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Microgrids A Review of Modeling, Control, Protection, Simulation and Future Potential

Shyam Naren Bhaskara, Student Member, IEEE, Badrul H. Chowdhury, Senior Member, IEEE

Abstract Results of a literature survey done on microgrids from conception to installation is presented. The purpose is to evaluate the current status, major obstacles and existing research efforts directed toward establishing functional microgrids within utility systems. This review paper covers technical issues associated with frequency control and re-synchronization associated with typical distributed energy sources. Also evaluated are regulatory and policy issues associated with ownership, maintenance, availability, coordinated equipment control, obligation to provide adequate power quality, etc. associated with operating an islanded microgrid within a utility companys service territory. Actual microgrids in operation today are described. Benchmark test systems for steady state and dynamic simulations are also discussed. Index TermsSmart grid, frequency control, voltage control, modeling, simulation, literature survey.

The report anticipates that the first category of institutional/campus single owner microgrids will be the largest segment followed by the second category of commercial/industrial microgrids with multiple owners. Clearly, there are tremendous opportunities for both industry and academia to contribute to stable and functioning microgrids. There are, however, many challenges and issues that have to be resolved before true microgrids are a reality. Research and development continues worldwide at a fast pace to bring about transformational changes in the way power grids are operated. This paper focuses on producing an annotated bibliography of the literature on microgrids from conception to installation. The purpose is to evaluate the current status, major obstacles and existing research efforts directed toward establishing functional microgrids within utility systems. Specifically, the paper addresses regulatory and technical issues associated microgrid control during islanded operation and challenges associated with synchronizing when paralleling with the utility system while terminating islanded operation. The literature covers technical issues associated with frequency control and re-synchronizing associated with typical distributed energy sources, such as solar photovoltaic, wind turbine, fuel cells and micro-turbines. There is also intent to evaluate regulatory and policy issues associated with ownership, maintenance, availability, coordinated equipment control, obligation to provide adequate power quality, etc. associated with operating an islanded microgrid within a utility companys service territory. Publications are categorized under eight different topics. These are: Topic 1: Benefits and Necessity Topic 2: Economics Topic 3: Operation and Control Strategies Topic 4: Stability Topic 5: Modeling of Microgrids Topic 6: Protection of Microgrids Topic 7: Existing microgrids Topic 8: Microgrid Service Restoration and Islanding Detection II. BENEFITS AND NECESSITY There are several benefits to microgrids [4-5]. Firstly, microgrids facilitate distributed generation (DG) and high penetration of renewable energy sources. They also facilitate cogeneration in a combined heat and power (CHP) system.

I. INTRODUCTION EEE Std 1547.4-2011 [1] defines Distributed Resource (DR) island systems or microgrids as electric power systems (EPS) that: (1) have DR and load, (2) have the ability to disconnect from and parallel with the area EPS, (3) include the local EPS and may include portions of the area EPS, and (4) are intentionally planned. A report by SBI Energy [2] states that the world market for microgrids had reached over $4 billion in 2010 and is expected to continue through this decade spurred by growth in renewable energy and energy storage as well as new standards under development in the general area of smart grids. Another report by Pike Research [3] forecasts that more than 2,000 microgrid sites will be operational worldwide by 2015, up from fewer than 100 in 2010. These include 1. Institutional/campus microgrids (single owner) 2. Commercial/industrial microgrids (multiple owners) 3. Community/utility microgrids tied to the larger utility grid infrastructure 4. Remote off-grid systems (commonly in developing countries) 5. Military microgrids (to support remote base operations without a fuel supply)
Shyam Naren Bhaskara is a Graduate Research Assistant in the Electrical & Computer Engineering department, Missouri University of Science & Technology, Rolla, MO 65409 USA (e-mail: sbhxf@mst.edu). Badrul H. Chowdhury is a Professor in the Electrical & Computer Engineering department, Missouri University of Science & Technology, Rolla, MO 65409 USA (e-mail: bchow@mst.edu).

