Human body cavities

The human body consists of the following body cavities: Dorsal body cavity cranial cavity, enclosed by the skull and contains the brain spinal canal, enclosed by the spine and contains the spinal cord.

Ventral body cavity thoracic cavity, enclosed by the ribcage and contains the lungs and heart. abdominopelvic cavity abdominal cavity, enclosed by the ribcage and pelvis and contains the kidneys, ureters, stomach, intestines, liver,gallbladder, and pancreas pelvic cavity, enclosed by the pelvis and contains bladder, anus and reproductive system. Human body cavities and membranes Name of cavity Cranial cavity Brain Spinal cord Heart Principal contents Membranous lining Meninges Meninges Pericardium Pleural cavity

Dorsal body cavity Vertebral canal Pericardial cavity Ventral body cavity Abdominopelvic cavity Pelvic cavity Bladder, reproductive organs Peritoneum

Abdominal cavity Digestive organs, spleen, kidneys Peritoneum

Cranial cavity
The cranial cavity, or intracranial space, is the space formed inside the skull. The brain occupies the cranial cavity, which is lined by the meninges and which contains cerebrospinal fluid to cushion blows. Eight fused cranial bones together form the cranial cavity: the frontal, occipital, sphenoid and ethmoid bones, and two [1] each of theparietal and temporal bones.

Spinal canal
The spinal canal (or vertebral canal or spinal cavity) is the space in vertebrae through which the spinal cord passes. It is a process of the dorsal human body cavity. This canal is enclosed within the vertebral foramen of the vertebrae. In the intervertebral spaces, the canal is protected by the ligamentum flavum posteriorly and the posterior longitudinal ligament anteriorly. The outermost layer of the meninges, the dura mater, is closely associated with the arachnoid which in turn is loosely connected to the innermost layer of the meninges, the pia mater. The meninges divide the spinal canal into the epidural space and thesubarachnoid space. The pia mater is closely attached to the spinal cord. A subdural space is generally only present due to trauma and/or pathological situations. The subarachnoid space is filled with cerebrospinal fluid and contains the vessels that supply thespinal cord, namely the anterior spinal artery and the paired posterior spinal arteries, accompanied by corresponding spinal veins. The spinal arteries form anastomoses known as the vasocorona of the spinal cord. The epidural space contains loose fatty tissue, and a network of large, thin-walled blood vessels called the internal vertebral venous plexuses.

The spinal canal was first described by Jean Fernel.

Pericardial cavity
The pericardial cavity (or pericardial space) is a potential space between the parietal pericardium and visceral layer. It contains a supply of serous fluid. The serous fluid that is found in this space is known as the pericardial fluid.

Abdominal cavity
The abdominal cavity is the largest body cavity of the human body (and animal bodies) that holds the bulk of the viscera. It is located below (or inferior to) the thoracic cavity, and above the pelvic cavity. Its dome-shaped roof is the thoracic diaphragm (a thin sheet of muscle under the lungs), and its oblique floor is the pelvic inlet (the superior [2] opening of the pelvis). It is a part of theabdominopelvic cavity. It is well connected with the pleural (thoracic) cavity. Organs of the abdominal cavity include the stomach, liver, gallbladder, spleen, pancreas, small intestine, kidneys, large [1] intestine, and adrenal glands.
[1]

Pelvic cavity
The pelvic cavity is a body cavity that is bounded by the bones of the pelvis. Its oblique roof is the pelvic inlet (the superior opening of the pelvis). Its lower boundary is the pelvic floor. The pelvic cavity primarily contains reproductive organs, the urinary bladder, the pelvic colon, and the rectum. The rectum is placed at the back of the pelvis, in the curve of the sacrum and coccyx; the bladder is in front, behind the pubic symphysis. In the female, the uterus and vagina occupy the interval between these viscera. The pelvic cavity also contains major arteries, veins, muscles, and nerves. These structures have to work together in a little crowded space. They can be affected by many different diseases and by many drugs in many different ways. One part may impact upon another, for example constipation may overload the rectum and compress the urinary bladder, or childbirth might damage the pudendal nerves and later lead to anal weakness.

What is the difference between human and frog organs?

