Imaging Notes Lecture 1 Mathematics and Physics of Radiology Intro lecture exposure to different kinds of imaging techniques.

s. Transmission imaging, ionizing radiation inherent in X-ray and analogs.

X-ray Energy ~ 100 kEV Current: ma Low contrast, no depth Quick, low dose - stationary Mammography Energy ~ 20 kEV Current: ma Low contrast, no depth Breast must be compressed to reduce scatter Fluoroscopy (movie x-ray) Energy ~ 100-200 kEV Current: ma Low contrast, no depth Quick, low dose - stationary CT Energy ~ 100 kEV Current: variable high contrast, depth 360 view, image reconstruction

Lecture 2 Interaction of radiation with matter Radiation interaction with matter Electromagnetic wave Particle Excitation Ionization Bremstrahlung Types of x-ray interaction (bold most likely) Rayleigh scatter Very low energies (can occur in mammography) Compton scatter inelastic scattering (low contrast, most likely due to low z) (low energy -> higher probability) Photoelectric effect probability protional to Z3/E3. Also, greater probability if incident energy is just higher than binding energy. Pair production incident energy of up to 1.02 MeV Human body made up of low Z elements Lecture 3 Interaction: attenuation and dose; Image quality: Resolution, Noise, Contrast, Sampling Energy ranges 1.02 MeV (pair production), 100-110 KeV normal x-ray, fluoro, CT, 20 KeV Mammography I = I*exp(-x) Linear attenuation coefficient sum of all individual linear coefficients for each type of interaction (Rayleigh, photoelectric, Compton, etc.) Also, linear coefficient of water > linear coefficient of ice > linear coefficient of water vapor Mass attenuation coefficient

For a given thickness, the probability of interaction is dependent on number of atoms per volume. It is the linear attenuation coefficient divided by density, thus the mass coefficient for all phases is the same. Half Value Layer defined as the thickness of material required to reduce the intensity of an x or gamma ray beam to one half of its initial value. HVL = 0.693/linear attenuation coefficient (from equation above) Beam hardening lower energy photons of a polyenergetic beam cannot pass through matter, thus these values are filtered to reduce patient exposure. Kerma = kinetic energy released in matter, defined as KE transferred to charged particles by indirectly ionizing radiation. Units are J/Kg or gray. 100 rads in a gray. Dose energy deposited by ionizing radiation per mass Exposure amount of electrical charge produced by ionizing electromagnetic radiation per mass. C/kg Equivalent dose in Sieverts, radiation weighting factor applied to absorbed dose to account for relative effectiveness of various rays Effective dose in Sieverts, tissue weighting factor to determine relative dose of various tissue. Lecture 4 Image Quality; X-Ray Production/Properties Contrast difference in the image gray scale between closely adjacent regions on an image Digital image contrast (Contrast to Noise ratio (CNR) assessment of digital image quality. Looks at Density at Region A minus Density at Region B divided by noise term. Spatial domain two spatial dimensions of an image (x and y axis) Point spread function image produced from a single point stimulus to a detector. Can be isotropic (symmetrically spread out) or non-isotropic. If the PSF is measured at many different locations and is the same regardless of location, the system is said to be stationary. Line spread function(LSF) linear set of PSF Modulation transfer function plot of the imaging systems modulation versus spatial frequency. Good representation of the resolution properties of an imaging system. Illustrates the fraction of an objects contrast that is recorded by the imaging system as a function of size (spatial frequency). Note that spatial frequency increases for smaller objects and decreases for larger objects. MTF can be found through the Fourier transform of the LSF. Noise many sources. Use statistics as an example, essentially fluctuations about the mean (standard deviation = square root of mean). Example is the Gaussian distribution described by mean and standard deviation while Poisson distribution is only described by mean. We usually talk about Poisson and use it as a standard for determining covariance = std. dev/mean = 1/square root(mean) where variance is equal to mean. Contrast Detail curve describes the Contrast and Detail for images and allows for comparison Lecture 5 X-Ray Production; Radiography Xray tube electron source and target. Generator voltage source to excite electrons. Collimator defines x-ray field. Tube housing shielding and coolant for xray tube. Brehmstralung spectrum x-ray photon with equal energy to the kinetic energy lost by the electron Highly inefficient, but increasing energy of incident electrons increases efficiency.