978-1-4673-2729-9/12/$31.00 2012 IEEE

They increase power quality and reliability of electric supply. They defer network investments. They contribute to adequacy of generation because of its ability to control internal loads and generation. They also support the electrical network in remote sites and rural areas. There are also economic benefits from microgrids. Barker, et al [6] have estimated the cost of power from microgrids with DG support to be 10 /kWh as against 10.5/kWh in case of conventional power. The necessity of microgrids can be understood from the article in PEI magazine [7] which quotes that the vision of DOE for smart grids to improve power quality with more control and awareness of the operational state of the electric system at affordable prices cannot be achieved either until the T&D system is fixed or microgrids come into existence. Venkatramanan et al [8] present a growth model wherein the various features and barriers for microgrids have been identified. The other reasons for such recognition for microgrid over recent times have been because of increased awareness for the environmental concerns and the ever increasing price for fossil fuels which has resulted in the increased attention towards implementing renewables into our power system. Also there is a high priority for countries to have energy security. All these reasons have increased governments interest in microgrids. At the same time several obstacles have also been identified [1] for the growth of microgrids which need to be addressed. Lack of established regulatory policies and a solid regulatory base in place has been a major. At the same time there are certain legal issues, such as the Public Utility Holding Company Act (PUHCA) in the United States which mandates that sale of electricity for resale in interstate commerce would turn the seller into a public utility and require filings with the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) and the Federal Power Commission (FPC). Pudjianto et al [9] present a review of the regulatory situation in Netherlands, United Kingdom and Spain. Also, King [10] presents results of a survey involving the staff representing 26 different state PUCs and the PUC of the district of Columbia concerning the legality of microgrids, interaction between microgrids and utilities and regulatory oversight of microgrids and microgrid firms. III. ECONOMICS There is extensive literature on the economics behind microgrids [11-14]. Economics is studied in terms of the costs and the benefits of microgrids. The primary cost drivers of microgrids can be capital cost of establishing the microgrid including its management and control equipment, communication systems, energy storage devices and suitable protection schemes. Fuel costs for the DGs are also important cost considerations. Apart from these there are others like the purchased/selling price of electricity from the main grid, construction cost of the distribution lines and thermal grid cost in case of CHP. The benefits from the microgrid have been analyzed in terms of electricity sales, avoided losses due to transmission,

emission reduction, investment deferral and increased reliability Costa, et al [13] have presented mathematical expressions to evaluate the costs and the benefits and applied that to a sample microgrid supplying 44 customers, to calculate the total benefits to be 114,239.40 over a period of 20 years. Asanol, et al [12] have pointed out that the load shape of the customers is also a dominant factor. They have identified that the factors which contribute to viability can be summarized as size of the microgrid, percent of capacity from PV or wind power and the extra cost the customers have to pay for the premium power. IV. OPERATION AND CONTROL STRATEGIES Four modes of operation have been identified by the IEEE Std. 1547.4-2011, namely: area EPS-connected mode, transition-to-island mode, island mode, and reconnection mode. In the Area EPS connected mode, it is advised that the Measuring, Information exchange and Control (MIC) equipment needs to be in operation to make system related information available including protection device status, generation levels, local loads, and system voltages, to the island control scheme such that a transition can be planned in advance. During the transition-to-island mode, it is advised that enough DR and DR of the correct type (DR conforming to all the IEEE Std. 1547.4) is ensured to be available to support the system voltage and frequency for whatever time the island interconnection device and protective relaying take to effect a successful transition. Also, if sufficient DR and DR of the correct type are not present, then black start capability needs to be provided inside the island. Pedrasa, et al [15] identifies some more issues such as balance between supply and demand, power quality, communication among microgrid components and micro-source issues like lack of inertia, lack of spinning reserves and slow response or ramp time. During the island mode, it is suggested that one or more participating DR will need to be operated outside the IEEE 1547 voltage regulation requirement to assure DR island system voltage and frequency stability. Also, there should be adequate reserve margin that is a function of the load factor, the magnitude of the load, the load shape, the reliability requirements of the load, and the availability of DR. It is suggested that to balance the load and the generation within the island various techniques such as load-following, load management, and load shedding be used. Also, it is pointed out that transient stability should be maintained for load steps, DR unit outage, and island faults. It is also suggested that adaptive relaying may be implemented to provide adequate protection for a variety of system operating modes. Bollen, et al [16] propose standard operating ranges for frequency and voltage based on the European standard EN50160 for interconnected and islanded systems. For reconnection of the DR island system to the EPS, monitoring should indicate that the proper conditions exist for synchronizing the island with the EPS. It is advised that after an area EPS disturbance, no reconnection shall take place until the area EPS voltage is within Range B of ANSI/NEMA