Answer:
Frogs are very complex and their organs such as the liver can be different from the humans. The liver is huge in the frogs anatomy. Also the rectum and large intestine are one combined organ. The body structure, or anatomy, of the frog is very similar to the anatomy of man. Both man and the frog have the same kinds of organs and systems of organs. The frog's anatomy, however, is much simpler. As in other higher vertebrates, the frog body may be divided into a head, a short neck, and a trunk (see Vertebrates). The flat head contains the brain, mouth, eyes, ears, and nose. A short, almost rigid neck permits only limited head movement. The stubby trunk forms walls for a single body cavity, the coelom. Man's internal organs are housed in one of three distinct hollow cavities--the chest, the abdomen, and the pelvis. The human chest is separated from the abdomen by a powerful muscular partition, the diaphragm. There is no such partition in the frog's coelom. All the frog's internal organs--including the heart, the lungs, and all organs of digestion--are held in this single hollow space.

A mouth tongue

B traps insects to be eaten catches the insect and brings it back into the mouth

esophagus

passageway for good, from the mouth to the stomach

glottis internal nares

opening to the lungs frog can breath through these with it's mouth closed, can be opened or closed with sphincter muscles

external nares eustachian tubes typanum (tympanic membrane or eardrum) vocal sacs

external nostril opening opening to the typanum (eardrum) serves to equalize pressure within

only in males, can be inflated with air to make the mating call

maxillary teeth

row of teeth along the outer border of the upper jaw, hold food and grip tightly

maxilla vomerine teeth

upper jaw located between the internal nares, serve to prevent the escape of prey

floor of the orbits eyes alimentary canal digestive glands

eye sockets vision food tube produce secretions that aid in the breaking up of food

coelom ventral abdominal vein

body cavity main vein, carries blood to the heart

abdominal musculature pertoral girdle ovary-eggs peritoneum

muscles covering organs collar bone, holds body erect holds eggs, reproduction lines the inner walls of the body cavity, covers the visceral organs

esophagus stomach

tube from mouth to stomach food storage organ, the first major site of chemical digestion

rugae

folds, helpin churning the food and mixing it with the stomach's gastric juices

pyloric sphincter valve

regulates the exit of partially digested food from the stomach

pyloric region small intestine duodenum jejunum iliem mesentery large intestine rectum cloaca

lower region of the stomach most vital of all digestive organs first portion of small intestine second portion of small intestine lower portion of the small intestine membrane that holds the coils together aids in digestion controls the elimination of waste common receptacle for the wastes of the rectum

liver

secrets bile needed for the digestion of fats

gallbladder pancreas

storage area for bile secrets insulin, pancreatic juice, and digestive enzymes

spleen mesogastrium

functions as a reservoir for blood attaches the stomach, duodenum, and the liver to the dorsal body wall

hapato-gastro-duodenal ligament

connects the liver, stomach, and duodenum

fat bodies

reserve food supply during hibernation and breeding

lungs heart

aid in supplying oxygen to the body pumps blood and nutrients through the body

kidneys testes/ovaries urinary bladder adrenal glands ovaducts

filter out impurities from the body reproduction aids in eliminating waste secrete adrenal horomone hold eggs

Body Cavities and the Digestive System The primary duties of the digestive tract are:

to ingest food and undergo chewing and primary processing of food swallowing (deglutition) further digestion and breakdown of the food items where nutrients and water obtained from the food are then absorbed and unprocessed food is eliminated by egestion

The basic units of the digestive tract responsible for these functions are:

the buccal cavity - teeth, tongue, and palate the pharynx and esophagus stomach, small intestine, large intestine and external opening - cloaca (vent) or anal opening

Other organs associated with this process (primarily salivary glands, liver, and pancreas) assist in food breakdown by secreting digestive enzymes The formation of the digestive system begins early in development with the formation of the archenteron, from which most of the digestive system is derived (Fig. 13.2, p. 473)

the archenteron is continuous with the yolk sac, which will feed many vertebrates during development, or will become a more minor part of the body and instead the developing embryo will receive nutrients through the umbilical cord the archenteron is composed of endoderm, and lines the digestive tract and organs the remainder of the digestive system is composed of either endoderm derivatives or derivatives of the lateral plate mesoderm differentiation of the archenteron leads to the development of three different regions of the gut: the foregut - extends toward the head and merges with an ectodermal pocket (stomodeum) to form the buccal cavity the midgut - remains connected to the yolk sac during development the hindgut - extends toward the tail and merges with an ectodermal pocket (proctodeum) to form the adult cloaca or digestive outlet

Body cavity and mesenteries (pp. 187-189) In higher forms of animals, most of the body organs are not embedded in solid tissue

coelomic cavities are formed to contain the visceral organs the coelom is lined by epithelium (serosa) and the organs within the body cavity are anchored by mesenteries, or thin membranes that connect the organs to each other and to the body wall

