (ouk, ouch, 137). [p. 42]
§180. A proclitic sometimes takes an accent, thus:
a. ou at the end of a sentence: phêis, ê ou; do you say so or not? pôs gar ou; for why not?
Also ou no standing alone.
b. ex, en, and eis receive an acute in poetry when they follow the word to which they
belong and stand at the end of the verse: kakôn ex out of evils X 472 .
c. hôs as becomes hôs in poetry when it follows its noun: theos hôs as a god. hôs
standing for houtôs is written hôs even in prose (oud' hôs not even thus).
d. When the proclitic precedes an enclitic (183 e): en tisi.
N.--ho used as a relative (for hos, 1105) is written ho. On ho demonstrative see 1114.
ENCLITICS
§181. Enclitics (from enkli_nô lean on, upon) are words attaching themselves closely to
the preceding word, after which they are pronounced rapidly. Enclitics usually lose their
accent. They are:
a. The personal pronouns mou, moi, me; sou, soi, se; hou, hoi, he, and (in poetry) sphisi.
b. The indefinite pronoun tis, ti in all cases (including tou, tôi for tinos, tini, but excluding
atta tina); the indefinite adverbs pou (or pothi), pêi, poi, pothen, pote, pô, pôs. When used
as interrogatives these words are not enclitic (tis, ti, pou (or pothi), pêi, poi, pothen, pote,
pô, pôs).
c. All dissyllabic forms of the present indicative of eimi am and phêmi say (i.e. all except
ei and phêis).
d. The particles ge, te, toi, per; the inseparable -de in hode, tososde, etc.
N.--Enclitics, when they retain their accent, are called orthotone. See 187.
§181 D. Also enclitic are the dialectic and poetical forms meu, seo, seu, toi, te, and tu
(accus. = se), heo, heu, hethen, min, nin, sphi, sphin, sphe, sphôe, sphôi_n, spheôn,
spheas, spha^s and sphas, sphea; also the particles nu or nun (not nun), Epic ke (ken),
thên, rha; and Epic essi, Ion. eis, thou art.
§182. The accent of an enclitic, when it is thrown back upon the preceding word, always
appears as an acute: thêr te (not thêr te) from thêr + te.
§183. The word preceding an enclitic is treated as follows:
a. An oxytone keeps its accent, and does not change an acute to a grave (154 a): dos moi,
kalon esti.
b. A perispomenon keeps its accent: philô se, ti_môn tinôn.
c. A proparoxytone or properispomenon receives, as an additional accent, the acute on the
ultima: anthrôpos tis, anthrôpoi tines, êkousa tinôn; sôson me, paides tines.
d. A paroxytone receives no additional accent: a monosyllabic enclitic loses its accent
(chôra_ tis, philos mou), a dissyllabic enclitic retains its accent (chôra_s tinos, philoi
tines) except when its final vowel is elided (174 a). [p. 43]
N.--Like paroxytones are treated properispomena ending in x or ps when followed by a
dissyllabic enclitic: kêrux esti; and so probably kêrux tis.
e. A proclitic (179) takes an acute: en tini, ei tines.
§184. Since an enclitic, on losing its accent, forms a part of the preceding word, the
writing anthrôpos tis would violate the rule (149) that no word can be accented on a
syllable before the antepenult. A paroxytone receives no additional accent in order that
two successive syllables may not have the acute (not philos estin).
§185. When several enclitics occur in succession, each receives an accent from the
following, only the last having no accent: ei pou tis tina idoi echthron if ever any one saw
an enemy anywhere T. 4.47 .
§186. Sometimes an enclitic unites with a preceding word to form a compound (cp. Lat.
-que, -ve), which is accented as if the enclitic were still a separate word. Thus, oute (not
oute), hôste, eite, kaitoi, houtinos, hôitini, hôntinôn; usually per (hesper); and the
inseparable -de in hode, tousde, oikade; and -the and -chi in eithe (poetic aithe), naichi.
oute, hôitini, etc., are not real exceptions to the rules of accent (163, 164).
a. hoios te able is sometimes written hoioste. ouk oun is usually written oukoun not
therefore , and not therefore? in distinction from oukoun therefore. egô ge and emoi ge
may become egôge, emoige.
§187. An enclitic retains its accent (is orthotone, cp. 181 N.):
a. When it is emphatic, as in contrasts: ê soi ê tôi patri sou either to you or to your father
(emou, emoi, eme are emphatic: eipe kai emoi tell me too), and at the beginning of a
sentence or clause: phêmi gar I say in fact.
b. esti is written esti at the beginning of a sentence; when it expresses existence or
possibility; when it follows ouk, mê, ei, hôs, kai, alla (or all'), touto (or tout'); and in estin
hoi some, estin hote sometimes. Thus, ei estin houtôs if it is so, touto d esti that which
exists.
c. In the phrases pote men . . . pote de, tines men . . . tines de.
d. After a word suffering elision: polloi d' eisin (for de eisin), taut' esti.
e. When a dissyllabic enclitic follows a paroxytone (183 d).
N. 1.--When they are used as indirect reflexives in Attic prose (1228), the pronouns of the
third person hou and sphisi are orthotone, hoi is generally enclitic, while he is generally
orthotone.