Intensity varies with frequency, essentially higher current increases area under the curve while higher voltage increases the cut-off frequency Lecture 6 Radiography; Mammography Lecture 7 Mammography, Digital Detectors Lecture 8 Mammography, Fluoroscopy, CT Lecture 9 CT and Exam Review 1 Figure 13.15 2 One dimensional CT detector array, Figure 13.14 3 Figure 13.11 4 - Figure 13.10 5 Single array CT, multiple detector CT, cone beam CT. Differences in slice width 6 Factors affecting resolution p 368-369 CT dependent on Compton scatter, can use this principle to work in reverse i.e. determine density of sample. Development is inverse of radiography (in radiography x-rays that pass through will darken film while those that dont will have lighter areas (bone is white on an x-ray). CT # Discussion see notes Problem Beam hardening can occur, average energy through tissue increases due to susceptibility of lower energy beams to attenuation. This worsens with prosthetics which can completely block x-ray Lecture 10 (Chapter 14) MRI soft tissue contrast incredibly high, superconducting air-core system. Magnetic susceptibility Paramagnetic agent: augments local magnetic field Diamagnetic agent: depletes local magnetic field Change in magnetic field Nucleus has magnetic properties due to protons and neutrons Hydrogen atoms most important/abundant and is the key to MRI Magnetic Field and sample magnetization Thermal energy agitates and randomizes spins in the sample Under external field B0, protons organize in low (parallel) and high(anti-parallel) quantization energy levels. Element in question dictates spin and gyromagnetic ratio Precession frequency 1T = 42.58 MHz 1.5T = 63.86

2T = 127.74 All protons spinning at Larmor frequency Frame of Reference Applied magnetic field is parallel to z axis Think of how a top spins and falls, but has enough energy to restore its original position. Free Induction Decay Rotating frame T2 Versus T1 (T2 always smaller than T1) Pulse sequences Excitation, relaxation, echo formation, data acquisition Image contrast generated from characteristics of the tissue based upon differences of T1 time needed for Mz decay T2 Spin Echo 90 degree excitation, 180 degree refocusing pulses Inversion recovery 180 degree inversion pulse Pulse sequences are a combination of excitation, relaxation, echo formation, and data acquisition TR time period between initial RF excitations TE delay between excitation and echo formation TI: inversion time (inversion recovery) to manipulate spin lattice recovery curves and null signal from specific tissues Flip angle: amount of excitation by RF pulse Spin Echo Pulse Sequence Excitation TE Echo FID signal gradually decays with rate constant T2 -> Spin Echo peak amplitude depends on T2 T1 > T2 > T2* TR Time of Repetition Time between similar angle scans Multiple Spin Echo (T2 versus T2*) Lecture 11 Important aspect of MR is the soft tissue contrast, demonstrated how those parameters could be changed to increase contrast TR Radio frequency time period TE echo time FID free-induction decay See p 391-393. T1 = time needed for longitudinal (Mz) regeneration of net magnetization (spin-lattice interaction) T2 = Time needed for transverse (Mxy) (spin-spin interaction).

T1 and T2 are tissue dependent because it depends on how these interactions manifest. T1 Weighted must have short TR and TE (intrinsically linked to TR) T2 Weighted must have long TR and long (but not too long) TE (intrinsically linked to TE) Proton Density Long TR, short TE. Enhances intensity of tissue image, can be acquired while gaining a T2 image. Spin Echo Pulse 90, 180, and then 180 degree pulses, can see on p 399. 1st echo is the first waveform after initiation. TR between the two 90 degree pulses (RF in the second wave) Inversion Recovery (IR) Emphasizes T 1 relaxation times of the tissues by extending the amplitude of the longitudinal recovery by a factor of 2. After a delay (time of inversion) TI a 90 degree RF pulse rotates the recovered fraction of Mz spins into the transverse plane to gain the FID. p. 400. Inversion Time related to T1 and Transverse Decay is T2. 180 90 180 degree pulses (TR between 180 degree pulses, second 180 pulse in RF) Short tau inversion recovery (STIR) very short TI and magnitude signal processing to eliminate tissue such as fat. Fluid attenuated inversion recovery (FLAIR) use of longer TI to reduce signal level of tissue like CSF Gradient Recalled ECHO (GRE) magnetic field gradient inducing formation of an echo rather than the 180 degree pulse. It relies on purposeful phasing and dephasing of the FID. Spin-spin interaction and interaction with external inhomogeneities of the magnetic field cause degradation. This causes faster degradation (T2*) Image acquisition Look over this Apply RF frequency to excite certain frequencies in FOV. Apply a gradient of RF values to select each slice of the patient. Slice select gradient Frequency encode gradient Go up to page 437 in Chapter 15 and then look at motion artifacts. Process is time intensive, serial MRI is a good way to help reduce this time.