PET-Basic Elements of Geology

Pet-518 Elements of Geology ( Lecture I)
Pet-518 Elements of Geology Pet-518 Elements of Geology

Course content Course content
1. An Introduction to Geology
• Definition, significance and basic disciplines. 2. Matter and Minerals
• Earth as a dynamic terrestrial planet: 3. Earth's Interior
• Its shape, composition, surface relief, origin and age. 4. Kind of Rocks and Rock Cycle
• Introduction to minerals, rocks and fossils.
5. Igneous & Metamorphic rocks
• Definitions, method of study , description and classification of rock
forming minerals and major rock types, rock cycle.
6. Weathering , Mass Wasting and Soil
7. Sedimentary Environments
• Weathering and Soil. 8. Sedimentary Rocks
• Sedimentary rocks and their classification.
9. Principles of Stratigraphy and Sedimentation
• Basic concept of stratigraphy and sedimentation. 10. Crustal Deformation including Plate Tectonics
• Sedimentary environment and stratigraphic sequences. 11. Deformational features of rocks
• Basic concepts in geodynamics; interior model of earth. 12. Classification of Fold Fault and Unconformities.
• lithosphere and plate tectonic. 13. Geological Time Scale
• Deformation of rocks: 14. Fossils and Fossilization
• Classification of Fold, Fault and Unconformities. 15. Mountain Building and the Evolution of Continents
• Geological Time Scale and significance of Fossils
•
Department of Petroleum Technology University of Karachi Department of Petroleum Technology University of Karachi

View of the Planet Earth Some Discipline of Geology
• Definition of Geology: • Mineralogy - formation, chemical and physical properties, and
classification of minerals
• Geology is classically defined as the study • Petrology - formation, properties, and classification of rocks
of the Earth.
• Sedimentology - genesis, transport, and deposition of
• Geology is the study of the Earth, the sediment, and the formation of sedimentary rocks
materials of which it is made, the structure
of those materials, and the processes acting • Structural geology - deformation of earth materials and
upon them.
resulting geologic structures
• It also includes the study of the organisms • Tectonics - regional to global-scale deformation and structures
which inhabit our planet. resulting from interactions among pieces of the Earth's rigid
• A very important part of geology is the study
outer layer, or lithosphere
of how Earth’s materials, structures, • Geomorphology - processes of landform evolution and
processes and organisms have changed
over time. landscape development
• Hydrogeology - interrelationships of water and geologic
• .
materials and processes

The two broad areas of the science of geology Physical geology
• (1) Physical geology, • Earth materials
is the study of Earth materials and structures; the atoms, chemicals, metals, oil, gas, rocks,
processes and forces that act upon them; and how these minerals, salt, gems, coal, sand, gravel, clay, soil,
materials, structures, processes, and forces have changed atmosphere, hydrosphere, organisms, etc.
over time. How do Earth materials affect people?
building materials, fuels, soil to grow food, salt for
• (2) Historical geology, food, jewelry, we are made of Earth materials
which seeks to understand the origin of Earth and its • Earth processes
development through time. earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, floods,
The relationship between people and the natural continental drift, weather, climate, landslides,
environment is an important focus of geology. subsidence and collapse, tides, geysers, erosion,
This includes natural hazards, resources, and human etc. Any geologic processes recently in the news?
influences on geologic processes How do these processes affect people?
Historical Geology Earth at a Glance
• How old is the Earth?
• 4.5 to 4.6 billion years (4,500,000,000 to

4,600,000,000 years) Determined through
radiometric dating (Uranium, Thorium).
Using an instrument called a mass
spectrometer.
• Multicellular life
• did not appear until about 1 billion years
ago.
Before this, 3 billion years ago single
celled life only.
• Hard parts like shells don't appear
until 600 million years ago. (Trilobites)

Introduction to Historical Geology Introduction to Historical Geology
• Historical Geology is the study of changes to Earth and life • C. What happened on the Earth during this long period of
in time and space. time?
• Many natural events:
• I. Time – meteorite impacts volcanic eruptions and lava flows
• A. How much time? – mountain building earthquakes erosion
• Oldest meteorites and oldest moon rocks are 4.6 billion years – slow movement of continents (plate tectonics)
old,4,600,000,000 years.
– formation and destruction of ocean basins
• (plate tectonics)
Oldest rocks found so far on Earth are zircon grains from a sandstone – glaciations climatic changes
in western Australia, dated at 4.1 to 4.2 bilion years old.
• All of these natural events are still going on today -