N. 2.--After oxytone prepositions and heneka enclitic pronouns (except tis) usually keep
their accent (epi soi, not epi soi; heneka sou, not heneka sou; heneka tou, not heneka tou).
emou, emoi, eme are used after prepositions (except pros me; and in the drama amphi
moi).
ENCLITICS
§181. Enclitics (from enkli_nô lean on, upon) are words attaching themselves closely to
the preceding word, after which they are pronounced rapidly. Enclitics usually lose their
accent. They are:
a. The personal pronouns mou, moi, me; sou, soi, se; hou, hoi, he, and (in poetry) sphisi.
b. The indefinite pronoun tis, ti in all cases (including tou, tôi for tinos, tini, but excluding
atta tina); the indefinite adverbs pou (or pothi), pêi, poi, pothen, pote, pô, pôs. When used
as interrogatives these words are not enclitic (tis, ti, pou (or pothi), pêi, poi, pothen, pote,
pô, pôs).
c. All dissyllabic forms of the present indicative of eimi am and phêmi say (i.e. all except
ei and phêis).
d. The particles ge, te, toi, per; the inseparable -de in hode, tososde, etc.
N.--Enclitics, when they retain their accent, are called orthotone. See 187.
§181 D. Also enclitic are the dialectic and poetical forms meu, seo, seu, toi, te, and tu
(accus. = se), heo, heu, hethen, min, nin, sphi, sphin, sphe, sphôe, sphôi_n, spheôn,
spheas, spha^s and sphas, sphea; also the particles nu or nun (not nun), Epic ke (ken),
thên, rha; and Epic essi, Ion. eis, thou art.
§182. The accent of an enclitic, when it is thrown back upon the preceding word, always
appears as an acute: thêr te (not thêr te) from thêr + te.
§183. The word preceding an enclitic is treated as follows:
a. An oxytone keeps its accent, and does not change an acute to a grave (154 a): dos moi,
kalon esti.
b. A perispomenon keeps its accent: philô se, ti_môn tinôn.
c. A proparoxytone or properispomenon receives, as an additional accent, the acute on the
ultima: anthrôpos tis, anthrôpoi tines, êkousa tinôn; sôson me, paides tines.
d. A paroxytone receives no additional accent: a monosyllabic enclitic loses its accent
(chôra_ tis, philos mou), a dissyllabic enclitic retains its accent (chôra_s tinos, philoi
tines) except when its final vowel is elided (174 a). [p. 43]
N.--Like paroxytones are treated properispomena ending in x or ps when followed by a
dissyllabic enclitic: kêrux esti; and so probably kêrux tis.
e. A proclitic (179) takes an acute: en tini, ei tines.
§184. Since an enclitic, on losing its accent, forms a part of the preceding word, the
writing anthrôpos tis would violate the rule (149) that no word can be accented on a
syllable before the antepenult. A paroxytone receives no additional accent in order that
two successive syllables may not have the acute (not philos estin).
§185. When several enclitics occur in succession, each receives an accent from the
following, only the last having no accent: ei pou tis tina idoi echthron if ever any one saw
an enemy anywhere T. 4.47 .
§186. Sometimes an enclitic unites with a preceding word to form a compound (cp. Lat.
-que, -ve), which is accented as if the enclitic were still a separate word. Thus, oute (not
oute), hôste, eite, kaitoi, houtinos, hôitini, hôntinôn; usually per (hesper); and the
inseparable -de in hode, tousde, oikade; and -the and -chi in eithe (poetic aithe), naichi.
oute, hôitini, etc., are not real exceptions to the rules of accent (163, 164).
a. hoios te able is sometimes written hoioste. ouk oun is usually written oukoun not
therefore , and not therefore? in distinction from oukoun therefore. egô ge and emoi ge
may become egôge, emoige.
§187. An enclitic retains its accent (is orthotone, cp. 181 N.):
a. When it is emphatic, as in contrasts: ê soi ê tôi patri sou either to you or to your father
(emou, emoi, eme are emphatic: eipe kai emoi tell me too), and at the beginning of a
sentence or clause: phêmi gar I say in fact.
b. esti is written esti at the beginning of a sentence; when it expresses existence or
possibility; when it follows ouk, mê, ei, hôs, kai, alla (or all'), touto (or tout'); and in estin
hoi some, estin hote sometimes. Thus, ei estin houtôs if it is so, touto d esti that which
exists.
c. In the phrases pote men . . . pote de, tines men . . . tines de.
d. After a word suffering elision: polloi d' eisin (for de eisin), taut' esti.
e. When a dissyllabic enclitic follows a paroxytone (183 d).
N. 1.--When they are used as indirect reflexives in Attic prose (1228), the pronouns of the
third person hou and sphisi are orthotone, hoi is generally enclitic, while he is generally
orthotone.
N. 2.--After oxytone prepositions and heneka enclitic pronouns (except tis) usually keep
their accent (epi soi, not epi soi; heneka sou, not heneka sou; heneka tou, not heneka tou).
emou, emoi, eme are used after prepositions (except pros me; and in the drama amphi
moi).
MARKS OF PUNCTUATION
§188. Greek has four marks of punctuation. The comma and period have the same forms
as in English. For the colon and semicolon Greek has only one sign, a point above the
line (.): hoi de hêdeôs epeithonto: episteuon gar autôi and they gladly obeyed; for they
trusted him X. A. 1.2.2 . The mark of interrogation (;) is the same as our semicolon: pôs
gar ou; for why not?