Fluid Mechanical Interaction

FLAC3D
Fast Lagrangian Analysis of Continua in 3 Dimensions Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
2009 Itasca Consulting Group Inc. Mill Place 111 Third Avenue South, Suite 450 Minneapolis, Minnesota 55401 USA Phone: Fax: E-Mail: Web: (1) 612-371-4711 (1) 6123714717 software@itascacg.com www.itascacg.com
First Edition (FLAC 3D Version 2.1) April 2002 First Revision (FLAC 3D Version 2.1) June 2003 Second Edition (FLAC 3D Version 3.0) September 2005 First Revision December 2005* Third Edition (FLAC 3D Version 3.1) December 2006 Fourth Edition (FLAC 3D Version 4.0) December 2009
* Please see the errata page in the \Manuals\Flac3d400 folder.
Fluid-Mechanical Interaction
Contents - 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 FLUID-MECHANICAL INTERACTION SINGLE PHASE FLUID

1.1 1.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FLAC 3D Fluid-Thermal-Mechanical Formulation Mathematical Description . 1.2.1 Conventions and Denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.2 Governing Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.3 Fluid Flow Boundary and Initial Conditions in FLAC 3D . . . . . . . . . . . . . Numerical Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.2 Saturated Fluid Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.2.1 Finite-Difference Approximation to Space Derivatives . . . . . . . 1.3.2.2 Nodal Formulation of the Mass Balance Equation . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.2.3 Explicit Finite-Difference Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.2.4 Implicit Finite-Difference Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.3 Saturated/Unsaturated Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.4 Mechanical Timestep and Numerical Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.5 Total Stress Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Calculation Modes for Fluid-Mechanical Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4.1 Grid Not Congured for Fluid Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4.2 Grid Congured for Fluid Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Properties and Units for Fluid-Flow Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5.1 Permeability Coefcient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5.2 Mass Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5.3 Fluid Moduli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5.3.1 Biot Coefcient and Biot Modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5.3.2 Fluid Bulk Modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5.3.3 Fluid Moduli and Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5.3.4 Fluid Moduli for Drained and Undrained Analyses . . . . . . . . . . 1.5.4 Porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5.5 Saturation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5.6 Undrained Thermal Coefcient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5.7 Fluid Tension Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fluid-Flow Boundary Conditions, Initial Conditions, Sources and Sinks . . . . . . 1-1 1-4 1-4 1-6 1-9 1 - 10 1 - 10 1 - 11 1 - 11 1 - 12 1 - 15 1 - 17 1 - 20 1 - 22 1 - 23 1 - 24 1 - 24 1 - 24 1 - 29 1 - 29 1 - 30 1 - 30 1 - 30 1 - 31 1 - 32 1 - 32 1 - 33 1 - 33 1 - 33 1 - 34 1 - 35
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
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Solving Flow-Only and Coupled-Flow Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7.1 Time Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7.2 Selection of a Modeling Approach for a Fully Coupled Analysis . . . . . 1.7.2.1 Time Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7.2.2 Nature of Imposed Perturbation to the Coupled Process . . . . . . 1.7.2.3 Stiffness Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7.2.4 Recommended Procedure to Select a Modeling Approach . . . . 1.7.3 Fixed Pore Pressure (Used in Effective Stress Calculation) . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7.4 Flow-Only Calculation to Establish a Pore-Pressure Distribution . . . . . 1.7.5 No Flow Mechanical Generation of Pore Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7.6 Coupled Flow and Mechanical Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8 Verication Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8.1 Unsteady Groundwater Flow in a Conned Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8.2 One-Dimensional Filling of a Porous Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8.3 Steady-State Fluid Flow with a Free Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8.4 Spreading of a Groundwater Mound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8.5 One-Dimensional Consolidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8.6 Transient Fluid Flow to a Well in a Shallow Conned Aquifer . . . . . . . . 1.8.7 Pressuremeter Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9 Verication of Concepts, and Modeling Techniques for Specic Applications . 1.9.1 Solid Weight, Buoyancy and Seepage Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9.1.1 A Simple Example Illustrating Solid Weight, Buoyancy and Seepage Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9.2 Pore Pressure Initialization and Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9.3 Effect of the Biot Coefcient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9.3.1 Undrained Oedometer Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9.3.2 Pore Pressure Generation in a Conned Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9.3.3 Pore Pressure Generation in an Innite Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9.4 Semi-conned Aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.10 Input Instructions for Fluid-Flow Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.10.1 FLAC 3D Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.10.2 FISH Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7
1 - 37 1 - 37 1 - 41 1 - 41 1 - 42 1 - 42 1 - 44 1 - 47 1 - 47 1 - 48 1 - 50 1 - 59 1 - 59 1 - 67 1 - 72 1 - 84 1 - 92 1 - 108 1 - 120 1 - 134 1 - 134 1 - 135 1 - 147 1 - 153 1 - 155 1 - 156 1 - 158 1 - 160 1 - 164 1 - 164 1 - 174 1 - 175
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TABLES
Table 1.1 Table 1.2 Property specication methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 27 Recommended procedure to select a modeling approach for a fully coupled analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 45
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FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Figure 1.2 Figure 1.3 Figure 1.4 Figure 1.5 Figure 1.6 Figure 1.7 Figure 1.8 Figure 1.9 Figure 1.10 Figure 1.11 Figure 1.12 Figure 1.13 Figure 1.14 Figure 1.15 Figure 1.16 Figure 1.17 Figure 1.18 Figure 1.19 Figure 1.20 Figure 1.21 Figure 1.22 Figure 1.23 Figure 1.24 Figure 1.25 Figure 1.26 Figure 1.27 Figure 1.28 Figure 1.29 Figure 1.30 Figure 1.31 Denitions for principal directions of permeability tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instantaneous pore pressures generated under an applied load . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pore-pressure distribution at 5000 seconds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Consolidation response time histories of footing displacements . . . . . . . . . . Swelling displacements near a trench with impermeable surfaces . . . . . . . . . . History of pore pressure behind the trench face . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Displacement histories at the trench crest vertical (top) and horizontal (bottom) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conned ow in a soil layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FLAC 3D grid for uid ow in a conned soil layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison of excess pore pressures for the explicit-solution algorithm (analytical values = lines; numerical values = crosses) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison of excess pore pressures for the implicit-solution algorithm (analytical values = lines; numerical values = crosses) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Location of lling front ( x vs t ) no gravity (analytical solution = solid line; numerical values = dashed line) . . . . . . . Location of lling front ( x vs t ) with gravity (analytical solution = solid line; numerical values = dashed line) . . . . . . . Problem geometry and boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Seepage face solution after Polubarinova-Kochina (1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Steady-state ow vectors and seepage face solution Case 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Steady-state ow vectors and seepage face solution Case 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Steady-state ow vectors for ATTACHed grid Case 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Steady-state ow vectors for grid with INTERFACE Case 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FLAC 3D grid and initial state of saturated column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = 0.35 . . . . . . . . . . . . Saturation contours and analytical mound elevation at t = 0.45 . . . . . . . . . . . . Saturation contours and analytical mound elevation at t = 0.65 . . . . . . . . . . . . Saturation contours and analytical mound elevation at t = 0.85 . . . . . . . . . . . . Saturation contours and analytical mound elevation at t Head contours and analytical mound elevation at t = 0.85 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . One-dimensional consolidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FLAC 3D grid for one-dimensional consolidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison between analytical and numerical values of pore pressure in a one-dimensional consolidation test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison between analytical and numerical values for vertical displacement in a one-dimensional consolidation test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Evolution of pore pressure, total and effective stresses in a one-dimensional consolidation test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison between analytical pore-pressure solutions for two large values of M in a one-dimensional consolidation test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 26 1 - 50 1 - 54 1 - 54 1 - 57 1 - 57 1 - 58 1 - 59 1 - 60 1 - 63 1 - 66 1 - 71 1 - 72 1 - 73 1 - 74 1 - 79 1 - 79 1 - 81 1 - 83 1 - 85 1 - 90 1 - 90 1 - 91 1 - 91 1 - 92 1 - 93 1 - 95 1 - 98 1 - 99 1 - 99 1 - 102
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Figure 1.32 Figure 1.33 Figure 1.34 Figure 1.35 Figure 1.36 Figure 1.37 Figure 1.38 Figure 1.39 Figure 1.40 Figure 1.41 Figure 1.42 Figure 1.43
Figure 1.44 Figure 1.45 Figure 1.46 Figure 1.47 Figure 1.48 Figure 1.49 Figure 1.50 Figure 1.51 Figure 1.52 Figure 1.53 Figure 1.54 Figure 1.55 Figure 1.56 Figure 1.57
Comparison between analytical vertical displacement solutions for two large values of M in a one-dimensional consolidation test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison between analytical and numerical values of pore pressure in a one-dimensional consolidation test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison between analytical and numerical values for vertical displacement in a one-dimensional consolidation test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Evolution of pore pressure, total and effective stresses in a one-dimensional consolidation test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Flow to a well in a shallow conned aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FLAC 3D grid for a well in a shallow aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pore-pressure distribution at 4, 8, 16 and 32 seconds coupled solution (analytical values = lines; numerical values = symbols) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pore-pressure distribution at 4, 8, 16 and 32 seconds uncoupled solution (analytical values = lines; numerical values = symbols) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Radial, tangential and vertical stress distributions at 32 seconds coupled solution (analytical values = lines; numerical values = symbols) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Radial, tangential and vertical stress distributions at 32 seconds uncoupled solution (analytical values = lines; numerical values = symbols) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Radial displacement distribution at 32 seconds coupled solution (analytical values = line; numerical values = symbols) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Radial displacement distribution at 32 seconds uncoupled solution (analytical values = line; numerical values = symbols) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cylindrical cavity expansion in pressuremeter test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Domain of FLAC 3D simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FLAC 3D grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pore-pressure proles 300 seconds consolidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Proles of radial and tangential normal stresses 300 seconds consolidation Pore-pressure proles 600 seconds consolidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Proles of radial and tangential normal stresses 600 seconds consolidation Pore-pressure prole 600 seconds consolidation (Mohr-Coulomb material) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Proles of radial and tangential normal stresses 600 seconds consolidation (Mohr-Coulomb material) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vertical stress versus elevation dry layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vertical stress versus elevation saturated layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pore pressure contours at steady state saturated layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Heave of the layer at steady state saturated layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Heave of the layer at steady state seepage force from over-pressured aquifer
1 - 102 1 - 106 1 - 107 1 - 107 1 - 108 1 - 111 1 - 117 1 - 117 1 - 118 1 - 118 1 - 119 1 - 119 1 - 120 1 - 122 1 - 122 1 - 124 1 - 124 1 - 125 1 - 125 1 - 126 1 - 127 1 - 136 1 - 137 1 - 138 1 - 139 1 - 140
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Figure 1.58 Figure 1.59 Figure 1.60 Figure 1.61 Figure 1.62
Settlement of the layer at steady state seepage force from under-pressured aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Heave of a soil layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Decomposition of stresses acting on a porous, elastic rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shallow semi-conned aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pore pressure prole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 - 142 1 - 149 1 - 153 1 - 160 1 - 162
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EXAMPLES
Example 1.1 Example 1.2 Example 1.3 Example 1.4 Example 1.5 Example 1.6 Example 1.7 Example 1.8 Example 1.9 Example 1.10 Example 1.11 Example 1.12 Example 1.13 Example 1.14 Example 1.15 Example 1.16 Example 1.17 Example 1.18 Example 1.19 Example 1.20 Example 1.21 Example 1.22 Example 1.23 Example 1.24 Example 1.25 Example 1.26 Example 1.27 Adding load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A coupled uid ow-mechanical analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maintaining equilibrium under time-dependent swelling conditions . . . . . . Unsteady groundwater ow in a conned layer explicit solution . . . . . . . . Unsteady groundwater ow in a conned layer implicit solution . . . . . . . 1D lling of a porous region no gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1D lling of a porous region with gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Steady-state ow through a vertical embankment Case 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Steady-state ow through a vertical embankment Case 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Steady-state ow through a vertical embankment Case 1 with ATTACHed grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Steady-state ow through a vertical embankment Case 1 with INTERFACE Spreading of a groundwater mound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spreading of a groundwater mound saturation and head plots . . . . . . . . . . One-dimensional consolidation (coupled) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . One-dimensional consolidation (analytical solution) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . One-dimensional consolidation (uncoupled) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transient uid ow to a well in a shallow aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Exponential integral function EXP-INT.FIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pressuremeter test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Generate tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Solid weight, buoyancy and seepage forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Heave of a soil layer, without cong uid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Heave of a soil layer, with cong uid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Undrained oedometer test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pore pressure generation in a conned sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pore pressure generation in an innite layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shallow conned aquifer with leaky boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 49 1 - 52 1 - 55 1 - 61 1 - 64 1 - 68 1 - 69 1 - 75 1 - 77 1 - 80 1 - 82 1 - 85 1 - 86 1 - 96 1 - 100 1 - 103 1 - 113 1 - 116 1 - 127 1 - 132 1 - 142 1 - 149 1 - 151 1 - 155 1 - 157 1 - 159 1 - 162
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FLAC 3D Version 4.0
FLUID-MECHANICAL INTERACTION SINGLE PHASE FLUID
1-1
1 FLUID-MECHANICAL INTERACTION SINGLE PHASE FLUID