The primary mesenteries are:

the dorsal and ventral mesenteries which suspend the gut within the coelom the falciform ligament holds the liver to the ventral body wall the lesser omentum connects the stomach and intestine to the liver greater omentum (also called the lace apron) is a folded membrane that acts as a storage organ for fat deposits the mesogaster extends from the stomach to the ventral body wall the reproductive organs are connected by either a mesorchium (for the testes) or the mesovarium (for the ovaries)

The transverse septum develops in fishes, amphibians, and most reptiles and separates the pericardial cavity from the pleuroperitoneal cavity (Fig. 5.35, p. 188) A coelomic fold or pleuroperitoneal membrane grows ventrally and fuses with the transverse septum to form the diaphragm in mammals, which divides the coelom into the thoracic cavity and the abdominal cavity - the thoracic cavity is further divided into:

the pleural cavity surrounds the lungs, with the lungs themselves separated by the mediastinum the pericardial cavity surrounds the heart, and the membrane surrounding it the pericardial sac

Generally all these mesenteric derivatives come from the dorsal mesentery. The ventral mesentery usually disappears. The Mouth and Oral Cavity The primary responsibility of the oral cavity is acquisition of food and initial processing The oral cavity is formed by an invagination at the anterior part of the embryo, called the stomodeum that differentiates and eventually becomes connected to the archenteron or gut tube The Tongue The tongue contributes to feeding behavior by either conducting water through the mouth (as is the case in fishes) or by actively manipulating the prey within the mouth In fishes the tongue is a primary tongue that is not muscular and is used mainly for channeling water. For some species, such as lampreys and other parasitic fishes, the tongue has bony plates that act like teeth for rasping and obtaining a blood meal. In tetrapods the tongue is used for manipulation of food in the absence of water. It is derived from the lingual swellings and is anchored by the hyoid and the mandibular arches. The muscular elements contributing to tongue movement include the glossal muscles. Specialized adaptations of the vertebrate tongue include a sticky end to assist in prey capture in amphibians and an extremely long tongue and elaborate hyoid apparatus in woodpeckers that feed in holes drilled into wood. The tongue also has gustatory or taste receptors in mammals, or it can be associated with heat receptors in the mouth that are used for detecting prey Oral glands Oral glands are generally absent in most fishes, primarily because the aquatic environment assists in moving food through the pharynx and into the esophagus Tetrapods that are terrestrial feeders require oral glands that secrete enzyme-containing saliva that lubricate food and facilitate swallowing Seven primary glands present in most tetrapods are named according to position (Fig. 13.37, p. 500). They include the following glands: labial, lingual, palatine, nasal, maxillary, parotid (which are largest in herbivores) and mandibular (that are largest in carnivores) In some species that secrete hemolytic or neurotoxic poisons, specialized poison glands develop, and are closely associated with fangs for delivery of the toxins Teeth Development of teeth is similar to the development of scales in that they evolve from epidermal eruptions in the skin of the jaws The basic structure of a tooth consists of three main regions:

enamel - the surface layer of the tooth that is hard and protective dentine - makes up the bulk of the tooth pulp cavity - contains the blood vessels and nerves that feed and innervate the tooth

Teeth can vary in their permanence, their attachment, and their structural differentiation.

Polyphyodont - continuous succession of teeth throughout life (shark) Diphyodont - replacement of milk or deciduous teeth by permanent teeth (mammals) Monophyodont - single set of teeth retained throughout life (whales, marsupials)

Attachment (Fig. 13.10, p. 480): Acrodont - simplest teeth that have no roots and may break off easily from jaw (fish and amphibians) Pleurodont - teeth attached by one side to the inner surface of the jaw bone (lizards) Thecodont - teeth set into sockets and relatively immobile Structural differentiation:

Homodont - teeth essentially all alike Heterodont - teeth differentiated into a variety of uses

Examples of heterodont teeth may be seen in the four tooth types of mammals:

Incisors - most anterior teeth, adapted for securing food, grooming, or nibbling Canines - next posterior, spikelike teeth that are used for holding, piercing and ripping Premolars - behind the canines, used for grinding Molars - most posterior, used for crushing, with a greater surface area than premolars

The numbers and types of teeth by a dental formula I, c, p, m that describes only one side of the mouth:

Human 2/2, 1/1, 2/2, 3/3 = 16 x 2 sides = 32 teeth (omnivore) Cat 3/3, 1/1, 3/2, 1/1 = 15 x 2 sides = 30 teeth (carnivore) Deer 0/3, 0/1, 3/3, 3/3 = 16 x 2 sides = 32 teeth (herbivore)