• Previously, the oldest Earth rocks were 3.96 billion years old, from the
• We see evidence in the rock record that these events have been
Northwest Territories of Canada. occurring for a long time.
• B. How do we know? • Geologists call this uniformitarianism.
• Radioactive materials serve as geologic clocks. • The physical laws governing the universe operate uniformly through
time.
•

Introduction to Historical Geology Geologic record
• James Hutton (1726-1797) believed that
• "the past history of our globe must be explained by what can be seen to be
• D. What do you mean by geologic record?
happening now." • The geologic record consists of rock units, each of which
records some event or series of events that occurred in the
• Some events which occurred in the past, and left a record in the rocks, ARE past.
NOT OCCURRING TODAY, or have not occurred in the human lifespan:
• What are rocks?
• Huge meteorite imapcts
– Rocks are defined as aggregates of one or more
• Large glacial ice sheets
• Other events occur so slowly that they are difficult to measure:
minerals.
• Plate Tectonics - sea floor spreading, continental drift • What are minerals?
• Erosion of mountain ranges – naturally occurring
• Still other events are short lived but very catastrophic:
• Volcanic eruptions – inorganic
• Earthquakes – solids
• Floods – definite chemical composition
• Mudflows, avalanches, etc (mass wasting)
• Evidence of all of these events is preserved in the geologic record.
– characteristic internal crystal structure (arrangement of
atoms in lattice)
Course content
Geologic record Fundamental principles of Geology
• E. How do rocks form? • Most sedimentary rocks occur in the form of layers called
• By cooling, hardening, and crystallizing from hot, molten lava beds or strata.
– Igneous rocks • Each layer is the result of the deposition of sediment
during some natural event (such as a flood or storm).
• By forming from the compaction and cementation of sediments
– Terrigenous, clastic or detrital sedimentary rocks • A. Steno's Laws Named for Nicholaus Steno
• By forming from the precipitation of dissolved chemicals in
water • Principle of Superposition
– Chemical and biochemical sedimentary rocks • Oldest rocks on the bottom
• By forming from accumulated organic matter • Younger rocks on top
– Organic sedimentary rocks (coals) • Principle of Original Horizontality
• By the alteration of pre-existing igneous or sedimentary rocks • Sediments are deposited in flat layers
by heat and pressure • Principle of Original Lateral Continuity
– Metamorphic rocks • Sediments are deposited over a large area in a continuous
sheet

Other basic principles of Geology Principle of Superposition
• Principle of intrusive relationships • Sometimes papers pile up on my
• desk for several weeks before I have
• The intrusion is younger than the rocks it cuts. time to put them away.
• The oldest papers are at the bottom
of the pile, the most recent
• Principle of cross-cutting relationships additions near the top.
• The fault is younger than the rocks it cuts. • The lowermost objects must be
• placed first. Rocks are no different.
• Principle of components or inclusions This is simple idea behind the
principle of superposition.
• Note the irregular erosional surface.
• This is an unconformity. • When we examine a series of
• The clasts (in the bed above the unconformity) undisturbed sedimentary rock
• are derived from the underlying (older) bed. layers we assume the rocks at the
• The gravel clasts are older than the layer which contains them. bottom of the stack are the oldest
• The layer containing the gravel must be younger than the layer from and the rocks at the top are the
which the clasts originate. youngest (Fig. ).