1.1 Introduction FLAC 3D models the ow of uid through a permeable solid, such as soil. The ow modeling may be done by itself, independent of the usual mechanical calculation of FLAC 3D, or it may be done in parallel with the mechanical modeling, in order to capture the effects of uid/solid interaction. One type of uid/solid interaction is consolidation, in which the slow dissipation of pore pressure causes displacements to occur in the soil. This type of behavior involves two mechanical effects. First, changes in pore pressure cause changes in effective stress, which affect the response of the solid (for example, a reduction in effective stress may induce plastic yield). Second, the uid in a zone reacts to mechanical volume changes by a change in pore pressure. The code handles both fully saturated ow and ow in which a phreatic surface develops. In this case, pore pressures are zero above the phreatic surface and the air phase is considered as passive. The logic is applicable to coarse materials when capillary effects can be neglected. The following characteristics are provided with the uid-ow capability: 1. Two uid-transport laws corresponding to isotropic and anisotropic permeability are available. The uid-ow null model is also provided to specify impermeable materials in the ow domain. 2. Different zones may have different uid-ow models (isotropic, anisotropic or null) and properties. 3. Fluid pressure, ux, and leaky and impermeable boundary conditions may be prescribed. 4. Fluid sources (wells) may be inserted into the material as either point sources or volume sources. These sources correspond to either a prescribed inow or outow of uid, and vary with time. 5. Both explicit and implicit uid-ow solution algorithms are available for fully saturated simulations. An explicit method of solution is used for saturated/unsaturated ow. 6. Any of the mechanical and thermal models may be used with the uid-ow models. In coupled problems, the compressibility and thermal expansion of the saturated material are allowed. 7. Coupling between uid and mechanical calculations due to deformable grains is provided through the Biot coefcient, . 8. Coupling to the thermal conduction calculation is provided through the linear thermal expansion coefcient, t , and the undrained thermal coefcient, .
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9. The thermal-conduction uid-ow logic is based on a linear theory that assumes constant material properties and neglects convection. Fluid and solid temperatures are locally equilibrated. Nonlinear behavior can be specied by access to pore pressures and material properties via FISH. Thermal coupling to the conduction logic is addressed in Section 1.2. 10. An advection model to take the transport of heat by convection into account is also provided. This includes temperature-dependent uid density and thermal advection by the uid. See Section 1.2.3 in Thermal Analysis for a description of this thermal-uid coupling. Dynamic pore-pressure generation and liquefaction due to cyclic loading can also be modeled with FLAC 3D (Section 1.4.4 in Dynamic Analysis contains the documentation on this topic). FLAC 3D does not represent capillary, electrical or chemical forces between particles of a partially saturated material. However, it is possible to introduce such forces by writing a FISH function that supplies the appropriate internal stresses, based on the local saturation, porosity and/or any other relevant variable. Similarly, the effect of variable uid stiffness due to dissolved air is not explicitly modeled, but a FISH function may be used to vary the local uid modulus as a function of pressure, time or any other quantity. This section is divided into eight major parts: 1. The mathematical model description and the corresponding numerical formulation for uid ow and coupled uid ow-mechanical and uid-ow thermal-conduction processes are described in Sections 1.2 and 1.3. 2. The calculation modes and associated commands for analyses involving uid ow are described in Section 1.4. 3. Section 1.5 discusses the material properties required for a uid-ow analysis, and includes the appropriate units for these properties. 4. Section 1.6 talks about initial conditions and provides a description of the different boundary conditions and uid sources and sinks that can be applied in a FLAC 3D model. 5. The recommended procedures for solving both ow-only and coupled-ow problems are outlined in Section 1.7. This section also contains several examples that illustrate the application of these procedures. We recommend that you work through these examples before attempting your own uid analysis. 6. Section 1.8 presents several verication problems that demonstrate the accuracy of the uid-ow logic in FLAC 3D. 7. Modeling techniques for specic uid applications are described in Section 1.9. Several topics are covered: modeling solid weight, buoyancy forces and seepage forces in a coupled analysis (Section 1.9.1); relation between initialization of pore pressures and deformation in a coupled analysis (Section 1.9.2); effect of the Biot coefcient (Section 1.9.3); and modeling a semi-conned aquifer (Section 1.9.4). 8. Finally, a summary of all the commands related to uid ow is given in Section 1.10.
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The user is strongly encouraged to become familiar with the operation of FLAC 3D for simple mechanical problems before attempting to solve problems in which ow and mechanical effects are both important. Coupled ow and mechanical behavior are often very complicated and require a good deal of insight to interpret correctly. Before starting a big project, it is very important to spend time experimenting with a small-grid version of the proposed simulation, to try out various boundary conditions and modeling strategies. The time wasted on these experiments will be amply repaid in terms of an overall reduction in staff time, and execution time.
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1.2 FLAC 3D Fluid-Thermal-Mechanical Formulation Mathematical Description In this section, we consider uid-mechanical coupling to the heat-conduction logic (see Section 1.2.3 in Thermal Analysis for uid-thermal coupling via the convection logic). Most engineering analyses involving simultaneous deformation and uid/thermal diffusion mechanisms are carried out using uncoupling techniques (e.g., Section 1.7). In addition to those calculation modes, FLAC 3D provides for the option of coupled uid-thermal-mechanical analysis (i.e., in which the mechanical response of a porous material can be studied under transient uid ow and/or thermal conditions). Although this section is mainly concerned with the modeling of deformation-uid diffusion problems, the general equations governing the uid-thermal-mechanical response in FLAC 3D are presented here for completeness. The formulation of coupled deformation-diffusion processes in FLAC 3D is done within the framework of the quasi-static Biot theory, and can be applied to problems involving single-phase Darcy ow in a porous medium. Various types of uids, including water and oil, can be represented with this model. The variables involved in the description of uid ow through porous media are pore pressure, saturation and the three components of the specic discharge vector. These variables are related through the uid mass-balance equation, Darcys law for uid transport, a constitutive equation specifying the uid response to changes in pore pressure, saturation, volumetric strains and temperature, and an equation of state relating pore pressure to saturation in the unsaturated range. Pore pressure and temperature inuences are involved in the mechanical constitutive laws to complete the thermal uid-ow mechanical coupling. Assuming the volumetric strain and temperature rates are known, substitution of the mass balance equation into the uid constitutive relation, using Darcys law, yields a differential equation in terms of pore pressure and saturation that may be solved for particular geometries, properties, boundary and initial conditions. 1.2.1 Conventions and Denitions As a notation convention, the symbol ai denotes component i of the vector {a } in a Cartesian system of reference axes; Aij is component (i, j ) of tensor [A]. Also, f,i is used to represent the partial derivative of f with respect to xi . (The symbol f denotes either a scalar variable or a vector component.) The Einstein summation convention applies only on indices i , j and k , which take the values 1, 2, 3 for components that involve spatial dimensions. The indices may take any values when used in matrix equations. SI units are used to illustrate parameters and dimensions of variables. See Section 2.9 in the Users Guide for conversions to other systems of units. The following reference quantities are useful in the characterization of transient uid ow.
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Characteristic length: Lc = Fluid diffusivity: c= k 1/M + 2 /1 (1.2) volume of f low domain surf ace area of f low domain (1.1)
where k is mobility coefcient (FLAC 3D permeability), M is the Biot modulus, is the Biot coefcient, 1 = K + 4/3G, K is the drained bulk modulus, and G is the shear modulus of the porous material. The Biot coefcient takes into account the grain compressibility for the porous material. If is equal to unity, the grains are considered to be incompressible and the Biot modulus M is equal to Kf /n, where Kf is uid bulk modulus and n is porosity. The uid diffusivity becomes c= k n/Kf + 1/1 (1.3)
Note that for ow-only calculations (rigid material), the uid diffusivity is c = kM See Section 1.5 for additional discussion on the relations between these properties. Characteristic time: L2 tc = c c (1.4)
(1.5)
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1.2.2 Governing Differential Equations The differential equations describing the uid-thermal-mechanical response of a porous material, for heat transported by conduction in the material domain, are the following: Transport Law The uid transport is described by Darcys law: p f xj gj qi = kil k(s) (1.6)
,l
where qi is the specic discharge vector, p is uid pore pressure, k is the tensor of absolute mobility is the relative mobility coefcient coefcients (FLAC 3D permeability tensor) of the medium, k(s) which is a function of uid saturation s , f is the uid density, and gi , i = 1,3 are the three components of the gravity vector. For future reference, the quantity = (p f xj gj )/(f g) (where g is the modulus of the gravity vector) is dened as the head, and f g as the pressure head. Heat ow by conduction is described by Fouriers law of heat transport:
T T,j qiT = kij
(1.7)
where qiT is the heat ux vector, T is temperature and k T is the thermal conductivity tensor. Note that temperature, ux, convective and adiabatic boundary conditions are considered in the FLAC 3D formulation. Balance Laws For small deformations, the uid mass balance may be expressed as qi,i + qv = t (1.8)
where qv is the volumetric uid source intensity in [1/sec], and is the variation of uid content or variation of uid volume per unit volume of porous material due to diffusive uid mass transport, as introduced by Biot (1956). The thermal energy balance is expressed as
T T + qv = qi,i
T t
(1.9)
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T is the volumetric heat source where T is the heat stored per unit volume of porous material, and qv intensity.
The balance of momentum has the form ij,j + gi = dvi dt (1.10)
where = d + nsw is the bulk density, and d and w are the densities of the dry matrix and the uid, respectively, n is porosity, and s is saturation. Constitutive Laws Changes in the variation of uid content are related to changes in pore pressure, p, saturation, s , mechanical volumetric strains, , and temperature, T . The response equation for the pore uid is formulated as 1 T 1 p n s + = + M t s t s t t t (1.11)
where M is Biot modulus [N/m2 ], n is the porosity, is Biot coefcient and is the undrained thermal coefcient [1/ C], which takes into account the uid and grain thermal expansions. In the FLAC 3D formulation, the inuence of capillary pressure is neglected and the uid pressure is taken as zero when saturation is less than one. The relative uid mobility is related to saturation by a cubic law which is zero for zero saturation, and one for full saturation: k(s) = s 2 (3 2s) (1.12)
Fluid ow in the unsaturated zone is thus solely driven by gravity. While the inuence of gravity is not required to saturate an initially dry medium, gravity drives the process of desaturation. In this , goes to case, some level of residual saturation is present because the apparent permeability, k k(s) zero as the saturation approaches zero. The thermal constitutive law is expressed as 1 T T = M T t t
(1.13)
where M T = 1/(Cv ), is the mass density of the medium, and Cv is the specic heat at constant volume. Note that for nearly all solids and liquids, the specic heats at constant pressure and constant volume are essentially equal. Consequently, Cv and C can be used interchangeably.
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The constitutive response for the porous solid has the form (see notation conventions of Section 1 in Theory and Background) ij + p T ij = H (ij , ij ij , ) t (1.14)
where the quantity on the left-hand side of the equation is Biot effective stress, ij is the corotational stress rate, H is the functional form of the constitutive law, is a history parameter, ij is the Kronecker delta, and ij is the strain rate. The thermal strain rates are expressed as (see Section 1.2.2.4 in Thermal Analysis)
T = t ij
T ij t
(1.15)
where t is the coefcient of linear thermal expansion. In particular, the elastic relations which relate effective stresses to strains are (small strain)
o + (P P o )ij = 2G( ij ij
ij
ij
T ij ) + (K
2 G)( 3
kk
T kk )
(1.16)
where the superscript o refers to the initial state, shear moduli of the drained elastic solid. Biot and Terzaghi Effective Stress
is the strain, and K and G are the bulk and
The expression for Biot effective stress, ij + pij , may be derived from compliance principles (see Section 1.9.3); as such, it characterizes the deformability of the solid. On the other hand, Terzaghi effective stress, ij + pij , measures the stress level sustained by the solid matrix; it is still being used to detect failure in a plastic material (or potential failure in an elastic solid). Compatibility Equations The relation between strain rate and velocity gradient is ij = 1 vi,j + vj,i 2 (1.17)
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1.2.3 Fluid Flow Boundary and Initial Conditions in FLAC 3D Initial conditions correspond to known pressure and saturation. Those two values must be consistent with the FLAC 3D formulation: pore pressure must be zero if saturation is less than one, and viceversa. (By default, in FLAC 3D, initial pore pressure is zero and saturation is one.) Four types of boundary conditions are considered, corresponding to: (1) given pore pressure; (2) given component of the specic discharge normal to the boundary; (3) leaky boundaries; and (4) impermeable boundaries. In FLAC 3D, boundaries are impermeable by default. A leaky boundary condition has the form qn = h(p pe ) (1.18)
where qn is the component of the specic discharge normal to the boundary in the direction of the exterior normal, h is the leakage coefcient in [m3 /N-sec], p is the pore pressure at the boundary surface, and pe is the pore pressure in the region to or from which leakage is assumed to occur. Additional combined boundary conditions, such as uniform pressure for given total inux over a boundary segment, can be imposed using FISH. Note that saturation cannot be imposed as a boundary condition (this is different from FLAC). Also, to keep the model fully saturated, the uid tension may be set to a large negative number.
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1.3 Numerical Formulation 1.3.1 Introduction Substitution of the uid mass balance Eq. (1.8) in the constitutive equation for the pore uid Eq. (1.11) yields the expression for the uid continuity equation: 1 T 1 p n s + = (qi,i + qv ) + M t s t s t t (1.19)
In the FLAC 3D numerical approach, the ow domain is discretized into brick-shaped zones dened by eight nodes. (The same discretization is used for mechanical and thermal calculations, when applicable.) Both pore pressure and saturation are assumed to be nodal variables. Internally, each zone is subdivided into tetrahedra (2 overlays are used by default), in which the pore pressure and the saturation are assumed to vary linearly. The numerical scheme relies on a nite difference nodal formulation of the uid continuity equation. The formulation can be paralleled to the mechanical constant stress formulation (presented in Section 1.1.2.2 in Theory and Background) that leads to the nodal form of Newtons law. It is obtained by substituting the pore pressure, specic discharge vector and pore-pressure gradient for velocity vector, stress tensor and strain-rate tensors, respectively. The resulting system of ordinary differential equations is solved using an explicit mode of discretization in time (default mode). An implicit uid ow calculation scheme is also available. However, it is only applicable to saturated ow simulations (ow in which the unit saturation is not allowed to change). The principal results are summarized below. The formulation, as it applies to saturated ow, is described rst in Section 1.3.2. This formulation is then extended to apply to saturated/unsaturated ow simulations in Section 1.3.3. For now we note that the saturated/unsaturated algorithm is based on variable substitution and upstream weighting techniques and conserves uid ow. Starting from a state of mechanical equilibrium, a coupled hydromechanical static simulation in FLAC 3D involves a series of steps. Each step includes one or more ow steps (ow loop) followed by enough mechanical steps (mechanical loop) to maintain quasi-static equilibrium. The increment of pore pressure due to uid ow is evaluated in the ow loop; the contribution from volumetric strain is evaluated in the mechanical loop as a zone value which is then distributed to the nodes. For the effective stress calculation, the total stress increment due to pore-pressure change arising from mechanical volume strain is evaluated in the mechanical loop, and that arising from uid ow is evaluated in the ow loop. Note that in FLAC 3D, all material models are expressed in terms of Terzaghi effective stresses (i.e., effective stresses are used to detect failure in plastic materials). In this context, the porepressure eld may originate from different sources: a uid ow analysis; a coupled uid/mechanical simulation; or an initialization with the INI pp or WATER table command.
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1.3.2 Saturated Fluid Flow In this section, as a rst step towards the derivation of the more general FLAC 3D uid ow algorithm, we consider ow in a medium which remains fully saturated at all times. 1.3.2.1 Finite-Difference Approximation to Space Derivatives By convention, the tetrahedron nodes are referred to locally by a number from 1 to 4, face n is opposite node n, and the superscript (f ) relates to the value of the associated variable on face f . A linear pore-pressure variation and constant uid density are assumed within a tetrahedron. The pressure head gradient, expressed in terms of nodal values of the pore pressure by application of the Gauss divergence theorem, may be written as 1 3V
4
(p f xi gi ),j =
(pl f xil gi ) nj S (l)

l =1
(l)
(1.20)
where n(l) is the exterior unit vector normal to face l , S is the face surface area, and V is the tetrahedron volume. For numerical accuracy, the quantity xi xi1 , where xi1 corresponds to the coordinates of one of the tetrahedrons corners, may be substituted for xi in the expression of the pressure head in Eq. (1.20) without affecting the value of the pressure head gradient. Accordingly, Eq. (1.20) takes the form 1 (p f xi gi ),j = 3V where the nodal quantity p l is dened as p l = pl f (xil xi1 )gi (1.22)
4 l =1
pl nj S (l)
(l)
(1.21)
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1.3.2.2 Nodal Formulation of the Mass Balance Equation For fully saturated ow (s is constant and equal to one), the uid continuity Eq. (1.19) may be expressed as qi,i + b = 0 where b = S p qv M t (1.24) (1.23)
is the equivalent of the instantaneous body forces, bi , used in the mechanical node formulation, and
= qv qv
T + t t
(1.25)
3 First consider a single tetrahedron. Using this analogy, the nodal discharge, Qn e [m /s], n = 1,4, equivalent to the tetrahedron-specic discharge and the volumetric source intensity, b , may be expressed as (see Section 1.1.2.2 in Theory and Background) V dp n qv + mn 4 dt
n Qn e = Qt
(1.26)
where qi ni S (n) = 3
(n)
Qn t and
(1.27)
mn =
V 4M n
(1.28)
In principle, the nodal form of the mass balance equation is established by requiring that, at each global node, the sum of equivalent nodal discharges (Qn e ) from tetrahedra meeting at the node (averaged over two overlays) and nodal contribution (Qn ) w of applied boundary uxes and sources be zero.
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The components of the tetrahedron-specic discharge vector in Eq. (1.27) are related to the pressurehead gradient by means of the transport law (see Eq. (1.6)). In turn, the components of the pressurehead gradient can be expressed in terms of the tetrahedron nodal pore pressures, using Eq. (1.21). In order to save computer time, local matrices are assembled. A zone formulation is adopted whereby the sum Qn z of contributions Eq. (1.27) from all tetrahedra belonging to the zone and meeting at a node, n, is formed and averaged over two overlays. Local zone matrices [M ] that relate the eight nodal values {Qz } to the eight nodal pressure heads {p } are assembled. Because these matrices are symmetrical, 36 components are computed; these are saved at the beginning of the computation and updated every ten steps in large-strain mode. By denition of zone matrices, we have
j Qn z = Mnj p
(1.29)
where {p } is the local vector of nodal pressure heads for the zone. In turn, global nodal values Qn T are obtained by superposition of zone contributions. Taking some liberty with the notation, we write for each global node n,
j Qn T = Cnj p
(1.30)
where [C ] is the global matrix and {p } is, in this context, the global vector of nodal pressure heads. Returning to our previous consideration, we write Qn e + Qn w =0 (1.31)
where, for simplicity of notation, the sign is used to represent summation of the contributions at global node n of all zones meeting at that node. (A zone contribution consists of contributions of tetrahedra involved in the zone, averaged over two overlays.) Using Eq. (1.26) for Qn e and Eq. (1.25) in Eq. (1.31), we obtain, after some manipulation, for qv dpn = dt 1 Qn T + n m Qn app + Qn thm (1.32)
where Qn T is a function of the nodal pore pressures dened in Eq. (1.30) together with Eq. (1.22), n Qapp is the known contribution of applied volume sources, boundary uxes and point sources, having the form Qn app = V qv + Qw 4
n
(1.33)
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and
Qn thm is the thermal-mechanical nodal discharge contribution dened as Qn thm d = dt V 4

n
V T 4
(1.34)
Eq. (1.32) is the nodal form of the mass-balance equation at node n; the right-hand side term Qn Qn Qn app + T + thm is referred to as the out-of-balance discharge. This term is made up of two contributions: the out-of-balance ow discharge, Qn Qn app ; and the out-of-balance T + n thermal-mechanical discharge, Qthm . When the uid is at rest (the uid-ow calculation is turned off), the out-of-balance ow discharge vanishes and pore-pressure changes are caused by mechanical and/or thermal deformations only. For ow calculation only (no thermal-mechanical coupling), the out-of-balance thermal-mechanical discharge is equal to zero. In FLAC 3D, the Biot modulus is a nodal property, and we may write, using Eq. (1.28), Mn 1 = mn Vn where Vn = V 4
n
(1.35)
(1.36)
After substitution of Eq. (1.34) in Eq. (1.32), we write, rearranging terms, Mn d n pn pv = n Qn T + dt V where
n pv
Qn app
(1.37)
Mn = n V
V 4
V T 4
(1.38)
An expression such as Eq. (1.37) holds at each global node involved in the discretization. Together, these expressions form a system of ordinary differential equations that is solved in FLAC 3D, for n /dt , using either explicit or implicit (saturated ow only) nite-difference schemes. The given dpv domain of application of each scheme is discussed below.
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1.3.2.3 Explicit Finite-Difference Formulation In the explicit formulation, the value of the quantity p pv at a node is assumed to vary linearly over a time interval t . In principle, the derivative in the left-hand side of Eq. (1.37) is expressed using forward nite differences, and the out-of-balance ow-discharge is evaluated at time t . Starting with an initial pore-pressure eld, nodal pore pressures at incremental time values are updated, provided the pore pressure is not xed, using the expression
n p<t + n n n = p<t> + pv<t> + p<t>
t>
(1.39)
where
n = n Qn p<t> T <t> +
Qn app<t>
(1.40)
Mn = n t V
n
(1.41)
and
n pv<t> =
Mn Vn
V 4
V 4
(1.42)
<t>
Numerical stability of the explicit scheme can only be achieved if the timestep remains below a limiting value. Stability Criterion To derive the stability criterion for the ow calculation, we consider the situation in which a node, n, in an assembly of zones is given a pore-pressure perturbation, p0 , from a zero initial state. Using Eq. (1.30), we obtain Qn T = Cnn p0 If node n belongs to a leaky boundary, we have Qn app = Dnn p0 (1.44) (1.43)
where Dnn is used to represent the pressure coefcient in the global leakage term at node n.
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After one uid-ow timestep, the new pore pressure at node n is (see Eqs. (1.39) through (1.50))
n p<
t>
= p0 1
Mn (Cnn + Dnn ) t Vn
(1.45)
To prevent alternating signs of pore pressures as the computation is repeated for successive t , the coefcient of p0 in the preceding relation must be positive. Such a requirement implies that 1 Vn t< n M Cnn + Dnn (1.46)
The value of the poro-mechanical timestep used in FLAC 3D is the minimum nodal value of the right-hand side in Eq. (1.46), multiplied by the safety factor of 0.8. To assess the inuence of the parameters involved, it is useful to keep in mind the following representation of the critical timestep. If Lc is the smallest tetrahedron characteristic length, we may write an expression of the form 1 c hM = + 2 a Lc Lc
1
tcr
(1.47)
where tcr is the critical timestep, c is the uid diffusivity, and a is a constant, larger than unity, that depends on the medium geometrical discretization (e.g., a = 6 for a regular discretization in cubes; see Karlekar and Desmond (1982) for a thermal analogy). The critical timestep in Eq. (1.47) corresponds to a measure of the characteristic time needed for the diffusion front to propagate throughout the tetrahedron. To estimate the time needed for the front to propagate throughout a particular domain, a similar expression can be used, provided Lc is interpreted as the characteristic length of the domain under consideration. Consider the case where no leakage occurs and the properties are homogeneous. By taking the ratio of characteristic times for the domain and the tetrahedron, we see that the number of steps needed to model the propagation of the diffusion process throughout that domain is proportional to the ratio of square characteristic lengths for the domain and the tetrahedron. That number may be so large that the use of the explicit method alone could become prohibitive. However, in many groundwater problems, the advantage of this rst-order method is that the calculated timestep is usually small enough to follow nodal pore-pressure uctuations accurately.
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1.3.2.4 Implicit Finite-Difference Formulation The requirement that t should be restricted in size to ensure stability sometimes results in an extremely small timestep (of the order of a fraction of a second) especially when transient ow in layers of contrasting properties is involved. The implicit formulation eliminates this restriction, but it involves solving simultaneous equations at each timestep and, besides, it only applies to saturated uid ow simulations. The implicit formulation in FLAC 3D uses the Crank-Nicolson method, in which the pore pressure p pv at a node is assumed to vary quadratically over the time interval t . In this method, the derivative d(p pv )/dt in Eq. (1.37) is expressed using a central difference formulation corresponding to a half timestep, while the out-of-balance ow discharge is evaluated by taking average values at t and t + t . In this formulation we have
n p<t + t> n n n = p<t> + pv<t> + p<t>
(1.48)
and
n = n p<t>
1 Qn T <t + 2
t>
+ Qn T <t> +
Qn app
(1.49)
where n =
n pv<t> is given by Eq. (1.42), and
Mn t Vn
(1.50)
Qn app = From Eq. (1.30), we may write
1 2
Qn app<t +
t>
Qn app<t>
(1.51)
Qn T <t> = Cnj p<t> and Qn T <t + = Cnj p<t +