Other terms associated with teeth include (Fig. 13.15, p. 482):

Diastema - space that occurs between incisors and premolars Hypsodont - teeth with high crowns Brachyodont - teeth with low crowns Bunodont - grinding surface slightly raised into separate rounded tubercles and entirely covered in enamel Lophodont - cusps of the teeth drawn out into ridges Tusks - excessively developed teeth, either incisors (elephants) or canines (walrus) Fangs - associated with poison glands, excessively developed canines Egg tooth - largely dentine, found in birds and reptiles and used as a means of hatching from a cleidoic egg - not a true tooth

Pharynx The general structure of the oral cavity is dependent in part on the primary mode of feeding that an animal uses An animal may be a filter feeder, a suction feeder, a carnivore or herbivore, and they all will develop specific modifications of their oral cavity The oral cavity is bounded:

laterally by the lips and cheeks cranially by the hard palate (composed of the palatine bones) and soft palate caudally by the jaw and associated musculature

The hard palate of some species possesses palatine rugae that act to help hold food in the mouth The soft palate ends in the uvula, a fleshy flap which apparently serves no purpose The pharynx or throat follows from the oral cavity, and is continuous to the esophagus In fishes, both food and air enters the mouth and empty into the pharynx and the nasal pits are not continuous with the mouth. In amphibians, crossing of food and air occurs at the pharyngeal chiasma, such that amphibians need not open their mouth to obtain air In other tetrapods the pharynx opens into separate pouches or regions composed of:

the nasopharynx - part of pharynx used for respiratory function into which the Eustachian tube from the ear empties the oropharynx - the part of the pharynx used in digestion the laryngopharynx - the part of the pharynx used in speech

Seven primary openings are present to the pharynx:

Choanae (2) - also called posterior nares, that are continuous with external nares Eustachian tubes (2) - extend from the auditory canal Isthmus fauces (1) - used in conducting digestive enzymes Glottis (1) - opening to the trachea and lungs. Can be covered by cartilagenous epiglottis during swallowing Esophagus (1) - opening to the rest of the digestive tract

Morphology of the gut wall The postpharyngeal digestive tract is lined by epithelium derived from endoderm This epithelium will be of two types:

squamous epithelium lines the oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, and cloaca columnar epithelium lines the stomach and intestine

The cross-sectional anatomy of the gut wall consists of four main layers (Fig. 13.25, p. 491):

mucosa - contains columnar epithelium, lymphocyte nodules (act in immune function), and villi that increase the surface area available for absorption and protect the crypts of Lieberkuhn and the goblet cells that secrete mucus that lubricates the lining of the intestine and prevents from self-digestion. submucosa - vascular tissue that helps to transport nutrients into the primary circulatory system muscularis externa - circular and longitudinal sheets of smooth muscles that work to move food along the gut tube to the next part of the digestive process adventitia - a surface layer of fibrous connective tissue that envelops the serosa when combined with a mesentary

Esophagus The esophagus is generally short and unmodified, and is controlled by involuntary muscle movements (peristalsis), with the exception of cows and birds that are able to regurgitate food for feeding young (birds) or further digestion (cows) In birds the crop develops as a blind outgrowth of the esophagus with several functions:

the site of food storage in some birds it may contain digestive enzymes for processing foods high in cellulose or for secretion of a milky food-like substance called "crop milk" in pigeons (stimulated by the secretion of hormones similar to those used in mammalian milk secretion)

Stomach The stomach serves three functions

acts to store food prior to digestion processes food mechanically by strong muscular movements chemically modifies food through secretion of digestive enzymes.

The stomach assumes different shapes depending on the vertebrate class (Fig. 13.13, p. 495):

in the fishes, the stomach is spindle-shaped and elongate in higher vertebrates the stomach becomes more sac-like and assumes a more transverse position in the body cavity

The movement of food into the stomach is controlled by the action of the cardiac sphincter and the movement of food out of the stomach is controlled by the pyloric sphincter Glands associated with the stomach include the:

gastric glands that secrete hydrochloric acid and pepsinogen (that forms pepsin) other mammals secrete rennin that breaks down milk protein, lipase, that breaks down fats, and chitinase, that breaks down chitin (found in the exoskeletons of insects and crustaceans).