Principle of Original Horizontality Course content
• Superposition: A lies below B so A must be the
• Sedimentary rocks are deposited in nearly horizontal • oldest unit.
layers (beds; Fig. ). If layers are no longer horizontal they Original horizontality: A, B, and C must have been
must have undergone deformation after formation. deposited as horizontal layers.
Because they have the same orientation we can
The majority of sedimentary rocks are deposited under probably consider them a discrete group that
water. They may be pushed above sea level and tilted experienced a similar geologic history
during the formation of mountains. These processes
Original horizontality: Because A, B, and C are more steeply
expose rocks to weathering and erosion that serves to tilted than the overlying units they must have been uplifted
erase parts of the geologic record as rock units are worn and tilted early in the history of the region.
away.
A, B, and C were subjected to weathering and erosion at
Earth's surface. A relatively flat land surface was formed by
erosion. A significant time interval may have passed while
erosion occurred. This eroded surface is known as an
unconformity and is the physical expression of a gap in time.
An unconformity occurs when no beds are deposited or
when part of the rock record is removed by erosion
Course content Course content
• Superposition: D must have been deposited after C
as it overlies B and C. • D and E were subjected to weathering and
Original horizontality: D was deposited as a erosion at Earth's surface.
horizontal bed.
Cross-cutting: D must be younger than B and C • A relatively flat land surface was formed by
because it cuts across the underlying layers. erosion.
• A second unconfomity surface is formed.
Original horizontality: D is no longer horizontal so it

must have been slightly tilted after formation. This
would also have increased the inclination of layers A, Superposition: Layers F and G must have been
B, and C.
deposited after E because they lie atop all other
units.
Original horizontality: F and G were deposited as
Cross-cutting: All layers A through D are cut by the horizontal beds.
younger igneous pluton. The pluton contains Cross-cutting: F must be younger than D and E
inclusions of layers B and C, further indication that it because it cuts across the underlying units. The
must have formed subsequent to the deposition of river carved a valley through the upper part of G.
those beds. We have no evidence to tell us whether E
formed before or after D was tilted

Principle of fossil succession PRESENT IS KEY TO THE PAST
• Fossils occur in a consistent
vertical order in sedimentary PRESENT IS KEY TO THE PAST
rocks all over the world. • The "present is key to the
• (William"Strata Bill" Smith, late
past" is a simple but
1700's, England). important statement in
paleontology.
• This principle is valid and does Paleontologists look at
not depend on any pre-existing
ideas of evolution. present day organisms to
help interpret fossils.
• (In fact, Charles Darwin's ideas "Paleo" means old and
on evolution did not appear until
50 years later - 1858). "onto" means life.
Present day organisms
• Geologists interpret fossil help us to understand the
succession to be the result of
evolution - the natural life and environment of
appearance and disappearance past organisms.
of species through time.
Pet-518 Elements of Geology

Geological time Scale
Department of Petroleum Technology University of Karachi

PET-Elements of Geology
DEPARTMENT OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF KARACHI

PET-Elements of Geology
DEPARTMENT OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF KARACHI

Pet-518 Elements of Geology ( Lecture I)

Course content
Course content
• Definition, significance and basic disciplines.

1. An Introduction to Geology
2. Matter and Minerals
• Earth as a dynamic terrestrial planet: 3. Earth's Interior
• Its shape, composition, surface relief, origin and age. 4. Kind of Rocks and Rock Cycle
• Introduction to minerals, rocks and fossils.
5. Igneous & Metamorphic rocks
• Definitions, method of study , description and classification of rock forming
minerals and major rock types, rock cycle. 6. Weathering , Mass Wasting and Soil
7. Sedimentary Environments
• Weathering and Soil. 8. Sedimentary Rocks
• Sedimentary rocks and their classification.
9. Principles of Stratigraphy and Sedimentation
• Basic concept of stratigraphy and sedimentation. 10. Crustal Deformation including Plate Tectonics
• Sedimentary environment and stratigraphic sequences. 11. Deformational features of rocks
• Basic concepts in geodynamics; interior model of earth. 12. Classification of Fold Fault and Unconformities.
• lithosphere and plate tectonic. 13. Geological Time Scale
• Deformation of rocks: 14. Fossils and Fossilization
• Classification of Fold, Fault and Unconformities. 15. Mountain Building and the Evolution of Continents
• Geological Time Scale and significance of Fossils
•

View of the Planet Earth Some Discipline of Geology
• Definition of Geology: • Mineralogy - formation, chemical and physical properties, and

classification of minerals
• Geology is classically defined as the study • Petrology - formation, properties, and classification of rocks
of the Earth.
• Sedimentology - genesis, transport, and deposition of
• Geology is the study of the Earth, the sediment, and the formation of sedimentary rocks
materials of which it is made, the structure
of those materials, and the processes acting • Structural geology - deformation of earth materials and
upon them. resulting geologic structures
• It also includes the study of the organisms • Tectonics - regional to global-scale deformation and structures
which inhabit our planet. resulting from interactions among pieces of the Earth's rigid
• A very important part of geology is the study
outer layer, or lithosphere
of how Earth’s materials, structures, • Geomorphology - processes of landform evolution and
processes and organisms have changed
over time. landscape development
• Hydrogeology - interrelationships of water and geologic
• .
materials and processes