j
(1.52)
t>
t>
(1.53)
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For no variation of the gravity term during the time interval Eq. (1.22).
n p<t +
t , Eq. (1.48) can be written using
t>
n n n = p<t> + pv<t> + p<t>
(1.54)
Using this last expression and Eq. (1.52), Eq. (1.53) becomes Qn T <t + = Qn T <t> + Cnj p<t> + Cnj pv<t>
j j
t>
(1.55)
After substitution of Eq. (1.55) into Eq. (1.49), we obtain, using Eq. (1.52),
n = n Cnj (p<t> + p<t> j
1 j 1 j pv<t> ) + Cnj p<t> + 2 2
Qn app
(1.56)
Finally, regrouping terms: nj n Cnj 2 p<t> = n Cnj (p<t> +

j j
1 j p )+ 2 v<t>
Qn app
(1.57)
For simplicity of notation, we dene the known matrix [A] and vector [b<t> ] as Anj = nj and bn<t> = n Cnj (p< t >j + 1 j )+ p 2 v<t> Qn app n Cnj 2 (1.58)
(1.59)
With this convention, we may write Eq. (1.57) in the form Anj p<t> = bn<t>
j
(1.60)
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One equation holds for each of the nodes involved in the grid, and the resulting system is solved in FLAC 3D using Jacobis iterative method. In this approach, pore-pressure increments at iteration r + 1 and node n are calculated using the recurrence relation
n<r +1> n<r> = p<t> + p<t>
1 j <r> Anj p<t> + bn<t> Ann
(1.61)
where Einsteins summation convention applies to index j only. Using the Eq. (1.58) of [A], Eq. (1.61) takes the form
n<r +1> n<r> p<t> = p<t> +
1 1
n 2
Cnn
n j <r> n<r> + bn<t> Cnj p<t> p<t> 2
(1.62)
The initial approximation is chosen such that

n<0> p<t> =0
(1.63)
(Note that, in FLAC 3D, pressure-dependent boundary conditions (contained in bn ) are updated in the implicit iterative procedure.) Convergence Criterion In FLAC 3D, a minimum of 3 and a maximum of 500 iterations are considered, and the criterion for detection of convergence has the form max
n n<r +1> n<r> p<t> p<t>
< 102
max
n
n<r> p<t>
(1.64)
The magnitude of the timestep must be selected in relation to both convergence and accuracy of the implicit scheme. Although the Crank-Nicolson method is stable for all positive values of t (for no leakage), the convergence of Jacobis method is not unconditionally guaranteed unless the matrix [A] is strictly diagonally dominant:
n
Akj
j =1 j =k
<
Akk
(1.65)
for 1 k n (see Dahlquist and Bjorck 1974). According to the denitions of Anj (Eq. (1.58)) and n (Eq. (1.50)), this sufcient condition is always fullled for sufciently small values of t . If convergence of Jacobis method is not achieved, an error message is issued. It is then necessary
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to either reduce the magnitude of the implicit timestep, or use the explicit method. (The explicit timestep may be used as a lower bound.) Also, although the implicit method is second-order accurate, some insight may be needed in order to select the appropriate timestep. Indeed, its value must remain small compared to the wavelength of any nodal pore-pressure uctuation. Typically, the explicit method is used earlier in the run or in its perturbed stages, while the implicit method is preferred for the remainder of the simulation. (Alternatively, the implicit method could be used with the explicit timestep value for extra accuracy.) It must be remembered that the implicit approach should not be selected for simulations in which changes of saturation are to be expected. In addition, computation time and computer memory are two factors that must be taken into consideration when selecting the implicit approach in FLAC 3D. In the implicit method, a set of equations requiring a minimum of three iterations must be solved at each timestep. The amount of calculation required for one iterative step is approximately equal to that needed for one timestep in the explicit scheme. Also, intermediate values must be stored in the iterative procedure, requiring extra memory to be allocated in comparison with the explicit scheme. Those inconveniences, however, can be more than offset by the much larger timestep generally permitted by the implicit method, or by the gain in accuracy. 1.3.3 Saturated/Unsaturated Flow For saturated uid ow, the nodal volumetric ow rates in a zone {Qz } are related to the nodal pore pressures {p} by Eq. (1.29), which may be expressed in matrix notation as {Qz } = [M ]{p f xi gi } (1.66)
where the matrix [M ] is a known function of the zone geometry and the saturated value of the mobility coefcient. This relation was derived by application of the Gauss divergence theorem for pore-pressure gradient in the tetrahedron, taking into account energy considerations, and using superposition. It is extended to the case of unsaturated ow in coarse soils (constant air pressure, no capillary pressure) by application of the following modications: (a) The gravity term f xi gi is multiplied by the average zone saturation, s , to account for partial zone lling. (see Eq. (1.6)), which is (b) The nodal ow rates are multiplied by the relative mobility, k a function of the average saturation at the inow nodes for the zone, s in . This upstream weighting technique is applied to prevent unaccounted ow in the lling process of an initially dry medium (numerical dispersion caused by the nodal denition of saturation). The relative permeability function has the same form as Eq. (1.12):
2 s k( in ) = s in (3 2s in )
(1.67)
(c) Nodal inow rates are scaled according to local saturation.
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For saturated/unsaturated ow, the explicit nite difference nodal formulation of the uid continuity Eq. (1.19) takes the form (see Eqs. (1.39) to (1.42))
s 1 p + = nM s snV
QT +
Qapp
t +s
VT 4
VT 4
(1.68)
where the subscript < t > and superscript n have been omitted for simplicity of notation, and VT stands for tetrahedron volume. At a saturated node, s = 1 and Eq. (1.68) becomes p= M V QT + t+ VT 4 VT 4
Qapp
(1.69)
At a partially saturated node, p = 0 and Eq. (1.68) may be expressed as s= 1 nV QT + t +s VT 4 VT 4
Qapp
(1.70)
The approach leads to a technique of variable substitution whereby the saturation variable is updated using Eq. (1.70) at an unsaturated node (where the pore pressure is equal to zero), and Eq. (1.69) is used to increment the pore-pressure variable at a saturated node (where saturation is constant). Those relations are applied in such a way that the uid volume balance is preserved (i.e., Eq. (1.68) is satised). The explicit uid timestep in FLAC 3D is selected on the basis of a stability criterion derived using the saturated uid diffusivity c = kM (k is the largest principal value of saturated mobility coefcient tensor, M is Biot modulus). (See Eqs. (1.46) and (1.47).) The time scale associated with uid storage is usually much smaller than the characteristic time scale for phreatic storage. While an estimate of the rst one (two-dimensional ow) can be calculated using t L2 /c, where L is to be interpreted as average ow path length, a rough estimate of the second may be obtained from the relation t L2 /(k p/n) , where L is the average height of the medium associated with phreatic storage, and p is the related mean pore-pressure change.
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1.3.4 Mechanical Timestep and Numerical Stability The presence of the uid will increase the apparent mechanical bulk modulus of the medium which, in turn, affects the magnitude of the nodal mass in the density scaling scheme used for numerical stability in FLAC 3D. An upper bound for this apparent modulus may be found by considering s T undrained, saturated isothermal poro-mechanical conditions for which t = 0, t = 0 and t = 0. The incremental expression of the uid constitutive law Eq. (1.11) then takes the form p = M (1.71)
Adopting the incremental form of the elastic law Eq. (1.16) to describe the volumetric part of the stress-strain constitutive relation in a time interval, we can write 1 ii + p = K 3 Substitution of Eq. (1.71) in Eq. (1.72) gives 1 ii = (K + 2 M) 3 (1.73) (1.72)
This apparent tangent bulk modulus, K + 2 M , is used in place of K when calculating nodal inertial mass (see Eq. (1.64) in Theory and Background). Also note that in FLAC 3D, the dry density, d , of the medium is considered in the input. The saturated density, = d + nsf , is calculated internally using the input value for uid density, f , porosity, n, and saturation, s . Body forces are then adjusted accordingly in Newtons equations of motion.
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1.3.5 Total Stress Correction In the FLAC 3D formulation, nodal pore pressures are calculated rst. The zone pore pressures are then derived by volume averaging of the tetrahedra values (obtained as arithmetic averages of nodal values). The total stresses are then adjusted, consistent with the denition of Biot effective stress, by adding an increment ij to account for the contribution from pore pressure changes (see Eq. (1.14)). The stress increment ij is expressed as ij = where
n ij = p<t> ij f
ij +
th ij
(1.74)
(1.75)
is the contribution from ow, and