C84.1-2006, Table 1, the frequency range is between 59.3 Hz to 60.5 Hz, and the phase rotation is correct. Also, the voltage, frequency, and phase angle between the two systems should be within acceptable limits as specified in IEEE Std 15472003 in order to initiate a reconnection. Several ways to reconnect the DR island system back to the EPS are also mentioned. The control systems designed are responsible to make sure of the operation in all the above modes. There are different architectures proposed for the control system. The major control architectures present in literature can be summarized as (i) autonomous control architecture [17], (ii) hierarchical control architecture [18], (iii) agent based control architecture [19-20], and (iv) neural network based energy management system [21]. In autonomous control, the microgrid is designed to run autonomously ensuring stable, sustainable and reliable operation. In hierarchical control architecture, the control functions are shared by various levels of hierarchy. There are three control levels or hierarchies present in this architecture. The lowermost level comprises of the local micro-source controllers (MC) and the load controllers (LC). The MC is responsible for control of voltage and frequency of the microgrid in transient conditions. Control is achieved with the help of power electronic interface of the DG sources. The next level of control is performed by the Microgrid system Central Controller (MGCC). The Distribution Management System (DMS) is the uppermost level of this architecture. The MGCC provides the MCs with the demand requirements among other control functions. It is also responsible for the microgrids value and the optimization of its operation. In agent based control, the several control functions are represented in terms of agents which can be software or hardware components. Agent platforms such as JADE (Java Agent DEvelopment framework) have been used for implementing this type of architecture. In neural network based EMS system, multi later perceptron neural networks have been used for performing control functions within the microgrid. There are several control strategies in the literature which have been used with different control architectures. Lasseter, et al [22] present the most popular of the control strategies to control based on droop characteristics. A VSI based control scheme is presented as well [23]. Tsikalakis, et al [24] presents a hierarchical control scheme with three levels of control accommodating demand side bidding and production bidding. Sofla, et al [25] present an advanced sliding mode controller based on Lyaponuv stability function used for controllers employing a current controlled VSI interface for each DER. S-J. Ahn, et al [26] identify two methods to control active power of DGs namely, unit output power control and feeder flow control. Kawasaki et al [27] present an autonomous dispersed control scheme which does not require a communication line among the controllers. Iravani, et al [28] discuss a multivariable servomechanism controller which utilizes an internal oscillator for frequency control and a servomechanism controller to regulate voltage. Serban, et al [29] propose an unbalance compensation based controller to