The two broad areas of the science of geology Physical geology
• (1) Physical geology, • Earth materials

is the study of Earth materials and structures; the atoms, chemicals, metals, oil, gas, rocks,
processes and forces that act upon them; and how these minerals, salt, gems, coal, sand, gravel, clay, soil,
materials, structures, processes, and forces have changed atmosphere, hydrosphere, organisms, etc.
over time. How do Earth materials affect people?
building materials, fuels, soil to grow food, salt for
• (2) Historical geology, food, jewelry, we are made of Earth materials
which seeks to understand the origin of Earth and its • Earth processes
development through time. earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, floods,
The relationship between people and the natural continental drift, weather, climate, landslides,
environment is an important focus of geology. subsidence and collapse, tides, geysers, erosion,
This includes natural hazards, resources, and human etc. Any geologic processes recently in the news?
influences on geologic processes How do these processes affect people?
Interactions in Earth’s Interactions in Earth’s
Subsystems Subsystems
er e Gases from Wind erosion, transport of
ph re
mo
s
re p he water vapor for
At he respiration os
sp At
m precipitation
Bio
ere
s ph
ho
Lit
Transport
Mountains
of seeds and divert air
spores movements
Interactions in Earth’s Earth’s Differentiation

Subsystems
• Differentiation = segregated into layers
of differing composition and density
Source of sediment
Hyd and dissolved • Early Earth was
ros
phe material probably uniform
re
Lith
osp
her
e • Molten iron and
nickel sank to
form the core
Water
and glacial • Lighter silicates
erosion, solution of flowed up to form
minerals mantle and crust
Earth’s Interior Layers Forming the Earth-Moon System

• Crust - 5-90 km
thick • Most of the lunar
– continental and material
oceanic – came from the
• Mantle mantle of the
– composed colliding
largely of planetesimal
peridotite • The material
– dark, dense cooled
igneous rock
– rich in iron and – and crystallized
magnesium
• Core – into lunar layers
– iron and a small
amount of nickel
Historical Geology Introduction to Historical Geology
• How old is the Earth? • Historical Geology is the study of changes to Earth and life
in time and space.
• I. Time
• 4.5 to 4.6 billion years (4,500,000,000 to
4,600,000,000 years) Determined through • A. How much time?
radiometric dating (Uranium, Thorium). • Oldest meteorites and oldest moon rocks are 4.6 billion years
Using an instrument called a mass old,4,600,000,000 years.
spectrometer. •
Oldest rocks found so far on Earth are zircon grains from a sandstone
in western Australia, dated at 4.1 to 4.2 bilion years old.
• Multicellular life
• did not appear until about 1 billion years • Previously, the oldest Earth rocks were 3.96 billion years old, from the
ago. Northwest Territories of Canada.
Before this, 3 billion years ago single • B. How do we know?
celled life only.
• Radioactive materials serve as geologic clocks.
• Hard parts like shells don't appear
until 600 million years ago. (Trilobites) •

Geologic record Course content
Geologic record
• D. What do you mean by geologic record? • E. How do rocks form?
• The geologic record consists of rock units, each of which • By cooling, hardening, and crystallizing from hot, molten lava
records some event or series of events that occurred in the
past. – Igneous rocks
• By forming from the compaction and cementation of sediments
• What are rocks?
– Terrigenous, clastic or detrital sedimentary rocks
– Rocks are defined as aggregates of one or more
minerals. • By forming from the precipitation of dissolved chemicals in
• What are minerals? water
– Chemical and biochemical sedimentary rocks
– naturally occurring
– inorganic • By forming from accumulated organic matter
– Organic sedimentary rocks (coals)
– solids
– definite chemical composition • By the alteration of pre-existing igneous or sedimentary rocks
by heat and pressure
– characteristic internal crystal structure (arrangement of
atoms in lattice) – Metamorphic rocks