th ij = M(
T )<t> ij
(1.76)
is the contribution from thermal-mechanical coupling. Also, in those expressions, the overline symbol stands for zone average in the sense mentioned above.
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1.4 Calculation Modes for Fluid-Mechanical Interaction The calculation mode and commands required for a pore-pressure analysis depend on whether the grid has been congured for uid ow (i.e., whether the CONFIG uid command has been specied). Sections 1.4.1 and 1.4.2 reect the two possibilities. For convenience, all commands described below are summarized in Section 1.10, at the end of this section. 1.4.1 Grid Not Congured for Fluid Flow If the command CONFIG uid has not been given, then a uid-ow analysis cannot be performed, but it is still possible to assign pore pressure at gridpoints. In this calculation mode, pore pressures do not change, but failure, which is controlled by the effective-stress state, may be induced when plastic constitutive models are used. A pore-pressure distribution can be specied at gridpoints, with the INITIAL pp command with a gradient, or with the WATER table command. If the WATER table command is used, a hydrostatic pore-pressure distribution is calculated automatically by the code, below the given water table level. In this case, the uid density (WATER density) and gravity (SET gravity) must also be specied. The uid density value and water table location can be printed with the LIST water command, and the water table can be plotted with the PLOT water command, if the water table is dened with the face keyword. In both cases, zone pore pressures are calculated by averaging from the gridpoint values, and used to derive effective stresses for use in the constitutive models. In this calculation mode, the uid presence is not automatically accounted for in the calculation of body forces: wet and dry medium densities must be assigned by the user, below and above the water level, accordingly. The commands LIST gp pp and LIST zone pp print gridpoint and zone pore pressures, respectively. PLOT contour gpp plots contours of gridpoint pore pressures. A simple example application of this calculation mode is given in Section 3.6.3 in the Users Guide. 1.4.2 Grid Congured for Fluid Flow If the command CONFIG uid is given, a transient uid-ow analysis can be performed, and change in pore pressures, as well as change in the phreatic surface, can occur. Pore pressures are calculated at gridpoints, and zone values are derived using averaging. Both effective-stress (static pore-pressure distribution) and undrained calculations can be carried out in CONFIG uid mode. In addition, a fully coupled analysis can be performed, in which changes in pore pressure generate deformation, and volumetric strain causes the pore pressure to evolve. If the grid is congured for uid ow, dry densities must be assigned by the user (both below and above the water level), because FLAC 3D takes the uid inuence into account in the calculation of body forces.
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A uid-ow model must be assigned to zones when running in CONFIG uid mode. Isotropic ow is prescribed with the MODEL uid isotropic command; anisotropic ow with the command MODEL uid anisotropic. An impermeable material is assigned to zones with the MODEL uid null command. Note that zones that are made null mechanically are not automatically made null for uid ow. Fluid properties are assigned to either zones or gridpoints. Zone uid properties include isotropic permeability, porosity, Biot coefcient, undrained thermal coefcient and uid density. Zone uid properties are assigned with the PROPERTY command, with the exception of uid density, which is assigned with the INITIAL command. (Note that uid density can also be specied globally with the WATER command.) For isotropic ow, permeability is specied using the perm property keyword. For anisotropic ow, the three principal values of permeability are specied using the property keywords k1, k2 and k3, and the orientation is dened using the keywords fdip, fdd and frot. The principal directions of permeability correspond to k 1, k 2, k 3, and form a right-handed system. The properties fdip and fdd are the dip angle and dip direction angle of the plane in which k 1 and k 2 are dened. The dip angle is measured from the global xy -plane, positive down (in negative z-direction). The dip direction angle is the angle between the positive y -axis and the projection of the dip-direction vector on the xy -plane (positive clockwise from y -axis). The property frot is the rotation angle between the k 1-axis and the dip vector in the k 1-k 2-plane (positive clockwise from dip-direction vector). See Figure 1.1.
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Figure 1.1
Denitions for principal directions of permeability tensor
Biot coefcient is assigned using the biot c keyword; porosity is assigned using the poros keyword. If not specied, Biot coefcient = 1 and porosity = 0.5, by default. Gridpoint uid properties are assigned with the INITIAL command. These properties include uid bulk modulus, Biot modulus, uid tension limit and saturation. Each of the gridpoint properties can also be given a spatial variation. Table 1.1 summarizes the ways the various properties can be specied. The uid properties are described further in Section 1.5.
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Table 1.1 Property specication methods property Permeability (isotropic) Perm., princ. val. (aniso) Perm., princ. val. (aniso) Perm., princ. val. (aniso) Perm., princ. dir. (aniso) Perm., princ. dir. (aniso) Perm., princ. dir. (aniso) Porosity Biot coefcient Undrained thermal coeff. Fluid modulus Biot modulus Saturation Fluid tension limit Fluid density keyword perm k1 k2 k3 fdip fdd frot poros biot c u thc fmod biot mod sat ftens fdens dens specied in zones in zones in zones in zones in zones in zones in zones in zones in zones in zones at gridpoints at gridpoints at gridpoints at gridpoints at zones globally command PROPERTY PROPERTY PROPERTY PROPERTY PROPERTY PROPERTY PROPERTY PROPERTY PROPERTY PROPERTY INITIAL INITIAL INITIAL INITIAL INITIAL WATER
It is important to note that uid compressibility is dened in one of two ways in the CONFIG uid mode: 1) Biot coefcient and Biot modulus are specied; or 2) uid bulk modulus and porosity are specied. The rst case accounts for the compressibility of the solid grains (Biot coefcient is set to 1 for incompressible grains). In the second case, solid grains are assumed to be incompressible (see Section 1.5.3.1). The zone properties can be printed with the LIST zone property command, and the gridpoint properties can be printed with the LIST gp command. Fluid density, along with the location of the water table, if specied, can be printed with the LIST water command. The uid-ow properties can be plotted as a contour plot with the PLOT bcontour property command, or as a block plot with the PLOT block property command. For anisotropic ow, the global components of the permeability tensor are available for plotting and printing, using the zone property keywords kxx, kyy, kzz, kxy, kxz and kzz (please note that these global components cannot be initialized directly). An initial gridpoint pore-pressure distribution is assigned the same way for the CONFIG uid mode as for the non-CONFIG uid mode (i.e., either with the INITIAL pp command or the WATER table command). Pore pressures can be xed (and freed) at selected gridpoints with the FIX pp (and FREE pp) command. Fluid sources and sinks can be applied with the APPLY command. Section 1.6 describes the various uid-ow boundary and initial conditions. The uid-ow solution is controlled by the SET uid and SOLVE commands. Several keywords are available to help the solution process. For example, SET uid on or off turns on or off the uid ow calculation mode. The application of these commands and keywords depends on the level of coupling required in the uid ow analysis. Section 1.7 describes the various coupling levels and
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the recommended solution procedure. Example applications, ranging from ow-only to coupled mechanical-ow calculations, are also described in this section. Results from a uid-ow analysis are provided in several forms. The commands LIST gp pp and LIST zone pp print gridpoint and zone pore pressures, respectively. Histories of gridpoint and zone pore pressures can be monitored with the HISTORY gp pp and HISTORY zone pp commands, respectively. And for a transient calculation, the pore pressure can be plotted versus real time by monitoring the ow time with the HISTORY time command. PLOT contour gpp plots contours of gridpoint pore pressures. PLOT contour saturation plots contours of saturation. The PLOT uid command plots specic discharge vectors. General information on the CONFIG uid calculation mode is printed with the LIST uid command. Several uid-ow variables can be accessed through FISH. These are listed in Section 1.10.2. There is one grid-related variable, gp ow, that can only be accessed through a FISH function; this corresponds to the net inow or outow at a gridpoint. The summation of such ows along a boundary where the pore pressure is xed is useful because it can provide a value for the total outow or inow for a system.
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1.5 Properties and Units for Fluid-Flow Analysis The properties that relate to uid ow in FLAC 3D are the permeability coefcient, k , the uid mass density, f , and either the Biot coefcient, , and Biot modulus, M , for ow through a material with compressible grains, or the uid bulk modulus, Kf , and porosity, n, for ow through a material with incompressible grains only. The thermal-coupling parameters are the coefcient of drained linear thermal expansion, t (thermal-mechanical), and the undrained thermal coefcient, (poro-thermal). These properties are examined below. All thermal-poro-mechanical quantities must be given in a consistent set of units. No conversions are performed by the program. 1.5.1 Permeability Coefcient The isotropic permeability coefcient, k (e.g., m2 /(Pa/sec) in SI units), used in FLAC 3D is also referred to in the literature as the mobility coefcient. It is the coefcient of the pressure term in Darcys law and is related to the hydraulic conductivity, kh (e.g., m/s), by the expression k= where g is the gravitational acceleration. The intrinsic permeability, (e.g., in m2 ), is related to k as follows: k= (1.78) kh f g (1.77)
where is the dynamic viscosity (e.g., units of N-sec/m2 ). Eq. (1.77) or Eq. (1.78) may be used to derive k (required by FLAC 3D ) from either kh , in velocity units, or , in [length]2 units (remember that k must end up with units [L3 T/M] e.g., in SI units this would be m3 sec/kg (or m2 /Pa-sec))). Using the values = 1.011 103 kg/(m-sec) for water at 20 C, w g = 9.81 103 Pa/m and 1 Darcy = 108 cm2 , the following conversions may be derived to calculate k in SI units for water in FLAC 3D : k (in SI units) (in cm2 ) 9.9 102 k (in SI units) kh (in cm/sec) 1.02 106 k (in SI units) permeability in millidarcies 9.8 1013 If there is a variation of permeability across the grid, the timestep will be controlled by the largest permeability (see Eq. (1.47)). For problems in which steady state (but not transient behavior) is required, it may be benecial to limit the variations in permeability to improve convergence speed.
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For example, there will probably be little difference in the nal state between systems where there is a 20:1 variation in permeability, compared to a 200:1 variation, when the ow is moving entirely from one permeability region to the other. The permeability coefcient (scalar or tensor) is a zone property specied using the PROPERTY command (see Section 1.4.2). 1.5.2 Mass Density Three different mass densities may be given as input to FLAC 3D in different circumstances: the dry density of the solid matrix, d ; the saturated density of the solid matrix, s ; and the density of the uid, f . Note that densities are only required if gravitational loading is specied. If FLAC 3D is congured for uid ow (CONFIG uid), then the dry density of the solid material must be used. FLAC 3D will compute the saturated density of each element using the known density of the uid, the porosity, n, and the saturation, s : s = d + nsf . The only case when the saturated density is given as input is for an effective stress calculation (static pore-pressure distribution) not carried out in CONFIG uid mode. The WATER table command (or INITIAL pp command) species the location of the water table. The dry density is specied for zones above the water table, and the saturated density for zones below. The solid density (dry or saturated) is given using the INITIAL density command. The uid density can be imposed globally using the WATER density command, or it can be allowed to vary with position by using the INITIAL fdensity command. However, this capability of assigning spatial variation of uid density must only be used with extreme caution because uid mass density is not advected in FLAC 3D. All densities are zone variables in FLAC 3D, and are mass densities (e.g., kg/m3 in SI units). 1.5.3 Fluid Moduli 1.5.3.1 Biot Coefcient and Biot Modulus The Biot coefcient, , is dened as the ratio of the uid volume gained (or lost) in a material element to the volume change of that element when the pore pressure is changed. It can be determined in the same drained test as that used to determine the drained bulk modulus, K , of the material. Its range of n variation is between 23 +n and 1, where n is the porosity. In the particular case of an incompressible solid constituent, = 1. This value is the default value adopted by FLAC 3D. For an ideal porous material, the Biot coefcient is related to the bulk modulus of the solid component Ks : =1 K Ks (1.79)
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The Biot modulus, M , is dened as M= Ku K 2 (1.80)
where Ku is the undrained bulk modulus of the material. For an ideal porous material, the Biot modulus is related to the uid bulk modulus, Kf : M= Kf n + ( n)(1 )Kf /K (1.81)
where n is the porosity. Thus, for an incompressible solid constituent ( = 1), M = Kf /n (1.82)
The calculation mode for compressible grains is turned on with the SET uid biot on command. The Biot coefcient is a zone property specied using the PROPERTY command. The Biot modulus is a gridpoint variable specied using the INITIAL command. 1.5.3.2 Fluid Bulk Modulus In analyses where the grain compressibility can be neglected, the user has the choice to either use the default value of Biot coefcient (i.e., = 1) and assign a value equal to Kf /n to Biot modulus, or give the uid bulk modulus Kf as input. The bulk modulus, Kf , is dened as Kf = where P Vf /Vf Vf /Vf . (1.83)
P is the change in pressure for a volumetric strain of
When the uid modulus Kf is given as an input, the Biot modulus is computed internally using Eq. (1.82) for incompressible grains. In this calculation, the porosity (a zone property) is evaluated at the nodes using nodal volume averaging. The Biot coefcient is then set to 1 throughout the ow domain, irrespective of any value given for that property. The uid calculation for incompressible grains is the default calculation in FLAC 3D (i.e., SET uid biot off). The uid modulus is a gridpoint variable specied using the INITIAL command. The compressibility of the uid Cf is the reciprocal of Kf (i.e., Cf = 1/Kf ). For example, for pure water at room temperature, Kf = 2 109 Pa, in SI units. In real soils, pore water may contain some dissolved air or air bubbles, which substantially reduce its apparent bulk modulus.
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For example, Chaney (1978) reports that the uid modulus can be reduced by an order of magnitude for an air/water mixture at 99% saturation in compacted sand. For groundwater problems, the bulk modulus of water may be different in different parts of the grid, to account for the varying amounts of air present. A FISH function may be used to change local moduli according to some law (e.g., the modulus may be made proportional to pressure to represent a gas), but the user should be careful not to make nonphysical assumptions. 1.5.3.3 Fluid Moduli and Convergence If steady-state, fully saturated ow is required, the modulus M (or Kf ) is unimportant to the numerical convergence process, because the response time of the system and the timestep are both inversely proportional to M (or Kf ): the same number of steps are necessary, independent of M (or Kf ). For systems containing a phreatic surface, however, a low bulk modulus will speed convergence to steady state, because the calculation for saturation change involves t , not the product M t (or Kf t ) (see Eqs. (1.69) and (1.70)). Systems in which solid/uid interaction is important are more complicated to assess (some guidelines may be found in Section 1.7.1). However, a high value of M (or Kf ) compared to the mechanical K will lead to slowly converging solutions. In any case, from a numerical point of view, it is not necessary to use values of M (or Kf ) that are larger than 20 times (K + 4/3G)/ 2 (or (K + 4/3G)n) in the simulation (see Section 1.7.1, Eq. (1.102) and Section 1.8.5 for an example). 1.5.3.4 Fluid Moduli for Drained and Undrained Analyses In FLAC 3D, whenever the uid bulk modulus (or Biot modulus) is selected and CONFIG uid is specied, the drained bulk modulus must be specied for the solid matrix. The apparent (undrained) bulk modulus of the solid matrix will then be computed, and will evolve with time. An undrained analysis may also be performed without specifying CONFIG uid. In this case, the undrained bulk modulus Ku for the solid matrix should be specied. The undrained bulk modulus is Ku = K + 2 M For an incompressible solid constituent: = 1, M = Kf /n, and this formula becomes Ku = K + Kf n (1.85) (1.84)
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1.5.4 Porosity Porosity, n, is a dimensionless number dened as the ratio of void volume to total volume of an element. It is related to the void ratio, e, by n= e 1+e (1.86)
The default value of n, if not specied, is 0.5. n should be given as a positive number between 0 and 1, but small values (e.g., less than 0.2) should be used with great caution because the apparent stiffness of the pore uid is proportional to Kf /n. For low values of n, the stiffness may become very large in comparison with the stiffness of the solid material, causing the FLAC 3D solution to take a very long time to converge. Consider reducing Kf in this case (see Sections 1.5.3.3 and 1.7.1 for further guidance). Porosity is used by FLAC 3D to calculate the saturated density of the medium and evaluate Biot modulus in the case when the uid bulk modulus is given as an input. FLAC 3D does not update porosity during the calculation cycle, since the process is time-consuming and only the slope of the transient response is affected. Porosity is a zone property specied using the PROPERTY command. 1.5.5 Saturation Saturation, s , is dened as the ratio of pore volume occupied by uid to total pore volume. In FLAC 3Ds formulation, pore pressure is set to zero if the saturation at any point is less than 1. The effect of dissolved and trapped air may be allowed by reducing the local uid modulus while keeping the saturation at 1 (i.e., we imagine that there is an equivalent uid present throughout the pore space). Although no pore pressures are present in a partially saturated region, the trapped uid still has weight (i.e., body forces act), and the uid moves under the action of gravity (at a reduced apparent permeability see Eq. (1.12)). The initial saturation may be given by the user, but it is also updated during FLAC 3Ds calculation cycle as necessary to preserve the mass balance. Note that in FLAC 3D, saturation is not considered as an independent variable; it cannot be xed at any gridpoint. 1.5.6 Undrained Thermal Coefcient The undrained thermal coefcient, , is dened as the pore-pressure variation divided by 3M per unit temperature change in an undrained constrained test (no deformation). For an ideal porous material, this coefcient is related to the volumetric thermal-expansion coefcients for the grains, g , and uid, f , through the formula = 3[g ( n) + f n] (1.87)
The undrained thermal coefcient is a zone property, specied using the PROPERTY command.
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1.5.7 Fluid Tension Limit In ne soils, the pore water may be able to sustain a signicant tension. In FLAC 3D, negative pore pressures can develop, by default, up to a limit beyond which desaturation will take place. The negative pore pressure limit is set using the INITIAL ftens command, where the value is a negative number (set to 1015 , by default). Note that a negative pore pressure is not the same as tension due to capillary, electrical or chemical forces. The latter forces are best represented by an increased effective stress within the constitutive model. Negative uid pressures are unrelated to the fact that a material is composed of grains the pressures simply arise from the expansion of a volume lled with uid.
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1.6 Fluid-Flow Boundary Conditions, Initial Conditions, Sources and Sinks Boundaries are impermeable by default; all gridpoints are initially free (i.e., the pore pressure at such gridpoints is free to vary according to the net inow and outow from neighboring zones). This condition may be declared explicitly by using the command FREE pp at the appropriate gridpoints. The opposite condition, FIX pp, may also be set at any gridpoint. In general, uid may enter or leave the grid at an external boundary if the pore pressure is xed. The effect of these two boundary conditions is summarized: 1. Pore-pressure free This is an impermeable boundary and is the default condition. There is no exchange between the grid and the outside world. Pressure and saturation changes are computed according to Eq. (1.69) or Eq. (1.70), depending on the current value of saturation and whether the uid has cavitated (fallen below the tensile limit). 2. Pore-pressure xed This is a permeable boundary across which uid ows to and from the outside world. The saturation may only vary if the set pressure is exactly zero. Otherwise, saturation is forced to be 1 (to conform with FLAC 3Ds assumption that pore pressures can only exist in a fully saturated material). Pore pressure cannot be xed at a value less than the tensile limit; FLAC 3D will reset any such pressures to the tensile limit. As noted above, certain combinations of conditions are impossible (e.g., pore pressure xed at a value less than the tensile limit). FLAC 3D corrects such conditions before executing any calculation step. Pore pressure is xed at some pressure by using the FIX pp command. Alternatively, the command APPLY pp can be used for either external or internal boundaries. It is important to note that the optional keyword interior must be specied if the condition is to be applied at a non-surface node. The use of APPLY has the advantage that the pressure may be controlled directly by a history (supplied by a FISH function). Fluid-ow boundary conditions can be applied to individual, or ranges of, gridpoints, zone faces or zones via the APPLY command. The APPLY pwell command causes a prescribed inow or outow to be applied to a boundary gridpoint. If the interior keyword is added, the condition can be applied to an interior gridpoint. The APPLY discharge and APPLY leakage commands specify either a uid ux or a leaky boundary condition to faces of boundary zones. The APPLY vwell command applies a volume rate of ow to zones within a specied range. All of these uid-ow boundary conditions except APPLY leakage can refer to a history (via the history keyword). See Section 1.10 for a more detailed description and format for these commands. Fixed-pressure gridpoints may act as a source or sinks. There is no explicit command that can be used to measure the inow or outow at these points. However, the FISH grid variable gp ow records unbalanced nodal ows: a simple function that allows inows and outows to be printed or plotted for any range of gridpoints can be written. Initial distributions of pore pressure, porosity, saturation and uid-ow properties may be specied with the INITIAL or PROPERTY command, as noted in Section 1.10. If gravity is also given (with the SET gravity command), it is important that the initial distributions are consistent with the gravitational gradient implied by the value of gravity, the given density of water and the values of
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saturation and porosity within the grid. If the initial distributions are inconsistent, then ow may occur in all zones at the start of a run. When setting up a simulation, a few steps should be taken to check for this possibility. Section 3.4.7 in the Users Guide provides a detailed description of the procedure for setting up initial conditions. If a model contains interfaces, effective stresses will be initialized along the interfaces (i.e., the presence of pore pressures will be accounted for within the interface stresses when stresses are initialized in the grid). This occurs either with or without CONFIG gw specied. For example, the WATER table command (in non-CONFIG gw mode) will include pore pressures along the interface, because pore pressures are dened at gridpoints for interpolation to interface nodes for this mode. Note that ow takes place, without resistance, from one surface to the other surface of an interface, if they are in contact. Preferential ow along an interface (e.g., fracture ow) is not computed.
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1.7 Solving Flow-Only and Coupled-Flow Problems FLAC 3D has the ability to perform both ow-only and coupled uid-mechanical analyses. Coupled analysis may be performed with any of the built-in mechanical models in FLAC 3D. Several modeling strategies are available to approach the coupled processes. One of these assumes that pore pressures once assigned to the grid do not change; this approach does not require any extra memory to be reserved for ow calculation. The commands associated with this mode are discussed in Section 1.4.1. Modeling strategies involving ow of uid require that the CONFIG uid command be issued to congure the grid for uid analysis, and the MODEL uid command be issued for all zones in which uid ow can occur. Note that for coupled analysis, the uid-ow model is not made null automatically for zones that are made null mechanically. The MODEL uid null command must be given for uid null zones. The commands associated with CONFIG uid mode are discussed in Section 1.4.2. The different modeling strategies for coupled analysis will be illustrated in the following sections, the more elaborate requiring more computer memory and time. As a general rule, the simplest possible option should be used, consistent with the reproduction of the physical processes that are important to the problem at hand. Recommended guidelines for selecting an approach based on time scales are given in Section 1.7.2, and various modeling strategies are described in Sections 1.7.3 to 1.7.6. 1.7.1 Time Scales When planning a simulation involving uid ow or coupled ow calculations with FLAC 3D, it is often useful to estimate the time scales associated with the different processes involved. Knowledge of the problem time scales and diffusivity help in the assessment of maximum grid extent, minimum zone size, timestep magnitude and general feasibility. Also, if the time scales of the different processes are very different, it may be possible to analyze the problem using a simplied (uncoupled) approach. (This approach for fully coupled analyses is discussed in detail in Section 1.7.2.) Time scales may be appreciated using the denitions of characteristic time given below. These denitions, derived from dimensional analysis, enter the expression of analytical continuous source solutions. They can be used to derive approximate time scales for the FLAC 3D analysis. Characteristic time of the mechanical process
m = tc
Lc Ku + 4/3G
(1.88)
where Ku is undrained bulk modulus, G is shear modulus, is mass density, and Lc is characteristic length (i.e., the average dimension of the medium).
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Characteristic time of the diffusion process tc =