improve power quality. Multi-agent system based control [30] is also very popular. Lok et al [31] propose Unit Power Control and Feeder Flow Control modes to be used with droop control. Vandoorn et al [32] have proposed a control technique based on a smart tap changing transformer located at the point of common coupling. Further, for inverter based microsources several control schemes for the inverters have been proposed in literature. Vandoorn et al [33] proposes a droop based control with dclink voltage. Sao et al [34] propose a voltage-power droop/frequency reactive power boost control scheme that allows multiple voltage source converters to operate in parallel. Dasgupta et al [35-36] proposed a p-q theory based approach based control scheme for series and parallel single phase inverter based DGs. Kim et al [37] propose a mode adaptive droop control scheme. Roscoe et al [38] discuss a comparison between different inverter control modes and emphasize upon the tradeoff between AC power quality and DC bus ripple for three-phase three-wire inverter connected devices within microgrids. Li et al [39] discuss certain drawbacks in employing frequency and voltage based droop control for a low voltage microgrid,. They have also proposed a power control strategy comprising of a virtual inductor at the interfacing inverter output. The operation of microgrids can also be different from the operation of traditional power systems. Pudjianto et al [40] discuss the differences in the market operation of the microgrid in comparison with the traditional system in terms of decentralized dispatch decisions and closed loop pricing. Other issues concerning microgrid operation have also been studied. Diaz [41] presents a complementarity constraint approach based method to determine equilibrium point of operation for a microgrid. Sinha et al [42] describe the peocess of setting of market clearing price taking two market settlement techniques, namely day ahead and real time settlement, into consideration. Stability is ensured by the control strategy employed in a microgrid. Dike, et al [43-44] have presented a versatile voltage stability index to be evaluated for four operating modes. Voltage sensitive loads, islanding detection time could also be a critical factor on microgrid transient stability. Also, in many cases, transient stability has been improved by increasing the inertia of rotating machines in a microgrid. V. PROTECTION OF MICROGRIDS Protection within a microgrid can be tricky. There are major differences between protection of microgrids and conventional power systems[45]. The primary difference is that the fault current is limited. Also, the fault current path is complex. There are also other differences with regards to the imbalance in the system and the dynamic power characteristic from certain DGs. Also use of electronically coupled DGs also offer challenges in protection. The challenge also lies in identifying the location of the fault to help clear it.Several solutions to this problem have been identified in literature. For use with voltage source inverter interfaced DGs, Vilathgamuwa, et al. [46] present two current limiting algorithms to prevent the flow of large line currents: resistance-inductance feed-forward algorithm and flux-charge

model feedback algorithm. Al-Nasseri et al. [47] have proposed a abc-dq transformation method to detect the presence of a short circuit. The measurements from different parts of the network are compared to locate the fault. Zeineldin et al. [48] present an approach to use directional over current relays for microgrids consisted of synchronous generator based DGs. The relay coordination problem is formulated by mixed integer selective nonlinear programming problem and is solved by using particle swarm optimization. Miao et al. [49] propose a feeder automation scheme based on wireless sensor network. Esreraig et al [50] propose an observer based protection system. Laaksonen [51-52] propose a high speed standard communication IEC-61850 based protection scheme. Shahabi et al [53] have proposed a protection scheme wherein the system is divided into several zones in such a way that in each zone, there is no DG or if there is any balance of generation and consumption in that zone is possible regardless of the main grid. Sortomme et al [54] have proposed a protection scheme utilizing the principles of synchronized phasor measurements and microprocessor relays to detect all types of faults including high impedance faults. Han et al [55] have identified a component of fault current which only presents in fault condition and an adaptive fault current protection algorithm has been proposed based on this component. Grounding is also an important aspect of protection. It becomes even more significant if the microgrid is of mixed AC/DC type. If the microgrid comprises of inverter interfaced DGs, then the point in the network which is grounded will also have to be chosen apart from the type of grounding. Salomonsson et al [56] have discussed this topic in detail. VI. MICROGRID SERVICE RESTORATION AND ISLANDING
DETECTION