Kinds of Rocks Fundamental principles of Geology
• Most sedimentary rocks occur in the form of layers called

beds or strata.
• Each layer is the result of the deposition of sediment
during some natural event (such as a flood or storm).
• A. Steno's Laws Named for Nicholaus Steno
• Principle of Superposition
• Oldest rocks on the bottom
• Younger rocks on top
• Principle of Original Horizontality
• Sediments are deposited in flat layers
• Principle of Original Lateral Continuity
• Sediments are deposited over a large area in a continuous
sheet
Other basic principles of Geology Principle of Superposition
• Principle of intrusive relationships • Sometimes papers pile up on my
• desk for several weeks before I have
• The intrusion is younger than the rocks it cuts. time to put them away.
• The oldest papers are at the bottom
of the pile, the most recent
• Principle of cross-cutting relationships additions near the top.
• The fault is younger than the rocks it cuts. • The lowermost objects must be
• placed first. Rocks are no different.
• Principle of components or inclusions This is simple idea behind the
principle of superposition.
• Note the irregular erosional surface.
• This is an unconformity. • When we examine a series of
• The clasts (in the bed above the unconformity) undisturbed sedimentary rock
• are derived from the underlying (older) bed. layers we assume the rocks at the
• The gravel clasts are older than the layer which contains them. bottom of the stack are the oldest
• The layer containing the gravel must be younger than the layer from and the rocks at the top are the
which the clasts originate. youngest (Fig. ).

Principle of Original Horizontality Principle of fossil succession
• Fossils occur in a consistent
• Sedimentary rocks are deposited in nearly horizontal vertical order in sedimentary
layers (beds; Fig. ). If layers are no longer horizontal they rocks all over the world.
must have undergone deformation after formation.
The majority of sedimentary rocks are deposited under • (William"Strata Bill" Smith, late
1700's, England).
water. They may be pushed above sea level and tilted
during the formation of mountains. These processes • This principle is valid and does
expose rocks to weathering and erosion that serves to not depend on any pre-existing
ideas of evolution.
erase parts of the geologic record as rock units are worn
away. • (In fact, Charles Darwin's ideas
on evolution did not appear until
50 years later - 1858).
• Geologists interpret fossil

succession to be the result of
evolution - the natural
appearance and disappearance
of species through time.

The Rock Cycle and Geological Cycle Course content

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Pet-518 Elements of Geology ( Lecture I)

Pet-518 Elements of Geology Pet-518 Elements of Geology

Pet-518 Elements of Geology Pet-518 Elements of Geology

Pet-518 Elements of Geology Pet-518 Elements of Geology

• How old is the Earth?

• 4.5 to 4.6 billion years (4,500,000,000 to

Pet-518 Elements of Geology Pet-518 Elements of Geology

• All of these natural events are still going on today -

Pet-518 Elements of Geology Pet-518 Elements of Geology

Pet-518 Elements of Geology Pet-518 Elements of Geology

Pet-518 Elements of Geology Pet-518 Elements of Geology

Original horizontality: D is no longer horizontal so it

Pet-518 Elements of Geology Pet-518 Elements of Geology

Pet-518 Elements of Geology

Department of Petroleum Technology University of Karachi

DEPARTMENT OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF KARACHI

DEPARTMENT OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF KARACHI

Pet-518 Elements of Geology Pet-518 Elements of Geology

• Definition, significance and basic disciplines.

Pet-518 Elements of Geology Pet-518 Elements of Geology

• Definition of Geology: • Mineralogy - formation, chemical and physical properties, and

Pet-518 Elements of Geology Pet-518 Elements of Geology

• (1) Physical geology, • Earth materials

Interactions in Earth’s Earth’s Differentiation

Earth’s Interior Layers Forming the Earth-Moon System

Pet-518 Elements of Geology Pet-518 Elements of Geology

Pet-518 Elements of Geology Pet-518 Elements of Geology

• Most sedimentary rocks occur in the form of layers called

• A. Steno's Laws Named for Nicholaus Steno

Pet-518 Elements of Geology Pet-518 Elements of Geology

• Geologists interpret fossil

Pet-518 Elements of Geology Pet-518 Elements of Geology

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