f
L2 c c
(1.89)
where Lc is the characteristic length (i.e., the average length of the ow path through the medium), and c is the diffusivity dened as mobility coefcient k divided by storativity S : c= k S (1.90)
There are different forms of storativity that apply in FLAC 3D, depending on the controlling process: 1. uid storage S= 2. phreatic storage S= 3. elastic storage 1 2 S= + M K + 4G/3 where M is Biot modulus, is Biot coefcient (M = Kf /n and = 1 for incompressible grains), K is drained bulk modulus, G is shear modulus, w is uid density, g is gravity and Lp is characteristic storage length (i.e., the average height of the medium available for uid storage). For saturated ow-only calculations (rigid material), S is uid storage and c is the uid (from Eqs. (1.90) and (1.91)): c = kM (1.94) n 1 + M w gLp (1.92) 1 M (1.91)
(1.93)
For unsaturated ow calculations, S is phreatic storage and the diffusivity (from Eqs. (1.90) and (1.92)) is c= k 1/M + n/(w gLp ) (1.95)
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For a coupled, saturated, deformation-diffusion analysis with FLAC 3D, S is elastic storage and c is the true or generalized coefcient of consolidation, dened from Eqs. (1.90) and (1.93) as c= k
1 M
2 K +4G/3
(1.96)
There are some noteworthy properties based on the preceding denitions: 1. Because explicit timesteps in FLAC 3D correspond to the shortest time needed for the information to propagate from one gridpoint to the next, the magnitude of the timestep can be estimated using the smallest zone size for Lc in the formula for characteristic time. It is important to note that the explicit uid ow timestep in FLAC 3D is calculated using the uid diffusivity, Eq. (1.94), even in a coupled simulation. The timestep magnitude may thus be estimated from the formula obtained after substitution of Eq. (1.94) in Eq. (1.89), and using the smallest zone size Lz for Lc : L2 z kM
t = min
(1.97)
2. In a saturated uid-ow problem, a reduced bulk modulus (i.e., M or Kf ) leads not only to an increased timestep, but also to an increased time to reach steady state, so that the total number of steps, nt , stays the same. This number may be estimated by taking the ratio of the characteristic times for the model, tc , to the critical timestep, t , using Eqs. (1.89), (1.94) and (1.97), which gives Lc Lz
2
nt =
(1.98)
where Lc and Lz are characteristic length for the model and the smallest zone. 3. In a partially saturated uid-ow problem, adjustments can be made to the uid modulus (M or Kf ) to speed convergence to steady state. Be careful not to reduce M (or Kf ) so much that numerical instability results. A condition for stability may be derived from the requirement that the uid storage (used in the critical timestep evaluation) must remain smaller than the phreatic storage over one zone height, Lz : M > aLz w g/n where a is an adjustment factor chosen equal to 0.3. (1.99)
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4. Using Eq. (1.89), we see that, to avoid any boundary effects in diffusion problems, the characteristic length, Lc , of the model must be larger than the dimension cts , where ts is the maximum simulation time and c is the controlling diffusivity. In turn, the minimum simulation time is controlled by the relation tmin > L2 z /c. 5. In a coupled ow problem, the true diffusivity is controlled by the stiffness ratio Rk (i.e., the stiffness of the uid versus the stiffness of the matrix): Rk = 2 M K+4 3G
(1.100)
With this denition for Rk , Eq. (1.96) may be expressed in two forms: c = kM and c= k 2 1 4 K+ G 1 3 1+ R k 1 1 + Rk (1.101)
(1.102)
If Rk is small (compared to 1), Eq. (1.101) shows that FLAC 3Ds standard explicit timestep (see Eq. (1.97)) can be considered as representative of the system diffusivity. An order-of-magnitude estimate for the number of steps needed to reach full consolidation under saturated conditions, for instance, can be calculated using Eq. (1.98). If Rk is large (i.e., M is large compared to (K + 4G/3)/ 2 (or Kf >>> (K + 4G/3)n)), FLAC 3Ds explicit timestep will be very small, and the problem diffusivity will be controlled by the matrix (see Eqs. (1.97) and (1.102)). The value for M (or Kf ) can be reduced in order to increase the timestep and reach steady-state computationally faster. Eq. (1.102) indicates that if M (or Kf ) is reduced such that Rk = 20, then the diffusivity should be within 5% of the diffusivity for innite M (or Kf ) (see Section 1.8.5 for an example). The time scale is expected to be respected within the same accuracy. Note that, in any case, Kf should not be made higher than the physical value of the uid (2 109 Pa for water).
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1.7.2 Selection of a Modeling Approach for a Fully Coupled Analysis A fully coupled quasi-static hydromechanical analysis with FLAC 3D is often time-consuming, and even sometimes unnecessary. There are numerous situations in which some level of uncoupling can be performed to simplify the analysis and speed the calculation. The following examples illustrate the implementation of FLAC 3D modeling approaches corresponding to different levels of uid/mechanical coupling. Three main factors can help in the selection of a particular approach: 1. the ratio between simulation time scale and characteristic time of the diffusion process; 2. the nature of the imposed perturbation (uid or mechanical) to the coupled process; and 3. the ratio of the uid to solid stiffness. The expressions for characteristic time, tc , in Eq. (1.89), diffusivity, c, in Eq. (1.96), and the stiffness ratio, Rk , in Eq. (1.100) can be used to quantify these factors. These factors are considered in detail below, and a recommended procedure to select a modeling approach based on these factors is given in Section 1.7.2.4. 1.7.2.1 Time Scale We rst consider the time scale factor by measuring time from the initiation of a perturbation. We dene ts as the required time scale of the analysis, and tc as the characteristic time of the coupled diffusion process (estimate of time to reach steady state, dened using Eqs. (1.89) and (1.96)). Short-term behavior If ts is very short compared to the characteristic time, tc , of the coupled diffusion process, the inuence of uid ow on the simulation results will probably be negligible, and an undrained simulation can be performed with FLAC 3D (using either a dry or wet simulation see Section 1.7.5. The wet simulation is carried out using CONFIG uid and SET uid off). No real time will be involved in the numerical simulation (i.e., ts <<< tc ), but the pore pressure will change due to volumetric straining if the uid modulus (M or Kf ) is given a realistic value. The footing load simulation in Example 1.1 is an example of this approach. Long-term behavior If ts >>> tc , and drained behavior prevails at t = ts , then the pore-pressure eld can be uncoupled from the mechanical eld. The steady-state porepressure eld can be determined using a uid-only simulation (SET uid on, SET mech off) (the diffusivity will not be representative), and the mechanical eld can be determined next by cycling the model to equilibrium in mechanical mode with Kf = 0 (SET mech on, SET uid off). (Strictly speaking, this
f
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engineering approach is only valid for an elastic material, because a plastic material is path-dependent.) Another way to describe the time scale is in terms of undrained or drained response. Undrained strictly means that there is no exchange of uid with the outside world (where outside world means outside the sample in a lab test, and other elements in a numerical simulation or a eld situation). Drained means that there is a full exchange of uid with the outside world, which implies that the uid pressure is able to dissipate everywhere. The words are typically associated with short-term and long-term, respectively, because an undrained test usually can be done quickly, while a drained test requires a long time for excess uid pressures to dissipate. In the eld, short-term means that there is insignicant migration of uid, and long-term means that the pressure has stabilized (which needs a long time). Note that in simulations conducted outside of the uid conguration, or within the uid conguration but with uid turned off, the total stress adjustments due to an imposed pore-pressure change (such as those resulting from the lowering of the water table) will not be done internally by the code. The pore-pressure increments may, however, be monitored (using a FISH function, for instance) and used to decrement the total normal stresses before cycling to mechanical equilibrium. The saturated and unsaturated mass densities will also need to be adjusted if the water table has been moved within the grid, and the simulation is conducted outside of the uid conguration. (See Section 1.9.2 for additional information on this topic.) 1.7.2.2 Nature of Imposed Perturbation to the Coupled Process The imposed perturbation to a fully coupled hydromechanical system can be due to changes in either the uid ow boundary condition or the mechanical boundary condition. For example, transient uid ow to a well located within a conned aquifer is driven by the change in pore pressures at the well. The consolidation of a saturated foundation as a result of the construction of a highway embankment is controlled by the mechanical load applied by the weight of the embankment. If the perturbation is due to change in pore pressures, it is likely that the uid ow process can be uncoupled from the mechanical process. This is described in more detail below, and illustrated in Section 1.8.6. If the perturbation is mechanically driven, the level of uncoupling depends on the uid versus solid stiffness ratio, as described below. 1.7.2.3 Stiffness Ratio The relative stiffness, Rk (see Eq. (1.100)), has an important inuence on the modeling approach used to solve a hydromechanical problem: Relatively stiff matrix (Rk <<< 1) If the matrix is very stiff (or the uid highly compressible) and Rk is very small, the diffusion equation for the pore pressure can be uncoupled, since the diffusivity is controlled by the uid (Detournay and Cheng 1993). The modeling technique will depend on the driving mechanism (uid or mechanical perturbation):
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1. In mechanically driven simulations, the pore pressure may be assumed to remain constant. In an elastic simulation, the solid behaves as if there were no uid; in a plastic analysis, the presence of the pore pressure may affect failure. This modeling approach is adopted in slope stability analyses (see Section 1.7.3). 2. In pore pressure-driven elastic simulations (e.g., settlement caused by uid extraction), volumetric strains will not signicantly affect the pore-pressure eld, and the ow calculation can be performed independently (SET uid on, SET mech off). (In this case, the diffusivity will be accurate because for Rk <<< 1, the generalized consolidation coefcient in Eq. (1.96) is comparable to the uid diffusivity in Eq. (1.94).) In general, the pore-pressure changes will affect the strains, and this effect can be studied by subsequently cycling the model to equilibrium in mechanical mode (SET mech on, SET uid off). The uid modulus (M or Kf ) must be set to zero during mechanical cycling, to prevent additional generation of pore pressure. Relatively soft matrix (Rk >>> 1) If the matrix is very soft (or the uid incompressible) and Rk is very large, then the system is coupled, with a diffusivity governed by the matrix. The modeling approach will also depend on the driving mechanism. 1. In mechanically driven simulations, calculations can be time-consuming. As discussed in note 5 of Section 1.7.1, it may be possible to reduce the value for M (or Kf ), such that Rk = 20, and not signicantly affect the response. 2. In most practical cases of pore pressure-driven systems, experience shows that the coupling between pore pressure and mechanical elds is weak. If the medium is elastic, the numerical simulation can be performed with the ow calculation in ow-only mode (SET uid on, SET mech off) and then in mechanical-only mode (SET mech on, SET uid off with uid modulus set to zero) to bring the model to equilibrium. It is important to note that, in order to preserve the true diffusivity (and hence the characteristic time scale) of the system, the uid modulus M (or Kf ) must be adjusted to the value Ma = 1
1 M
2 K+ 4 3G
(1.103)
or
a = Kf
n
n Kf
1 K +4G/3
(1.104)
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during the ow calculation (see Eq. (1.96)), and to zero during the mechanical calculation to prevent further adjustments by volumetric strains (Berchenko 1998). 1.7.2.4 Recommended Procedure to Select a Modeling Approach It is recommended that the selection of a modeling approach for a fully coupled analysis follow the procedure outlined in Table 1.2. First, determine the characteristic time of the diffusion process for the specic problem conditions and properties (see Section 1.7.1), and compare this time to the actual time scale of interest. Second, consider whether the perturbation to the system is primarily pore-pressure driven or mechanically driven. Third, determine the ratio of the stiffness of the uid to the stiffness of the solid matrix. Table 1.2 indicates the appropriate modeling approach based on the evaluation of these three factors. The table also indicates the required adjustment to the uid a ), for each case. Finally, the table lists several examples from the manual that modulus, Ma (or Kf illustrate each modeling approach.
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Table 1.2
Time Scale
Recommended procedure to select a modeling approach for a fully coupled analysis

Imposed Process Perturbation Fluid vs Solid Stiffness any Rk Modeling Approach & Main Calculation Commands Adjusted Fluid Bulk Modulus (M or Kf ) no uid E.A. 1 (slope3d.f3dat)
a a
Examples (6)
ts >>> tc
(steady-state analysis)
mechanical or pore pressure
Effective Stress (1)

with no uid ow or
Effective Stress (2) CONFIG SET uid off SET mech on ts <<< tc
(undrained analysis) mechanical or pore pressure any Rk
M = 0.0
(or Kf = 0.0)
a
Pore-Pressure Generation (3) CONFIG SET uid off SET mech on
realistic value for M (or Kf )

a a
Example 1.1 V.P. 7 (cam.f3dat)
ts in the
range of tc
pore pressure
any Rk
Uncoupled FlowMechanical (4) CONFIG

Step 1.
a
Example 1.16
M =
a
1 2 + M K +4G/3
1
n
n Kf
SET uid on SET mech off

Step 2.
(or Kf =
+ K +1 4G/3
M = 0.0
(or Kf = 0.0)
a
SET uid off SET mech on ts in the