2. Active methods methods which employ varied techniques such as injection of active signals 2.1. Algorithm based on current injection 2.2. Sandia National Laboratories algorithm which monitors voltage and frequency values at the inverter outputs 3. Utility level methods 3.1. By means of communication signals 3.2. SCADA based system An islanding detection scheme based on synchronous reference frame phase locked loop is also presented by Balaguer et al [62]. VII. MODELING OF MICROGRIDS Modeling of the various components of microgrids is essential to simulate and test the microgrid under various circumstances. Several models for the components of the microgrid such as wind turbines, gas turbines, solar panels, fuel cells, and other inverter based and rotating machine based DGs have been proposed. Pogaku et al [63] present a small signal state space model of autonomous operation of inverter-based microgrids. Voltage and current controllers are used in inverter internal controls to reject high frequency disturbances and damp the output filter for prevent any resonance with external network. Mohamed et al [64] present a generic mathematical model for a micro-turbine and solid oxide fuel cell. Kanello et al [65] and Abdelsalam et al [66] present modeling techniques for photovoltaic generator equipped with a maximum power point tracker. Bailey et al [67] present a detailed analysis of various combined heat and power technologies and have presented mathematical models for them. Models for three phase synchronous generator based DG unit and electronically coupled DER unit interfaced with a three phase three wire voltage source converter have been presented by Kamh et al [68]. Katiraei et al [69] have presented a systematic approach to small-signal modeling of a microgrid system that includes conventional and electronically interfaced DGs. The authors have also presented a model for synchronous machine based DGs which represents electromechanical dynamics of the synchronous machine including the exciter and governor systems. Apart from modeling of equipment used in microgrids, literature exists on modeling of noise and harmonic interactions between the equipment present in the microgrid. Guezgouz et al [70] present a SPICE based approach to model electromagnetic noise generated by equipment in a microgrid and evaluate its influence anywhere in the network without the use of systematic heavy and expensive measurements. Wang et al [71] proposed an impedance based analytical method for modeling and analysis of harmonic interactions between the grid and aggregated DG inverters. Using this model, a method to forecast the impedance network quasiresonance between DG inverters and the grid is identified.

A sequence of actions for service restoration based on the information stored in a database about the last microgrid status is presented by Moreira et al [57]. Li, et al [58] propose a microgrid restoration model using a multi-agent system which takes capacity limitation constraints, limits on branch power flow and power balance constraints into consideration to maximize the capacity of the served loads while giving priority to the important load power. Also, a sequence of control actions for service restoration has been identified by Resende et al. [59]. An active synchronization method that adapts network based control of multiple DGs to adjust the frequency and voltage of the microgrid has been proposed by Cho et al [60]. Xu et al [61] have also proposed a multiagent based load restoration algorithm to restore the un-faulted but out-of-service loads once a fault in the microgrid has been cleared. In events of unplanned islanding, there are several islanding detection techniques. The following is a list of the known techniques that are reported in literature [4]: 1. Passive methods methods which operate measuring local values of voltage, frequency and phase 1.1. Under/Over voltage detection 1.2. Under/Over frequency detection 1.3. Phase jump detection