Specialized modifications of the stomach found in birds and ruminant animals

birds have the stomach divided into two sections (Fig. 13.33, p. 497): o the proventriculus is glandular and secretes digestive enzymes o the gizzard is muscular and processes food mechanically due to lack of mechanical processing by teeth ruminant mammals have a four-part stomach (Fig. 13.34, p. 498): o the rumen acts as a storage pouch o the reticulum or honeycombed stomach contains colonies of anaerobic bacteria that break down cellulose o the omasum is a highly folded part of stomach that is responsible for processing proteins o the abomasum represents the true stomach.

Intestine The intestine is the primary site for absorption and digestion. Assisting in the digestive process are enzymes released by the pancreas and liver. Small intestine Digested organic materials and water are absorbed from the intestinal lumen (interior space) and into the circulatory system of the small intestine

is characterized by having villi which cover the intestinal lining and increase the surface area available for absorption, and is highly vascularized is usually of a smaller diameter than the large intestine is divided into three regions in birds and mammals (Fig. 13.26, p. 491): o the duodenum is the site of much of the digestion by enzymes secreted by the liver and pancreas and is where most of the absorption occurs o the jejunum and ilium are best delineated in mammals on the basis of histological features of the mucosal wall in some species of fish, the small intestine has between four to over a hundred pyloric caeca (blind sac) that evaginate from the intestine and also increase surface area of the intestine

Large intestine Following processing in the small intestine, undigested food is passed into the large intestine

generally lacks the mucosal villi associated with the small intestine serves as the site of water reabsorption and storage of undigested food prior to elimination the large intestine may also have an intestinal caecum in some lizards and mammals to harbor colonies of cellulose-digesting bacteria mammals may also have a vermiform appendix that may act in immune response of the body but most often becomes problematic if infected in mammals and birds the large intestine is the colon, with its dorsal part connects to the rectum through which wastes pass

Cloaca Unlike mammals, with their wastes passing through the colon and out into the body through a separate exit, most vertebrates have a cloaca (Latin for sewer)

opens to the body surface through the cloacal aperture is the common exit pathway for products of the digestive, excretory and reproductive systems.

Liver and gallbladder The liver is the largest organ of the body and is composed of several lobes arranged around a central vein, a derivative of the hepatic vein The functions of the liver are strongly linked to both the digestive as well as to the circulatory system:

produces bile that emulsifies fat and facilitates its absorption bile is stored in the gallbladder after its secretion by the bile canaliculi, and then discharged into the small intestine through the cystic duct involved in detoxification of noxious substances (which is why, in people who drink too much, the liver becomes diseased due to it being overtaxed) the site of storage of excess food in the form of glycogen or lipid, which is released under hormonal influence into the blood as it is needed the site of cholesterol synthesis and iron metabolism - where the iron part of hemoglobin is salvaged

Pancreas All vertebrates have a pancreas which functions as both an exocrine and endocrine organ

the exocrine part of the pancreas is the acinar gland, which produces digestive enzymes into the intestine. the endocrine portion of the pancreas is the pancreatic islets of Langerhans, which has two types of cells which function in maintaining glucose level in the blood: o alpha cells secreting glucagon to increase blood sugar by breaking down glycogen o beta cells secrete insulin to decrease blood sugar by transporting it into the cells and by promoting conversion of blood sugar into glycogen

Definitions Acrodont - simplest teeth that have no roots and may break off easily from jaw Bunodont - grinding surface slightly raised into separate rounded tubercles and entirely covered in enamel Diastema - space that occurs between incisors and premolars of carnivores Diphyodont - replacement of milk or deciduous teeth by permanent teeth

Falciform ligament - holds the liver to the ventral body wall Greater omentum - folded membrane that acts as a storage organ for fat deposits Lesser omentum - connects the stomach and intestine to the liver Mediastinum - area between the two pleural cavities of mammals that contains the pericardial cavity, thymus, bronchi and major blood vessels Mesogaster - membrane that extends from the stomach to the ventral body wall Mesorchium - membrane that connects the testes to the body wall Mesovarium - membrane that connects the ovaries to the body wall Monophyodont - single set of teeth retained throughout life Pericardial cavity - cavity surrounding the heart Pleural cavity - cavity surrounding the lungs Pleurodont - teeth attached by one side to the inner surface of the jaw bone Polyphyodont - continuous succession of teeth throughout life Rugae - fleshy folds that help to hold food in the mouth Stomodaeum - invagination at the anterior end of the embryo that forms the oral cavity and connects to the posterior portion of the digestive tract Thecodont - teeth set into sockets and relatively immobile Transverse septum - membrane that develops between the liver and the heart