range of tc mechanical any Rk
Coupled FlowMechanical (5) CONFIG SET uid on SET mech on
adjust M (or Kf ) so that
Example 1.2 Example 1.14 Example 1.19
Rk
20
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Notes to Table 1.2: 1. The effective stress approach with no uid ow is discussed in Section 1.7.3. In order to establish the initial conditions for this effective stress analysis, use the WATER table command, INITIAL pp command or a FISH function to establish steady-state pore pressures. Specify the correct wet density to zones below the water table, and dry density to zones above. 2. The effective stress approach with groundwater ow is discussed in Section 1.7.4. In order to establish the initial conditions for this effective stress analysis, use the INITIAL command or a FISH function to establish steady-state pore pressures, or specify SET uid on mech off and step to steady state if the a ) to a small value location of the phreatic surface is not known. Set M a (or Kf a) to speed convergence for a partially saturated system. Note that M a (or Kf should be greater than 0.3nLz w g (or 0.3Lz w g ) to satisfy numerical stability (see Eq. (1.99)). 3. The pore-pressure generation approach is discussed in Section 1.7.5. In order to establish the initial conditions for the pore-pressure generation analysis, use the INITIAL command or a FISH function to establish steady-state ow, or specify SET uid on mech off and step to steady state if the location of a ) to a small value to speed the phreatic surface is not known. Set M a (or Kf a ) should convergence for a partially saturated system. Note that M a (or Kf be greater than 0.3nLz w g (or 0.3Lz w g ) to satisfy numerical stability (see Eq. (1.99)) . 4. The uncoupled uid-mechanical approach is described in Section 1.7.2. This approach is recommended for pore pressure-driven systems and should be used a ) during carefully if Rk >>> 1. Note that the adjusted value for M a (or Kf the ow-only step should satisfy Eq. (1.103) so that the coupled diffusivity will be correct. 5. The fully coupled approach is discussed in Section 1.7.6. Note that for a ) is adjusted to reduce R = 20, the time response Rk >>> 1, if M a (or Kf k will be close (typically within 5%) to that for innite M (or Kf ). 6. Example Applications (E.A.) and Verication Problems (V.P.) that demonstrate the various methods are provided in the Examples volume and in the Verications volume.
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1.7.3 Fixed Pore Pressure (Used in Effective Stress Calculation) In some calculations, the pore-pressure distribution is important only because it is used in the computation of effective stress at all points in the system. For example, in modeling slope stability, we may be given a xed water table. To represent this system with FLAC 3D, it is sufcient to specify a pore-pressure distribution that is unaffected by mechanical deformations that may occur. Because no change in pore pressures is involved, we do not need to congure the grid for groundwater ow. The WATER command can be used to specify an initial hydrostatic pore-pressure distribution below a given xed phreatic surface. The water density must be provided (with the WATER density command), and appropriate dry and saturated material densities supplied by the user above and below the water table, respectively. Alternatively, the INITIAL pp command or a FISH function can be used to generate the required static pore-pressure distribution. The pore-pressure distribution corresponds to an initial state for which there is no strain. It remains constant and is unaffected by mechanical deformation. Fluid ow does not take place. The inuence of this pore-pressure distribution is on failure in material for which yield depends on mean effective stress. For an example application, see Section 1 in the Examples volume. 1.7.4 Flow-Only Calculation to Establish a Pore-Pressure Distribution Flow-only calculations may be performed to determine the ow and pressure distribution in some system independent of any mechanical effects. For example, it may be necessary to evaluate the groundwater changes that result from the digging of a drainage ditch or the activation of a pumping well. In other instances, an initial pore-pressure distribution may be needed for a coupled calculation. In both cases, FLAC 3D may be run in the uid-ow mode without any mechanical calculation being done. Mechanical calculations may or may not be done subsequently. The rst step in the command procedure for a ow-only calculation is to issue a CONFIG uid command so that extra memory can be assigned for the uid-ow calculation. The mechanical calculation should be inhibited with the SET mech off command. Then a choice must be made between the explicit and implicit uid-ow solution algorithm. By default, the explicit algorithm will be selected, but the implicit mode of calculation may be activated (and deactivated) at any stage of the calculation using the SET uid implicit on or SET uid implicit off command. Note however, that the implicit calculation mode only applies to problems in which the medium remains fully saturated (i.e., the saturation remains constant and equal to one); it will give wrong results if desaturation occurs in the simulation. When using the implicit mode of calculation, always make sure that desaturation has not taken place (e.g., by plotting saturation contours). In the explicit mode, the uid-ow timestep will be calculated automatically, but a smaller timestep can be selected using the SET uid dt command. The magnitude of the timestep must be specied by the user in the implicit mode. This is done by issuing a SET uid dt command. For saturated ow, it is often more efcient to use the implicit solution mode when contrasting permeabilities exist.
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The uid-ow model and properties must be specied for all zones in which uid ow may occur. Initial and boundary conditions are assigned to complete the uid-ow problem setup. The uidow domain in a uid-only or uid-mechanical simulation is dened by the assembly of zones with a non-null uid ow model. Flux boundary conditions, for instance, can be assigned by specifying the APPLY command with the range keyword to correspond to the boundaries of that domain. (Remember that zones that are nulled mechanically are not automatically nulled for uid ow.) The STEP command may be specied to execute a given number of uid-ow steps. To stop the calculation automatically when a particular uid-ow time is reached, a SOLVE age command may be issued. Alternatively, the setting SET uid age or SET uid step may be specied to prescribe a uid-ow time limit or maximum number of steps; then a SOLVE command may be given. A steady-state ow condition can also be calculated by using the SOLVE command with the ratio keyword to specify the limiting unbalanced uid-ow ratio dening the steady ow state. If the computed pore-pressure distribution is then to be used in a mechanical calculation where pore pressure can be assumed to remain constant, the SET uid off mech on command should be given. The Biot coefcient or uid bulk modulus should also be set to zero to prevent extra pore pressures from being generated by mechanical deformation. Section 1.8.3 presents an example ow-only analysis in which unconned ow through a vertical embankment is calculated. The analysis produces the steady-state phreatic surface. Note that in this example, the uid bulk modulus is set to a low value to enable the phreatic surface to develop quickly. This can be done when the time taken to reach steady state is unimportant. Note, however, that there is a lower limit for uid modulus in order to avoid numerical instability (see Eq. (1.99)). 1.7.5 No Flow Mechanical Generation of Pore Pressure The undrained (short-term) response may be analyzed in FLAC 3D using both dry and wet approaches. In a dry simulation, the generation of pore pressure under volumetric strain is not simulated directly. Instead, its effect on mechanical deformation is taken into account by assigning the undrained bulk value, Ku = K + 2 M , to the material bulk modulus, K , in the FLAC 3D simulation. In this case, two different techniques can be applied to detect failure in a Mohr-Coulomb material. In the rst one, the constant pore pressures are initialized using the WATER or INITIAL pp command, and undrained cohesion and friction are given as input. In the second, the material is assigned a zero friction and a cohesion equal to the undrained shear strength, Cu . The rst technique applies to problems where changes in pore pressure are small compared to the initial values. The second technique strictly applies to plane-strain problems with Skempton coefcient equal to one (M >>> K + 4G/3). Note that a dry simulation can be carried out whether or not the CONFIG uid command has been issued. However, if the command has been used, the uid bulk modulus (M or Kf ) must be set to zero to prevent additional generation of pore pressure. In a wet simulation, the short-term response of a coupled system is analyzed in the uid conguration of FLAC 3D. In this case, drained values should be used for the material bulk modulus, friction and cohesion. If the SET uid off command is given and the Biot modulus (or uid modulus) is given a realistic value, then pore pressure will be generated as a result of mechanical deformations. For
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example, the instantaneous pore pressures produced by a footing load can be computed in this way. If the uid bulk modulus (M or Kf ) is much greater than the solid bulk modulus, convergence will be slow; it may be possible to reduce the uid bulk modulus without signicantly affecting the behavior. (See Note 5 in Section 1.7.1.) The data le in Example 1.1 (instpp.f3dat) illustrates pore pressure build-up produced by a footing load on an elastic/plastic material contained in a box. The corresponding project le, footing.f3prj, is located in folder datales\uid\footing. The left boundary of the box is a line of symmetry, and the pore pressure is xed at zero along the top surface to prevent pore-pressure generation there. By default, the porosity is 0.5; permeability is not needed, since ow is not calculated. As a large amount of plastic ow occurs during loading, the normal stress is applied gradually by using the FISH function ramp to supply a linearly varying multiplier to the APPLY command. Figure 1.2 shows pore-pressure contours and vectors representing the applied forces. It is important to realize that the plastic ow will occur in reality over a very short period of time (on the order of seconds); the word ow here is misleading since, compared to uid ow, it occurs instantaneously. Hence, the undrained analysis (with SET uid=off) is realistic. Example 1.1 Adding load
new title Instantaneous pore pressures generated under an applied load config fluid gen zone brick size 20 1 10 ; --- mechanical model --model mech mohr prop bulk 5e8 shear 3e8 fric 25 coh 1e5 tens 1e10 fix x range x -.1 .1 fix z range z -.1 .1 fix x y z range x 19.9 20.1 fix y ; --- apply load slowly --def ramp ramp = min(1.0,float(step)/200.0) end apply nstress = -0.5e6 hist @ramp range x -.1 3.1 z 9.9 10.1 ; --- fluid flow model --model fluid fl_iso ini fmod 2e9 ; --- pore pressure fixed at zero at the surface --fix pp 0 range z 9.9 10.1 ; --- settings --set fluid off ; --- histories --hist add gp pp 2,.5,9 ; --- test --step 750
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save load hist dump 1 begin 750 return
Figure 1.2
Instantaneous pore pressures generated under an applied load
1.7.6 Coupled Flow and Mechanical Calculations By default, FLAC 3D will do a coupled uid-ow and mechanical calculation if the grid is congured for uid, and if the Biot modulus, or uid bulk modulus, and permeability are set to realistic values. The full uid-mechanical coupling in FLAC 3D occurs in two directions: pore-pressure changes cause volumetric strains to occur that inuence the stresses; in turn, the pore pressure is affected by the straining that takes place. The relative time scales associated with consolidation and mechanical loading should be appreciated. Mechanical effects occur almost instantaneously (on the order of seconds or fractions of seconds). However, uid ow is a long process: the dissipation associated with consolidation takes place over hours, days or weeks. Relative time scales may be estimated by considering the ratios of characteristic times for the coupled and undrained processes. The characteristic time associated with the undrained mechanical process is found by using the saturated mass density for and the undrained bulk modulus, Ku , as dened in Eq. (1.84) (or Eq. (1.85) for incompressible grains) for K in Eq. (1.88). The ratio of the diffusion characteristic time (Eqs. (1.89) and (1.96)) and the undrained mechanical characteristic time is thus
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tc = m tc
K + 2 M + 4/3G Lc k
1 2 + M K + 4/3G
(1.105)
In most cases, M is approximately 1010 Pa, but the mobility coefcient k may differ by several orders of magnitude; typical values are: 1019 m2 /Pa-sec for granite; 1017 m2 /Pa-sec for limestone; 1015 m2 /Pa-sec for sandstone; 1013 m2 /Pa-sec for clay; and 107 m2 /Pa-sec for sand. For rock and soil, is of the order of 103 kg/m3 , while K + 4/3G is approximately 1010 Pa. Using those orders of magnitude in Eq. (1.105), we see that the ratio of uid-to-mechanical time scales may vary between Lc for sand, 106 Lc for clay, 108 Lc for sandstone, 1010 Lc for limestone and 1012 Lc for granite. If we exclude materials with mobility coefcients larger than that of clay, we see that this ratio remains very large, even for small values of Lc . In practice, mechanical effects can then be assumed to occur instantaneously when compared to diffusion effects. This is also the approach adopted in FLAC 3D, where no time is associated with any of the mechanical steps taken together with the uid-ow steps. The use of the dynamic option in FLAC 3D may be considered, to study the uid-mechanical interaction in materials such as sand, where mechanical and uid time scales are comparable. In most modeling situations, the initial mechanical conditions correspond to a state of equilibrium that must rst be achieved before the coupled analysis is started. Typically, at small uid-ow time (compared to tc see Section 1.7.1), a certain number of mechanical steps must be taken for each uid step to reach quasi-static equilibrium. At larger uid-ow time, if the system approaches steady-state ow, several uid-ow timesteps may be taken without signicantly disturbing the mechanical state of the medium. A corresponding numerical simulation may be controlled manually by alternating between ow-only (SET uid on mech off) and mechanical-only (SET uid off mech on) modes. The STEP command can be used to perform calculations for both the ow-only and mechanical-only processes. As an alternative approach, the tedious task of switching between ow-only and mechanical-only modes may be avoided by using the SOLVE command in combination with appropriate settings; SET mech force (or SET mech ratio) will set a limit to the out-of-balance force (or force ratio), under which quasi-static mechanical equilibrium will be assumed. SET mech substep n auto declares the mechanical module as the slave that must perform n sub-cycles (or fewer, if equilibrium is detected see previous setting) for each step taken by the master. SET uid substep m implicitly declares the ow module as the master. (The keyword auto is omitted for the master process.) If for each uid-ow timestep the mechanical module needs only one sub-step to reach equilibrium, then the
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number of uid-ow sub-steps is doubled, but never exceeds the number m (by default, m = 1). The system reverts to the original setting of sub-steps whenever the succession of one mechanical timestep for each uid-ow group of sub-steps is broken. If the option age is specied in the SOLVE command, the computation will proceed until the uid-ow time given by the age parameter is reached. In a third approach, the STEP command may be used while both mechanical and uid-ow modules are on. In this option, one mechanical step will be taken for each uid-ow step. Here, uid-ow steps are assumed to be so small that one mechanical step is enough to re-equilibrate the system mechanically after each uid-ow step is taken. Section 1.10.1 should be consulted for a complete list of available command options for a coupled analysis. To illustrate a fully coupled analysis, we continue the footing simulation done in Section 1.7.5, using the SOLVE command with appropriate settings to calculate the consolidation beneath the footing. The data le is coupled.f3dat, shown in Example 1.2: Example 1.2 A coupled uid ow-mechanical analysis
restore load ; --- turn on fluid flow model --prop perm 1e-12 set fluid on ini xvel 0.0 yvel 0.0 zvel 0.0 ini xd 0.0 yd 0.0 zd 0.0 ; --- set mechanical limits --set mech force 1.5e3 set mech subs 100 auto ;slave set fluid subs 10 ; --- histories --hist add fltime hist add gp zd 0,1,10 hist add gp zd 1,1,10 hist add gp zd 2,1,10 hist add gp pp 2,1,9 hist add gp pp 5,1,5 hist add gp pp 10,1,7 ; --- solve to 5000 sec --solve age 0.5e4 save age_5k ; --- solve to 150,000 sec --solve age 1.5e5 save age_150k return
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The screen printout should be watched during the calculation process eight variables are updated on the screen after the SOLVE command is issued: (1) the current step number; (2) the total number of sub-cycles taken by the master process (uid ow) for the most recent step; (3) the total number of sub-cycles taken by the slave process (mechanical) for the most recent step; (4) the process that is currently active; (5) the current sub-cycle number; (6) the current maximum unbalanced force or force ratio; (7) the total time for the master (uid ow) process; and (8) the current timestep. The force tolerance is 1.5 103 for this problem; enough mechanical steps are taken to keep the unbalanced force below this force tolerance. However, the limit to mechanical steps, dened by SET mech substep, is set to 100 in this example. If the actual number of mechanical steps taken is always equal to the set value of SET mech substep, then something must be wrong. Either the force limit or SET mech substep has been set too low, or the system is unstable and cannot reach equilibrium. The quality of the solution depends on the force tolerance: a small tolerance will give a smooth, accurate response, but the run will be slow; a large tolerance will give a quick answer, but it will be noisy. The characteristic diffusion time for this coupled analysis is evaluated from Eq. (1.89), using Eq. (1.96) for the diffusivity and a value of Lc = 10 m corresponding to the model height. Using the f property values in Example 1.1, tc is estimated at 140,000 seconds. Full consolidation is expected to be reached within this time scale; the numerical simulation is carried out for a total of 150,000 seconds. The pore-pressure distribution at a time of 5000 seconds is shown in Figure 1.3 (note that the bulb of maximum pore pressure has migrated downward and smoothed out). Figure 1.4 shows the time histories to 150,000 seconds of displacements under the footing load. In this simulation, pore pressures remain xed at zero on the ground surface; hence, the excess uid escapes upward. The leveling off of the histories indicate that full consolidation has been reached.
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Figure 1.3
Pore-pressure distribution at 5000 seconds
Figure 1.4
Consolidation response time histories of footing displacements
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If a sudden change of loading or mechanical boundary condition is applied in a coupled problem, it is important to allow the undrained (short-term) response to develop before allowing ow to take place. In other words, FLAC 3D should be run to equilibrium under SET uid off conditions following the imposed mechanical change. The SOLVE logic can then be used (with SET uid on) to compute the subsequent coupled ow/mechanical response. If changes in uid boundary conditions occur physically at the same time as mechanical changes, then the same sequence should be followed (i.e., mechanical changes . . . equilibrium . . . uid changes . . . coupled solution). Another example of fully coupled behavior is the time-dependent swelling that takes place following the excavation of a trench in saturated soil. In this case, negative pore pressures build up immediately after the trench is excavated; the subsequent swelling is caused by the gradual inux of water into the region of negative pressures. We model the system in two stages: in the rst, we allow mechanical equilibrium to occur, without ow; then we allow ow, using the SOLVE command to maintain quasistatic equilibrium during the consolidation process. The uid tension is initialized to a large negative number to prevent desaturation. The data le used is swelling.f3dat, shown in Example 1.3. The corresponding project le is swelling.f3prj, located in folder datales\uid\swelling. The trench is excavated in the left-hand part of a at soil deposit that is initially fully saturated and in equilibrium under gravity. The material is elastic in this case, but it could equally well have been a cohesive material, such as clay. In this run, we assume impermeable conditions for the free surfaces. Figure 1.5 shows the displacement vectors that accumulate during the time that ow is occurring; the trench is seen at the left-hand side of the model. Figure 1.6 shows the time history of pore pressure near the crest of the trench; note that there is an initial negative excursion in pressure arising from the instantaneous expansion of the soil toward the trench. Figure 1.7 shows histories of horizontal and vertical displacement at the crest. The characteristic time for this problem, evaluated using the model length of 40 m for Lc , is approximately 5 108 seconds (based on Eqs. (1.89) and (1.96)); the numerical simulation is carried out to that time. Example 1.3 Maintaining equilibrium under time-dependent swelling conditions
new title "Maintaining equilibrium under time-dependent swelling conditions" config fluid gen zone brick size 40 1 8 ; --- mechanical model --model mech elas prop bulk 2e8 shear 1e8 ini dens 1500 model mech null range x 0,2 z 2,8 ; --- fluid flow model --model fluid fl_iso prop perm 1e-14 poros 0.5 ini fmod 2e9 ini ftens -5e5 ini fdens 1000
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model fluid fl_null range x 0,2 z 2,8 ; initial and boundary conditions fix x range x -.1 .1 fix x range x 39.9 40.1 fix x y z range z -.1 .1 fix y set grav 0,0,-10 ini sxx -1.6e5 grad 0,0,20000 ini syy -1.6e5 grad 0,0,20000 ini szz -1.6e5 grad 0,0,20000 ini pp 8.0e4 grad 0,0,-10000 ; --- settings --set fluid off ; hist add unbal solve save swell1 ; ini xd 0.0 yd 0.0 zd 0.0 his add fltime ;his add gp pp 3,0,7 his add zone pp 4.5,0.5,6.5 his add gp xd 2,0,8 his add gp zd 2,0,8 fix pp range x 39.9 40.1 set fluid on set mech force 50 set fluid substep 100 set mech substep 100 auto ;slave solve age 5e8 save swell2 return
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Figure 1.5
Swelling displacements near a trench with impermeable surfaces
Figure 1.6
History of pore pressure behind the trench face
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Figure 1.7
Displacement histories at the trench crest vertical (top) and horizontal (bottom)
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1.8 Verication Examples Several verication problems that illustrate the uid-ow modeling capabilities in FLAC 3D are presented. The data les for these examples are contained in the \Datales\Fluid directory. 1.8.1 Unsteady Groundwater Flow in a Conned Layer A long embankment of width L = 100 m rests on a shallow saturated layer of soil. The width (L) of the embankment is large in comparison with the layer thickness, and its permeability is negligible when compared to the permeability, k = 1012 m2 /(Pa sec), of the soil. The Biot modulus for the soil is measured to be M = 10 GPa. Initial steady-state conditions are reached in the homogeneous layer. The purpose is to study the pore-pressure change in the layer as the water level is raised instantaneously upstream by an amount H0 = 2 m. This corresponds to a pore-pressure rise of p1 = H0 w g (with the water density w = 1000 kg/m3 and acceleration of gravity g = 10 m/s2 ) at the upstream side of the embankment. Figure 1.8 shows the geometry of the problem:
embankment
L
Figure 1.8 Conned ow in a soil layer
The ow in the layer may be assumed to be one-dimensional. The model has width L. The excess pore pressure, p, initially zero, is raised suddenly to the value p1 at one end of the model. The corresponding analytical solution has the form
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p( z , t) = 1 z
n=1
en
2 2t
sin n z n
(1.106)
where the z-axis is running along the embankment width and has its origin at the upstream side, p z ,z =L , t = ct/L2 and c = Mk . p =p 1 In the FLAC 3D model, the layer is dened as a column of 25 zones. The excess pore pressure is xed at the value of 2 104 Pa at the face located at z = 0, and at zero at the face located at z = 100 m. The model grid is shown in Figure 1.9. The analytical solution is programmed as a FISH function for direct comparison to the numerical = 0.05, 0.1, 0.2 and 1.0. The analytical and results at selected uid-ow times corresponding to t numerical pore-pressure results for these times are stored in tables.
Figure 1.9
FLAC 3D grid for uid ow in a conned soil layer
Example 1.4 contains the FLAC 3D data le for this problem, using the explicit formulation to obtain the solution. Example 1.5 contains the data le using the implicit formulation. The corresponding project le, ugwFlowConfLayer.f3prj, is located in folder datales\uid\ugwFlowConfLayer. The comparison of analytical and numerical excess pore pressures at four uid-ow times for the explicit solution is shown in Figure 1.10, and for the implicit solution in Figure 1.11. Normalized excess pore pressure (p/p1 ) is plotted versus normalized distance (z/L) in the two gures, where Tables 2, 4 and 6 contain the analytical solution for excess pore pressures, and Tables 1, 3 and 5
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contain the FLAC 3D solutions. The four ow times are 5 104 , 105 , 2 105 and 106 seconds for both explicit and implicit solutions. Steady-state conditions are reached by the last time considered. For both solution formulations, the difference between analytical and numerical pore pressures at steady state is less than 0.1%. Example 1.4 Unsteady groundwater ow in a conned layer explicit solution
new set fish autocreate off title Unsteady groundwater flow in a confined layer: explicit method config fluid ; --- fish constants --def constants global c_cond = 1e-12 ; permeability global c_biom = 1e10 ; biot modulus global length = 100. ; layer width global dp1 = 2e4 ; pore pressure rise, face 1 global tabn = -1 global tabe = 0 global overl = 1. / length local d = c_cond * (c_biom) global dol2 = d * overl * overl global pi2 = pi * pi end @constants gen zone brick size 1 1 25 p1 10 0 0 p2 0 10 0 p3 0 0 @length ; --- fluid flow model --model fluid fl_iso set fluid biot on prop perm @c_cond ; default value: poros 0.5 biot_c 1 ini biot_mod @c_biom ; could also use: ini fmodulus 0.5e10 fix pp @dp1 range z -.1 .1 fix pp 0 range z 99.9 100.1 ; --- fish function --def num_sol tabn = tabn + 2 local t_hat = fltime * dol2 local pnt = gp_head loop while pnt # null local rad = sqrt(gp_xpos(pnt)2 + gp_ypos(pnt)2) * overl if rad < 1.e-4 then local x = gp_zpos(pnt) * overl table(tabn,x) = gp_pp(pnt) / dp1 end_if pnt = gp_next(pnt)
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end_loop table_name(tabn) = FLAC3D at +string(t_hat) end def ana_sol local top = 2. / pi local n_max = 100 ; max number of terms -exact solution tabe = tabe + 2 local t_hat = fltime * dol2 local tp2 = t_hat * pi2 local pnt = gp_head loop while pnt # null local rad = sqrt(gp_xpos(pnt)2 + gp_ypos(pnt)2) * overl if rad < 1.e-4 then local x = gp_zpos(pnt) * overl local n = 0 local nit = 0 local tsum = 0.0 local tsumo = 0.0 local converge = 0 loop while n < n_max n = n + 1 local fn = float(n) local term = sin(pi*x*fn) * exp(-tp2*fn*fn) / fn tsum = tsumo + term if tsum = tsumo then nit = n table(tabe,x) = 1. - x - top * tsum converge = 1 n = n_max else tsumo = tsum end_if end_loop if converge = 0 then local str = buildstr("no convergence x = %1 - t = %2",x,fltime) local oo = out(str) exit end_if end_if pnt = gp_next(pnt) end_loop table_name(tabe) = Analytical at +string(t_hat) end ; --- settings --set mech off set fluid on
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; --- test --solve age 5e4 list gp pp range x -.001 .001 y -.001 .001 @num_sol @ana_sol solve age 10e4 @num_sol @ana_sol solve age 20e4 @num_sol @ana_sol solve age 100e4 @num_sol @ana_sol save confe-imp
Figure 1.10 Comparison of excess pore pressures for the explicit-solution algorithm (analytical values = lines; numerical values = crosses)
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Example 1.5 Unsteady groundwater ow in a conned layer implicit solution

new set fish autocreate off title Unsteady groundwater flow in a confined layer: implicit method config fluid ; --- fish constants --def constants global c_cond = 1e-12 ; permeability global c_biom = 1e10 ; biot modulus global length = 100. ; layer width global dp1 = 2e4 ; pore pressure rise, face 1 global tabn = -1 global tabe = 0 global overl = 1. / length local d = c_cond * (c_biom) global dol2 = d * overl * overl global pi2 = pi * pi end @constants gen zone brick size 1 1 25 p1 10 0 0 p2 0 10 0 p3 0 0 @length ; --- fluid flow model --model fluid fl_iso set fluid biot on prop perm @c_cond ; default value: poros 0.5 biot_c 1 ini biot_mod @c_biom ; could also use: ini fmodulus 0.5e10 fix pp @dp1 range z -.1 .1 fix pp 0 range z 99.9 100.1 ; --- fish function --def num_sol tabn = tabn + 2 local t_hat = fltime * dol2 local pnt = gp_head loop while pnt # null local rad = sqrt(gp_xpos(pnt)2 + gp_ypos(pnt)2) * overl if rad < 1.e-4 then local x = gp_zpos(pnt) * overl table(tabn,x) = gp_pp(pnt) / dp1 end_if pnt = gp_next(pnt) end_loop table_name(tabn) = FLAC3D at +string(t_hat) end def ana_sol
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local top = 2. / pi local n_max = 100 ; max number of terms -exact solution tabe = tabe + 2 local t_hat = fltime * dol2 local tp2 = t_hat * pi2 local pnt = gp_head loop while pnt # null local rad = sqrt(gp_xpos(pnt)2 + gp_ypos(pnt)2) * overl if rad < 1.e-4 then local x = gp_zpos(pnt) * overl local n = 0 local nit = 0 local tsum = 0.0 local tsumo = 0.0 local converge = 0 loop while n < n_max n = n + 1 local fn = float(n) local term = sin(pi*x*fn) * exp(-tp2*fn*fn) / fn tsum = tsumo + term if tsum = tsumo then nit = n table(tabe,x) = 1. - x - top * tsum converge = 1 n = n_max else tsumo = tsum end_if end_loop if converge = 0 then local str = buildstr("no convergence x = %1 - t = %2",x,fltime) local oo = out(str) exit end_if end_if pnt = gp_next(pnt) end_loop table_name(tabe) = Analytical at +string(t_hat) end ; --- settings --set mech off set fluid on set fluid implicit on set fluid dt 1e3 ; --- test --solve age 5e4
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list gp pp range x -.001 .001 y -.001 .001 @num_sol @ana_sol solve age 10e4 @num_sol @ana_sol solve age 20e4 @num_sol @ana_sol solve age 100e4 @num_sol @ana_sol save confe-exp
Figure 1.11 Comparison of excess pore pressures for the implicit-solution algorithm (analytical values = lines; numerical values = crosses)
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1.8.2 One-Dimensional Filling of a Porous Region In this problem, ow is driven through an initially dry porous layer of large lateral extent under a constant pressure, po , applied at the base. The transient location of the lling front is compared to an exact sharp-front solution for the cases with and without gravity. Voller et al. (1996) give an analytic solution for this problem under the assumptions of a sharp-front, rigid-porous matrix and incompressible Newtonian uid. In their solution, the ow is governed by Darcys law, and there is a constant atmospheric pressure in the air ahead of the free surface. Let the x -axis of reference be oriented in the direction of ow, with the origin at the base of the layer. The solution for the front location, xf , may be expressed in terms of two dimensionless variables: t = t/T and x = x parameter, , dened using the expressions f /L ; and a dimensionless T = n/po , L = and = g/po . In these equations, n is porosity, is intrinsic permeability (product of mobility coefcient, k , and dynamic viscosity, ), is uid density and g is gravity. When gravity is ignored, the solution has the form t= 1 [x ]2 2 (1.107)
For lling under gravity, the front location is given by t = ln (1 x) x 2 (1.108)
Eq. (1.108) may be shown to converge to the no gravity solution when goes to zero. The numerical solution to the lling problem is presented in dimensionless form. To derive this solution, scaled properties are used in the simulations: po = 1, k = 0.25, n = 0.5; and for gravity ow, w = 1 and g = 1. Further, using = 4 in the preceding denitions, the characteristic parameters for the simulation are T = 2, L = 1, = 1. To simulate incompressible ow, the bulk modulus of the uid, Kf , is assigned a value that is large compared to the pore-pressure variations in the simulation (Kf = 100). For both cases, the grid corresponds to a column of 25 zones, 0.625 units high and 0.025 units wide. The initial value of pore pressure and saturation is zero. The pore pressure is xed at po , and the saturation is given a value of one at the base of the model. The simulation is conducted for a total of 0.25 units of time ( t = 0.125). A FISH function, flacfront, captures the times at which nodes reach a saturation of 1% and 99%. The analytic sharp-front solution is evaluated by another FISH function, solution. The data le for the case without gravity is listed in Example 1.6; the data le for the case with gravity is listed in Example 1.7. The corresponding project le, 1DFillingPorousReg.f3prj, is located in folder datales\uid\1DFillingPorousReg.
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Example 1.6 1D lling of a porous region no gravity