VIII. EXISTING MICROGRIDS There have been various microgrid test sites established all over the world over the last few years. The following is the list of major microgrid test sites as found in the literature. Lidula, et al [72] have summarized many of the existing experimental microgrids and test systems. 1. Boston Bar BC Hydro, Canada: Radial microgrid driven by two hydro plants with a peak load of 3MW. Controlled by autonomous controller. 2. Boralex planned islanding Hydro Quebec (HQ), Canada: Microgrid formed to facilitate replacement of 40km feeder serving 3000 customers with a peak load of 7MW. The microgrid is served by a thermal power plant and is controlled autonomously. 3. The CERTS testbed United States [73]: Mesh type microgrid driven by three converter based sources driven by natural gas controlled autonomously. The microsources have plug-and-play functionality. 4. UW microgrid United States: Radial microgrid driven by PV and diesel generator controlled autonomously using active power-frequency droop and voltage control. 5. Bronsbergen Holiday Park microgrid Netherland: Mesh type microgrid driven by several PV DGs with central energy storage. The peak generation capacity is 315 kW and the microgrid is centrally controlled. 6. The Residential Microgrid of Am Steinweg in Stutensee German: Mesh type microgrid driven by several PV DGs, CHP with available electric power of 28kW and a lead acid battery rated at 880 Ah. Agent based control is implemented. 7. CESI RICERCA DER test microgrid Italy: Low voltage(400V) DC radial microgrid is driven by 14kW PV DG, 10kW solar thermal DG, 10kW biomass based CHP DG, 100kW microturbine based CHP DG and 3 different battery energy storage units.the system is also equipped with a flywheel for power quality purposes. Agent based control is implemented. 8. Kythnos island microgrid Greece: Centrally controlled Radial microgrid driven by 12kW PV DG, 53kWh battery bank, and 5 kW diesel DG. 9. Microgrid system at National Technical University of Athens (NTUA) Greece: Laboratory scale microgrid driven by two PV generators, one wind turbine, and battery energy storage. Agent based control is implemented. 10. DeMoTec test microgrid system German: SCADA controlled test microgrid driven by two battery units, two diesel generators and a wind generator. 11. University of Manchester microgrid/ywheel energy storage laboratory prototype UK: 20kVA radial laboratory microgrid prototype driven by a synchronous generator coupled to an induction motor. The system is also equipped with a flywheel connected through an inverter. 12. Aichi microgrid project Central Japan airport city [74-75]: Centrally controlled radial microgrid driven by seven fuel cells of various kinds rated at 1.4MW, PV 13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

generator rated at 330kW and a NaS battery storage system. Kyoto eco-energy project (Kyotango project) Japan: Mesh type centrally controlled microgrid driven by gas turbines totaling 400kW, 350kW of fuel cells, two PV systems and a 50kW small wind turbine. Hachinohe project Japan [76]: Radial centrally controlled microgrid with 5 PV units 130kW in all, 4 wind turbines 20kW in all, and 3 diesel generators rated at 170kW each. Test network at Akagi of the Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry (CRIEPI) Japan: A centrally controlled test system emulating PV generation derived through three 100kW inverters and a 200kVA dummy load. The microgrid is set up to test power control equipment like static VAR compensators, step voltage regulators, and loop balance controllers. Sendai project Japan: Radial centrally controlled test microgrid system consisting of two 350kW gas engine generators, one 250kW fuel cell, 50kW PV and battery storage system. Customers are divided into various classes and each class has a predefined power quality commitment. Microgrid testbed in Hefei University of Technology (HFUT) China: Mesh type microgrid driven by PV generators, 3-phase wind generation simulators, fuel cell, battery bank, ultra capacitor bank, conventional generators used to simulate small hydrio and fossil generators. The system is controlled using an agent based controller. KERI microgrid pilot plant [77]: Radial 120kW microgrid driven by PV, PV and wind hybrid, two diesel generators, and a battery storage system.

Regional differences among the development of microgrids have also been highlighted. North American countries are not focused on using renewable energy resources but rather on maintaining the reliability of power supply by means of microgrids. Also the use of autonomous control for the maintenance of voltage and frequency is prevalent. The European and Asian microgrids, on the other hand, have not only focused on reliability of power but also on utilizing renewable energy. The Asian microgrids are observed to be predominantly centrally controlled except for the agent based control for the microgrid in china. The European microgrids seem to be either centrally controlled or agent based. IX. REFERENCES
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X. BIOGRAPHIES
Shyam Naren Bhaskara (M2007) obtained his Bachelors degree in Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad, India in 2010. He is currently working towards a Masters degree in Electrical Engineering with emphasis on Power Systems. Badrul H. Chowdhury (M'1983, SM1993) obtained his Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering from Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA in 1987. He is currently a Professor in the Electrical & Computer Engineering department of the Missouri University of Science and Technology, formerly known as the University of Missouri-Rolla. From 1987 to 1998 he was with the University of Wyomings Electrical Engineering department. Dr. Chowdhurys research interests are in power system modeling, analysis and control; renewable energy and microgrid control.