new set fish autocreate off title "One-dimensional filling - no gravity" def setup global c_perm = 0.25 global c_poro = 0.5 global c_p0 = 1. global c_visc = 4 global ils = 1 global ius = 1 global dz = .025 global lzf = 0.0 global uzf = 0.0 end @setup config fluid gen zone brick size 1 1 25 p1 .025 0 0 p2 0 .025 0 p3 0 0 0.625 ; --- fluid flow model --model fluid fl_iso prop perm @c_perm poros @c_poro biot_c 0. ; default: poros 0.5 biot_c 1 set fluid biot on ini biot_mod 100 ini sat 0.0 fix pp @c_p0 range z -.0001 .0001 ; --- settings --set mech off set fluid on ; --- fish functions --def solution global Tstar = c_poro * c_visc / c_p0 global Lstar = sqrt(c_perm * c_visc) local k loop k (1,25) local Xhat = float(k-1) * 0.025 / Lstar local That = Xhat * Xhat * 0.5 xtable(1,k) = That ytable(1,k) = Xhat endloop end @solution def flacfront while_stepping
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local pntl = gp_near(1,1,lzf) local pntu = gp_near(1,1,uzf) if gp_sat(pntl) > .01 then xtable(2,ils) = fltime / Tstar ytable(2,ils) = lzf / Lstar ils = ils + 1 lzf = lzf + dz endif if gp_sat(pntu) > .99 then xtable(3,ius) = fltime / Tstar ytable(3,ius) = uzf / Lstar ius = ius + 1 uzf = uzf + dz endif end table 1 name Analytical solution table 2 name 1 saturation front table 3 name 99% saturation front ; --- test --set @lzf = .025 @uzf = .025 solve age 0.25 save asat1 return
Example 1.7 1D lling of a porous region with gravity

new set fish autocreate off title "One-dimensional filling - with gravity" def setup global c_perm = 0.25 global c_poro = 0.5 global c_p0 = 1. global c_visc = 4 global c_den = 1. global c_grav = -1. global ils = 1 global ius = 1 global dz = .025 global lzf = 0.0 global uzf = 0.0 end @setup config fluid
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gen zone brick size 1 1 25 p1 .025 0 0 p2 ; --- fluid flow model --model fluid fl_iso prop perm @c_perm poros @c_poro biot_c 0. set fluid biot on ini biot_mod 100 ini sat 0.0 fix pp @c_p0 range z -.0001 .0001 ; --- settings --ini fdensity @c_den set gravity 0 0 @c_grav set mech off set fluid on ; --- fish functions --def solution global Tstar = c_poro * c_visc / c_p0 global Lstar = sqrt(c_perm * c_visc) local gamma = -Lstar * c_den * c_grav / local k loop k (1,50) local Yhat = ((k-1)*0.7/49.) / Lstar local That = - (Yhat + ln(1.0-gamma * xtable(1,k) = That ytable(1,k) = Yhat endloop end @solution def flacfront while_stepping local pntl = gp_near(1,1,lzf) local pntu = gp_near(1,1,uzf) if gp_sat(pntl) > .01 then xtable(2,ils) = fltime / Tstar ytable(2,ils) = lzf / Lstar ils = ils + 1 lzf = lzf + dz endif if gp_sat(pntu) > .99 then xtable(3,ius) = fltime / Tstar ytable(3,ius) = uzf / Lstar ius = ius + 1 uzf = uzf + dz endif end table 1 name Analytical solution table 2 name 1 saturation front
0 .025 0 p3 0 0 0.625
; default: poros 0.5 biot_c 1
c_p0
Yhat) / gamma) / gamma
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table 3 name 99% saturation front ; --- test --set @lzf = .025 @uzf = .025 solve age 0.25 save asat2 return
The results with and without gravity are presented in Figure 1.12 and Figure 1.13, respectively. As seen in these gures, the sharp-front solution is bounded above and below by the 99% and 1% saturation fronts. In fact, the vertical distance between these fronts corresponds directly to the grid size in the direction of propagation of the lling front. (The saturation at a node can only start to increase when the pore pressure at the node below it becomes positive, and thus full saturation is reached there.) This distance can be reduced by increasing the number of zones in the column height. The evolution of nodal pore pressure with time follows a stepwise pattern, more pronounced as the uid is less compressible. This behavior occurs because a node must be fully saturated before its pore pressure can increase. One way to reduce this effect without changing the grid size is to introduce ow in the unsaturated region (capillary pressure) in the uid ow formulation.
Figure 1.12 Location of lling front ( x vs t ) no gravity (analytical solution = solid line; numerical values = dashed line)
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Figure 1.13 Location of lling front ( x vs t ) with gravity (analytical solution = solid line; numerical values = dashed line)
1.8.3 Steady-State Fluid Flow with a Free Surface This example is the classical problem of steady-state seepage ow through a homogeneous embankment with vertical slopes exposed to different water levels and resting on an impermeable base. The total discharge, Q, and the length of seepage face, s , are compared to the exact solutions. Figure 1.14 shows the geometry and boundary conditions of the problem.
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h h
impermeable base
L
Figure 1.14 Problem geometry and boundary conditions The uid is homogeneous, ow is governed by Darcys law, and it is assumed that the pores of the soil beneath the phreatic surface are completely lled with water, and the pores above it are completely lled with air. The width of the dam is L, the head and tail water elevations above the impervious base are h1 and h2 , respectively. The exact solution for the total discharge through a dam section of unit thickness was shown by Charny (Harr 1991) to be given by Dupuits formula: Q = k w g
2 h2 1 h2 2L
(1.109)
where k is mobility coefcient, w is water density and g is gravity. The length, s , of the seepage face (elevation of the free surface on the downstream face of the dam above h2 ) was obtained by Polubarinova-Kochina (1962), and is given in Figure 1.15 as a function of the characteristic dimensions of the problem.
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1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0

1. 5
0.5
1
2.5
3.5
0.2
0.4
0.6 h /h
0.8
1.0
Figure 1.15 Seepage face solution after Polubarinova-Kochina (1962) The FLAC 3D simulation is conducted for the following particular set of parameters: L =9m h1 = 6 m h2 = 1.2 m The following material properties are used: permeability (k ) porosity (n) water density (w ) water bulk modulus (Kf ) soil dry density ( ) gravity (g ) 1010 (m/sec)/(Pa/m) 0.3 1000 kg/m3 1000 Pa 2000 kg/m3 10 m/sec2
Two cases corresponding to two different initial conditions have been studied: CASE 1: The water level in the embankment is initially at h = h2 = 1.2 m, and the upstream level is raised to h = h1 . CASE 2: The water level is initially at h = h1 = 6 m, and the downstream level is lowered to h = h2 .
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The data le for Case 1 is listed in Example 1.8, and for Case 2 in Example 1.9. The corresponding project le, steadystateFF-FreeSurface.f3prj, is located in folder datales\uid\steadystateFFFreeSurface. The grid and boundary conditions are the same for both cases. The grid contains 30 zones in width, 20 zones in height and 1 zone in thickness. The boundary conditions correspond to a static pore-pressure distribution up to level h1 on the upstream face, and up to h2 on the downstream face, zero pore pressure from level h2 to h1 on the downstream face, and to no ow conditions across the remaining boundaries. The differences between the two cases are the initial pore pressure and saturation distributions. In Case 1, saturation and pore pressure are zero above h2 . Below that level, the saturation is 1 and the pressure is hydrostatic. In Case 2, saturation is 1 for all gridpoints, and the pore pressure inside the mesh follows a gravitational gradient. The numerical simulation is carried out until steady-state conditions are detected. To speed the calculation to steady state, the water bulk modulus is given a small value (Kf = 103 Pa) compatible with free surface stability. (The criterion used is Kf 0.3w gLz , where Lz is the maximum vertical zone dimension in the vicinity of the phreatic surface, as discussed in Section 1.7.1.) The nal ow pattern is similar for both initial conditions (see Figures 1.16 and 1.17). The numerical value of seepage length is dened as the distance on the downstream face of the dam, between the tail water elevation and the point where the magnitude of the ow vector vanishes. The analytical value of seepage length is determined from Figure 1.15. For this particular problem, h2 / h1 = 0.2, L/ h1 = 1.5, and the value of s/ h1 is thus 0.1. As seen in the gures, the numerical value of seepage length compares well with the analytical solution sketched there as a bold line. A FISH function, qflac, is used to determine the discharge, Q, per unit thickness of the dam: the steady-state numerical value is 1.914 106 m2 /s for Case 1; and 1.912 106 m2 /s for Case 2. The values are close to the analytic value of 1.920 106 m2 /s, as determined from Eq. (1.109) for this particular problem. Example 1.8 Steady-state ow through a vertical embankment Case 1
new title "Steady state flow through a vertical embankment - case 1" def setup global c_perm = 1e-10 global c_poro = 0.3 global c_kw = 1e3 global c_L = 9. global c_h1 = 6. global c_h2 = 1.2 end @setup config fluid gen zone brick size 30 1 20 p1 @c_L 0 0 p2 0 0.15 0 p3 0 0 @c_h1 ; --- fluid flow model --model fluid fl_iso prop perm @c_perm poros @c_poro ; default value: poros 0.5 biot_c 1
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set fluid biot off ini fmodulus @c_kw ini sat 0.0 ini sat 1 range z -.1 1.1999 ini sat 1 range x -.0001 .0001 ini pp 1.2e4 grad 0 0 -1e4 range z -.1 1.1999 fix pp range x 8.99 9.01 ini pp 6e4 grad 0 0 -1e4 range x -.0001 .0001 fix pp range x -.0001 .0001 ; --- settings --ini fdensity 1e3 ini ftens 0.0 set gravity 0 0 -10 set mech off set fluid on ; --- test --solve ratio 1.e-3 def qflac local qval = 0.0 local pnt = gp_head loop while pnt # null local fval = gp_xpos(pnt) - 0.001 if fval < 0.0 then qval = qval + gp_flow(pnt) end_if pnt = gp_next(pnt) end_loop qflac = qval /0.15 ; scale for unit thickness global qsol = 1e-10*1e3*10.*(6.*6.-1.2*1.2)/(2.*9.) end def plot_seepage_face(plt) local v1 = vector(c_L,0,1.2) local v2 = vector(c_L,0,1.8) local status = set_line_width(plt,2) staus = draw_line(plt,v1,v2) end list @qflac @qsol save ch2a
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Example 1.9 Steady-state ow through a vertical embankment Case 2

new title "Steady state flow through a vertical embankment - case 2" def setup global c_perm = 1e-10 global c_poro = 0.3 global c_kw = 1e3 global c_L = 9. global c_h1 = 6. global c_h2 = 1.2 end @setup config fluid gen zone brick size 30 1 20 p1 @c_L 0 0 p2 0 0.15 0 p3 0 0 @c_h1 ; --- fluid flow model --model fluid fl_iso prop perm @c_perm poros @c_poro ; default value: poros 0.5 biot_c 1 set fluid biot off ini fmodulus 1e3 ini sat 1.0 ini pp 6e4 grad 0 0 -1e4 fix pp range x -.0001 .0001 ini pp 1.2e4 grad 0 0 -1e4 range x 8.99 9.01 z -.1 1.1999 ini pp 0 range x 8.99 9.01 z 1.1999 7 fix pp range x 8.99 9.01 ; --- settings --ini fdensity 1e3 ini ftens 0.0 set gravity 0 0 -10 set mech off set fluid on ; --- test --solve ratio 1e-3 def qflac local qval = 0.0 local pnt = gp_head loop while pnt # null local fval = gp_xpos(pnt) - 0.001 if fval < 0.0 then qval = qval + gp_flow(pnt) end_if pnt = gp_next(pnt) end_loop
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qflac = qval /0.15 ; scale for unit thickness global qsol = 1e-10*1e3*10.*(6.*6.-1.2*1.2)/(2.*9.) global qerror = abs(((qval/0.15)-qsol)/qsol)*100.0 if qerror > 0.5 then error = "Outflow error greater than 0.5 ("+string(qerror)+")." end_if end def plot_seepage_face(plt) local v1 = vector(c_L,0,1.2) local v2 = vector(c_L,0,1.8) local status = set_line_width(plt,2) staus = draw_line(plt,v1,v2) end list @qflac @qsol save ch2b
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Figure 1.16 Steady-state ow vectors and seepage face solution Case 1
Figure 1.17 Steady-state ow vectors and seepage face solution Case 2
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Case 1 is repeated to test uid ow across two sub-grids that are connected by using either the ATTACH command or the INTERFACE command. Example 1.10 lists the commands for ow across an ATTACHed grid, and Example 1.11 lists the commands for ow across an interface. Both model results are nearly identical to the original Case 1; the values for discharge for both the ATTACH and INTERFACE models are 1.930 106 m2 /s. Compare Figures 1.18 and 1.19 to Figure 1.16. Note that if maxedge is specied with INTERFACE, then the interface will act as an impermeable boundary. Remove the semicolon from the INTERFACE maxedge command to observe this response. Example 1.10 Steady-state ow through a vertical embankment Case 1 with ATTACHed grid
new title "Steady state flow through a vertical embankment - Case 1 - ATTACHed grid" config fluid gen zone brick size 15 1 10 ... p0 0.0 0 0 ... p1 4.5 0 0 ... p2 0 0.15 0 ... p3 0 0 6 gen zone brick size 15 2 20 ... p0 4.5 0 0 ... p1 9 0 0 ... p2 4.5 0.15 0 ... p3 4.5 0 6 ... nomerge attach face range x 4.499 4.501 ; --- fluid flow model --model fluid fl_iso prop perm 1e-10 poros 0.3 ; default value: poros 0.5 biot_c 1 set fluid biot on ini biot_mod 3.333e3 ; could also use: ini fmodulus 1e3 ini sat 0.0 ini sat 1 range x -.0001 .0001 ini sat 1 range x 8.99 9.01 z -.1 1.1999 ini pp 6e4 grad 0 0 -1e4 range x -.0001 .0001 fix pp range x -.0001 .0001 ini pp 1.2e4 grad 0 0 -1e4 range x 8.99 9.01 z -.1 1.1999 fix pp range x 8.99 9.01 ; --- settings --ini fdensity 1e3 ini ftens 0.0 set gravity 0 0 -10 set mech off set fluid on ; --- test --solve ratio 1.e-3
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def qflac local qval = 0.0 local pnt = gp_head loop while pnt # null local fval = gp_xpos(pnt) - 0.001 if fval < 0.0 then qval = qval + gp_flow(pnt) end_if pnt = gp_next(pnt) end_loop qflac = qval /0.15 ; scale for unit thickness global qsol = 1e-10*1e3*10.*(6.*6.-1.2*1.2)/(2.*9.) end def plot_seepage_face(plt) local v1 = vector(9,0,1.2) local v2 = vector(9,0,1.8) local status = set_line_width(plt,2) staus = draw_line(plt,v1,v2) end list @qflac @qsol save attfl
Figure 1.18 Steady-state ow vectors for ATTACHed grid Case 1
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Example 1.11 Steady-state ow through a vertical embankment Case 1 with INTERFACE

new title "Steady state flow through a vertical embankment - case 1 - INTERFACE" config fluid gen zone brick size 15 1 10 p0 0.0 0 0 p1 4.5 0 0 p2 0 0.15 0 p3 0 0 6 group zone Left gen zone brick size 15 2 20 p0 5.5 0 0 p1 10 0 0 p2 5.5 0.15 0 p3 5.5 0 6 group zone right range group Left not ; --- interface --interface 1 face range x 5.499 5.501 interface 1 prop ks 2e9 kn 2e9 fric 15 tension 1e10 ; interface 1 maxedge 1 : <==== this will make interface impermeable ini xpos add -1. range group right ; --- fluid flow model --model fluid fl_iso prop perm 1e-10 poros 0.3 ; default value: poros 0.5 biot_c 1 set fluid biot on ini biot_mod 3.333e3 ; could also use: ini fmodulus 1e3 ini sat 0.0 ini sat 1 range x -.0001 .0001 ini sat 1 range x 8.99 9.01 z -.1 1.1999 ini pp 6e4 grad 0 0 -1e4 range x -.0001 .0001 fix pp range x -.0001 .0001 ini pp 1.2e4 grad 0 0 -1e4 range x 8.99 9.01 z -.1 1.1999 fix pp range x 8.99 9.01 ; --- mechanical model --model mech el prop bulk 2 shear 1 step 0 ; <--- must step 0 with mech on to initialize weighting factors ; --- settings --ini fdensity 1e3 ini ftens 0.0 set gravity 0 0 -10 set mech off set fluid on ; --- test --solve ratio 1.e-3 def qflac local qval = 0.0 local pnt = gp_head
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loop while pnt # null local fval = gp_xpos(pnt) - 0.001 if fval < 0.0 then qval = qval + gp_flow(pnt) end_if pnt = gp_next(pnt) end_loop qflac = qval /0.15 ; scale for unit thickness global qsol = 1e-10*1e3*10.*(6.*6.-1.2*1.2)/(2.*9.) end def plot_seepage_face(plt) local v1 = vector(9,0,1.2) local v2 = vector(9,0,1.8) local status = set_line_width(plt,2) staus = draw_line(plt,v1,v2) end list @qflac @qsol save intfl
Figure 1.19 Steady-state ow vectors for grid with INTERFACE Case 1
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1.8.4 Spreading of a Groundwater Mound This problem studies the transient evolution of a groundwater mound within a porous medium. The mound spreads out and ows along an impervious base under the inuence of gravity. It is assumed that the uid is incompressible, and that the water is contained initially in a cylindrical region with radius r0 and height h0 . The water saturation within the mound is equal to one, and Darcys law is applicable. The mound elevation is compared to an analytic solution as the elevation evolves with time. Kochina et al. (1983) have derived the solution for the height, h, of the mound. The solution, as given by Barenblatt (1987), assumes a hydrostatic pore-pressure distribution within the mound. In the case of zero residual saturation, it may be expressed in the form 1 r 2 4 = h [4 ]; r 2 t t 8 t
(1.110)
2 /(2h ) with = h/ h0 , r = t/tc , and the characteristic time is given as tc = r0 = r/r0 , t where h 0 = kw g/(2n) (k is the mobility coefcient, w is water density, g is gravity and n is porosity).
This solution applies to long time scales, when the inuence of the details of the initial mound geometry have disappeared. The results are presented in dimensionless form: the scaled geometrical parameters r0 = 1, h0 = 1 are used; and the scaled water properties k = 0.5 104 , w = 103 and n = 0.5 are prescribed in the numerical simulation. To model incompressible ow, the bulk modulus of the uid, Kf , is given a value that is large compared to the pore-pressure variations in the simulation (Kf = 2 105 ); the value g = 10 is used for gravity. The FLAC 3D grid corresponds to a quarter cylinder and contains 2000 zones (see Figure 1.20). The radius of the model is 2, and its height is 1 unit. The initial saturation is 1 within the mound (radius = 1 unit, height = 1 unit), and zero outside. The initial pore-pressure distribution within the mound is hydrostatic. All boundaries are impermeable by default. As time goes on, the mound spreads out under its own weight. The simulation is = 0.85, with intermediate results at t = 0.35, conducted for a total dimensionless time value of t 0.45 and 0.65. Example 1.12 lists the commands for this example. The corresponding project le, gwmound.f3prj, is located in folder datales\uid\GroundwaterMound.
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Figure 1.20 FLAC 3D grid and initial state of saturated column
Example 1.12 Spreading of a groundwater mound

new set fish autocreate off config fluid ; --- geometry --gen zone cylinder size 20 10 10 p1 0 2 0 p2 0 0 1 p3 2 0 0 ; --- fluid flow model --model fluid fl_iso prop perm 0.5e-4 poros 0.5 biot_c 1 set fluid biot on ini biot_mod 1e5 ; if fluid modulus is specified: ; set fl biot off ; ini fmodulus 0.5e5 ini fdensity 1e3 ini ftens 0.0 ; --- initial conditions --range name mound cyl end1 0 0 -1 end2 0 0 2 rad 1.01 ini sat 0.0 ini sat 1.0 range nrange mound
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ini pp 1e4 grad 0 0 -1e4 range nrange mound ; --- settings --set gravity 0 0 -10 set mech off set fluid on set fluid ratio 0 save mound0 ; --- test --solve age 0.35 title "Spreading of a groundwater mound (t = 0.35)" save mound1 solve age 0.45 title "Spreading of a groundwater mound (t = 0.45)" save mound2 solve age 0.65 title "Spreading of a groundwater mound (t = 0.65)" save mound3 solve age 0.85 title "Spreading of a groundwater mound (t = 0.85)" save mound4 return
Saturation contours are sketched in Figures 1.21 to 1.24. The analytic prediction for the mound height is calculated by a set of FISH functions, and plotted for comparison in the gures (bold line). The model state at each selected time value is restored, and the le listed in Example 1.13 is called to create the plots shown in Figures 1.21 to 1.24. = 0.35; at that time, the initial shape of the mound still persists, Figure 1.21 corresponds to t and a comparison with the analytic solution is probably not yet appropriate. For larger times (see Figures 1.22 to 1.24), the spreading of the groundwater mound described by Eq. (1.110) is captured by the numerical solution with reasonable accuracy. The numerical estimate lags behind the analytical prediction; the discrepancy may be explained by the occurrence of residual saturation in the numerical solution, and by the coarse discretization used in the simulation. Example 1.13 Spreading of a groundwater mound saturation and head plots
def moundsetup local nval = 100 global dx = 2./float(nval) end @moundsetup ;
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def check_error local bt = max(fltime,1.e-20) local xi = 1.0/sqrt(bt) local rmax = 2.0/sqrt(xi) local pnt = gp_head local accum_error = 0.0 local count = 0 loop while pnt # null local gpe = 0.0 local pos = gp_pos(pnt) local rad = mag(vector(xcomp(pos),ycomp(pos),0)) if rad < rmax then local height = xi * (4.0 - rad*rad*xi) * 0.125 else height = 0 endif local sat = gp_sat(pnt) local zdif = zcomp(pos) - height if sat > 0.5 then if zdif > 0 then gpe = zdif count = count + 1 endif else if zdif < 0 then gpe = -zdif count = count + 1 endif endif accum_error = accum_error + gpe pnt = gp_next(pnt) end_loop if accum_error > 10 then local str = Accumulated error = + string(accum_error) error = str + with count + string(count) end_if end ; def plot_mound_elevation(plt) local bt = max(fltime,1.e-20) local xi = 1./sqrt(bt) local xmax = 2./sqrt(xi) local n loop n (1,100) local xval = (float(n)-1.)*dx if xval < xmax then
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local zval = xi * (4.-xval*xval*xi) * 0.125 else zval = 0. endif local moundi = vector(xval,0,zval) xval = float(n)*dx if xval < xmax then zval = xi * (4.-xval*xval*xi) * 0.125 else zval = 0. endif local moundf = vector(xval,0,zval) local status = set_line_width(plt,2) status = draw_line(plt,moundi,moundf) xval = (float(n)-1.)*dx if xval < xmax then zval = xi * (4.-xval*xval*xi) * 0.125 else zval = 0. endif moundi = vector(0,xval,zval) xval = float(n)*dx if xval < xmax then zval = xi * (4.-xval*xval*xi) * 0.125 else zval = 0. endif moundf = vector(0,xval,zval) status = set_line_width(plt,2) status = draw_line(plt,moundi,moundf) endloop end ; def plot_mound_elevation1(plt) local bt = max(fltime,1.e-20) local xi = 1./sqrt(bt) local xmax = 2./sqrt(xi) local imax = int(xmax/dx) + 1 local n loop n (1,100) local xval = (float(n)-1.)*dx if xval < xmax then local zval = xi * (4.-xval*xval*xi) * 0.125 else zval = 0. endif
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local moundi = vector(xval,0,zval) xval = float(n)*dx if xval < xmax then zval = xi * (4.-xval*xval*xi) * 0.125 else zval = 0. endif local moundf = vector(xval,0,zval) local status = set_line_width(plt,2) status = draw_line(plt,moundi,moundf) endloop end ; def plot_mound_region(plt) local bt = max(fltime,1.e-20) local xi = 1./sqrt(bt) local xval = sqrt(0.5*xi) local zval = xi * (4.0-xi*xval*xval)/8.0 local moundi = vector(xval,0,0) local moundf = vector(xval,0,zval) local status = set_line_width(plt,2) status = draw_line(plt,moundi,moundf) end ; config gpextra 1 def c_head local rhog = 1e4 local pnt = gp_head loop while pnt # null if gp_sat(pnt) > 0.9 then gp_extra(pnt,1) = gp_zpos(pnt)*gp_sat(pnt) + gp_pp(pnt)/rhog else gp_extra(pnt,1) = 0.0 end_if pnt = gp_next(pnt) end_loop end @c_head ; ;
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= 0.35 Figure 1.21 Saturation contours and analytical mound elevation at t
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= 0.85. (The lack The sketch of ow vectors and head contours in Figure 1.25 corresponds to t of smoothness in the contour plot is caused by the head jump across the phreatic surface.) Two regions with water owing predominantly downward in the core of the mound, and outward in its periphery, can be seen in the gure. (The vertical bold line is drawn at the location where the time derivative of the analytical mound elevation vanishes: h/t = 0.)
= 0.85 Figure 1.25 Head contours and analytical mound elevation at t
1.8.5 One-Dimensional Consolidation A saturated layer of soil of thickness H = 20 m (shown in Figure 1.26) and large horizontal extent rests on a rigid impervious base. A constant surface load, pz = 105 Pa, is applied on the layer under undrained conditions. The soil matrix is homogeneous and behaves elastically; the isotropic Darcys transport law applies. The applied pressure is initially carried by the uid but, as time goes on, the uid drains through the layer surface, transferring the load to the soil matrix. The solution to this one-dimensional consolidation problem may be expressed in the framework of Biot theory (see Detournay and Cheng 1993).
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pz
Figure 1.26 One-dimensional consolidation The diffusion equation for the pore pressure, p, has the form dzz 2p p c 2 = t 1 S dt z where:c = k/S ; S =
1 M 2 1 = 4 3 G;
(1.111)
the storage coefcient;
1 = K + M = is the Biot modulus; and = is the Biot coefcient. The boundary conditions are zz = pz H (t) and p = 0 at z = H (H (t) is the step function), and uz = 0 and p z = 0 at z = 0. Because the stress is constant, Eq. (1.111) reduces to p 2p c 2 =0 t z with boundary conditions p = 0 at z = H , and
p z
(1.112)
= 0 at z = 0.
The initial value, p0 , for the pore pressure induced from loading of the layer may be derived from the uid constitutive law (p = M( zz )) by considering undrained conditions ( = 0) and using
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the one-dimensional mechanical constitutive law (zz = 1 stresses. It is given by p0 = The solution for the pore pressure is p0 p =2 pz where:p = am = z = = t
p pz ; 2 (2m + 1); H z H ; and ct . H2 m=0
zz
p) to express strain in terms of
1 pz 1 S
(1.113)
sin(am z ) am 2t e am
(1.114)
The vertical displacement, uz , is found by considering the equilibrium equation zz /z = 0, together with the mechanical constitutive equation zz = 1 zz p. By expressing zz as uz /z, we obtain upon integration, taking Eq. (1.114) and the boundary conditions into account, p0 u z = 2 pz here u z is dened as u z =
1 uz Hpz . m=0
cos(am z ) am 2t e +y 1 2 am
(1.115)
The following properties are prescribed for this example: dry bulk modulus, K dry shear modulus, G Biot modulus, M Biot coefcient, permeability, k 5 108 Pa 2 108 Pa 4 109 Pa 1.0 1010
m2 P a sec
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The FLAC 3D model grid for this problem is a column of 20 zones of unit dimensions lined up along the z-axis. The base of the column is xed, and lateral displacements are restricted in the x - and y -directions. A mechanical pressure, pz , is applied at the top of the column. At rst, ow is prevented and the model is stepped to equilibrium to establish the initial undrained conditions. At the end of this stage, the stress zz has the value pz , in equilibrium with the applied pressure, and the pore pressure has the initial undrained value p0 = pz /1 S (see Eq. (1.113)). Drainage is then allowed by setting the pore pressure to zero at the top of the column. The FLAC 3D model is cycled to a ow time of 5000 seconds, which is approximately the magnitude of the characteristic time, tc = H 2 /c, for this problem. The analytical solution for the pore pressure, p , and vertical displacement, u z , at the column mid-height are evaluated using FISH functions, and compared to the numerical solution as time proceeds. The results are plotted versus uid-ow time in Figures 1.28 and 1.29. The transfer of pore pressure to effective stress is illustrated in Figure 1.30, where the evolutions of normalized total stress, zz /pz , effective stress, (zz + p)/pz , and pore pressure, p/pz , with uid-ow time are presented. The FLAC 3D data le is listed in Example 1.14. The corresponding project le, 1dConsolidation.f3prj, is located in folder datales\uid\1dConsolidation.
Figure 1.27 FLAC 3D grid for one-dimensional consolidation
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Example 1.14 One-dimensional consolidation (coupled)

new project set fish autocreate off title "One-dimensional consolidation (coupled)" config fluid def constants global c_perm = 1e-10 global c_biotc = 1. global c_biotm = 4.e9 global c_bulk = 5.e8 global c_shear = 2.e8 local comod = c_bulk + 4. * c_shear / 3. local storage = 1. / c_biotm + c_biotc * c_biotc / comod local cv = c_perm / storage global hh = 20. global bt = cv / (hh * hh) global pi2 = pi * .5 global pz = 1e5 global sig0 = - pz global p0 = pz * c_biotc / (comod * storage) global uz0 = pz * hh / comod end @constants ; --- model geometry --gen zone brick size 1 1 @hh def point global pnt = gp_near(0.,0.,10.) global zpnt = z_near(0.5,0.5,10.5) global zz = (hh - gp_zpos(pnt)) / hh end @point ; --- mechanical model --model mech el set fluid biot on prop bu @c_bulk sh @c_shear fix x y fix z range z -.1 .1 ini szz 0. apply szz @sig0 range z 19.9 20.1 ; --- fluid flow model --model fluid fl_iso
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prop perm @c_perm biot_c @c_biotc ini biot_mod @c_biotm ini pp 0 ; --- fish functions --def pp10 pp10 = gp_pp(pnt) / pz global ft = fltime global c_szz = z_szz(zpnt) / sig0 global c_eszz = (z_szz(zpnt) + z_pp(zpnt)) / sig0 global c_uz = gp_zdisp(pnt) / uz0 end def ppsol global tt = bt * fltime local val = 0.0 ;valz = 0.0 local valu = 0.0 local m loop m (0,20) local mm = pi2 * (2. * m + 1.) local c_e = exp(-mm*mm*tt)/mm val = val + sin(mm*zz)*c_e valu = valu + cos(mm*zz)*c_e/mm end_loop ppsol = val*2.*p0/pz global zdsol = valu*2.*c_biotc*p0/pz + zz - 1. end ; --- first establish undrained response --set fluid off solve ratio 1e-4 save cons_und ; --- histories --hist add fish @pp10 hist add fish @ppsol hist add fish @c_szz hist add fish @c_eszz hist add fish @c_uz hist add fish @zdsol hist add fish @tt hist add fish @ft ; --- drained response --fix pp 0 range z 19.9 20.1 set fluid on set mech force 0 ratio 1e-4 set hist_rep 200
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set fluid set mech solve age set fluid set mech solve age save cons return
substep substep 500 substep substep 5000
1 1 auto ;slave 100 10 auto
Figure 1.28 Comparison between analytical and numerical values of pore pressure in a one-dimensional consolidation test
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Figure 1.29 Comparison between analytical and numerical values for vertical displacement in a one-dimensional consolidation test
Figure 1.30 Evolution of pore pressure, total and effective stresses in a onedimensional consolidation test
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Note that, as the stiffness ratio Rk = 2 M/(K + 4G/3) increases, the number of zones should increase to keep the error small. This effect is caused by the numerical technique used to evaluate pore-pressure changes caused by volumetric strain in CONFIG uid. Also, as the ratio Rk increases, the timestep will decrease. However, to keep the error small and the timestep sufciently large without signicantly affecting the solution, it is acceptable to limit the value of Biot modulus (or Kf ) used in the simulation to a value of about twenty times (K + 4G/3)/ 2 (see Section 1.7.1, note 5). To demonstrate the validity of this numerical approach, the analytical solutions for pore 20) and M = 1.5 1015 pressure and displacement corresponding to M = 1.5 1010 (Rk (Rk 20 105 ) are compared in Figures 1.31 and 1.32 (data le is Example 1.15). As seen in those plots, the responses are indeed similar (maximum relative error less than 5%). Example 1.15 One-dimensional consolidation (analytical solution)
new set fish auto off title "One-dimensional consolidation (analytical solution)" config fluid def setup global c_M global c_perm = 1e-10 global c_biotc = 1. global c_biotm = c_M global c_bulk = 5.e8 global c_shear = 2.e8 local comod = c_bulk + 4. * c_shear / 3. local storage = 1. / c_biotm + c_biotc * c_biotc / comod local cv = c_perm / storage global hh = 20. global bt = cv / (hh * hh) global pi2 = pi * .5 global pz = 1e5 global sig0 = - pz global p0 = pz * c_biotc / (comod * storage) global uz0 = pz * hh / comod end def ppsol global ntab local dt = 100. local ii loop ii (1,50) local zz = (hh-10.) / hh local nt = ntab local nt1 = ntab + 1 local c_fltime = dt * ii
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local tt = bt * c_fltime local val = 0.0 local valu = 0.0 local m loop m (0,20) local mm = pi2 * (2. * m + 1.) local c_e = exp(-mm*mm*tt)/mm val = val + sin(mm*zz)*c_e valu = valu + cos(mm*zz)*c_e/mm end_loop local valpp = val*2.*p0/pz local valzd = valu*2.*c_biotc*p0/pz + zz - 1. xtable(nt,ii) = c_fltime ytable(nt,ii) = valpp xtable(nt1,ii) = c_fltime ytable(nt1,ii) = valzd end_loop end set @c_M=1.5e10 @ntab=1 @setup @ppsol set @c_M=1.5e15 @ntab=3 @setup @ppsol def err_pp local valpp = 0.0 local valuz = 0.0 local ii loop ii (1,50) valpp = max(abs(ytable(1,ii)-ytable(3,ii)),valpp) valuz = max(abs(ytable(2,ii)-ytable(4,ii)),valuz) endloop err_pp = valpp global err_uz = valuz end table table table table return 1 2 3 4 name name name name pp zd pp zd M M M M = = = = 1.5e10 1.5e10 1.5e15 1.5e15
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Figure 1.31 Comparison between analytical pore-pressure solutions for two large values of M in a one-dimensional consolidation test
Figure 1.32 Comparison between analytical vertical displacement solutions for two large values of M in a one-dimensional consolidation test
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In Example 1.16, the numerical simulation is repeated for a Biot modulus of 4 1011 Pa (100 times larger than in the former numerical calculation), this time using the uncoupling technique described in Section 1.7.2.3 (the applicability of the uncoupling technique to this problem follows from the irrotational character of the solution). In this example, the initial undrained conditions are obtained using the undrained bulk value for the material and setting Biot modulus to zero. The pore pressure, which is not updated in this calculation mode, is then initialized at the value p0 . The rest of the simulation is carried out in a series of ten time increments to enable a recording of the variables history. In each increment, the uid ow calculation is performed for a time interval of 500 seconds. During that stage, a scaled value for Biot modulus is used in order to preserve the coupled system true diffusivity (see Eq. (1.103)). Next, Biot modulus is set to zero to prevent additional generation of pore pressure, and the system is run to mechanical equilibrium using the drained value of the bulk modulus. Fluid and mechanical calculations are repeated until the total simulation time reaches 5000 s. The results of this simulation (which does not involve any direct calculation of pore-pressure change due to volumetric straining) are presented in Figures 1.33 to 1.35.
Example 1.16 One-dimensional consolidation (uncoupled)

new set fish auto off title "One-dimensional consolidation (uncoupled)" config fluid def constants global c_perm = 1e-10 global c_biotc = 1. global c_biotm = 4.e9 * 100. global c_bulk = 5.e8 global c_shear = 2.e8 global comod = c_bulk + 4. * c_shear / 3. local storage = 1. / c_biotm + c_biotc * c_biotc / comod local cv = c_perm / storage global c_bulku = c_bulk + (c_biotc2) * c_biotm global c_biotma= 1. / storage global hh = 20. global bt = cv / (hh * hh) global pi2 = pi * .5 global pz = 1e5 global sig0 = - pz global p0 = pz * c_biotc / (comod * storage) global uz0 = pz * hh / comod end @constants
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; --- model geometry --gen zone brick size 1 1 @hh def point global pnt = gp_near(0.,0.,10.) global zpnt = z_near(0.5,0.5,10.5) global zz = (hh - gp_zpos(pnt)) / hh end @point ; --- mechanical model --model mech el set fluid biot on prop bu @c_bulk sh @c_shear fix x y fix z range z -.1 .1 ini szz 0. apply szz @sig0 range z 19.9 20.1 ; --- fluid flow model --model fluid fl_iso prop perm @c_perm biot_c @c_biotc ini biot_mod @c_biotm ini pp 0 ; --- fish functions --def pp10 pp10 = gp_pp(pnt) / pz global ft = fltime global c_szz = z_szz(zpnt) / sig0 global c_eszz= (z_szz(zpnt) + z_pp(zpnt)) / sig0 global c_uz = gp_zdisp(pnt) / uz0 end def ppsol local tt = bt * fltime local val = 0.0 local valu = 0.0 local m loop m (0,20) local mm = pi2 * (2. * m + 1.) local c_e = exp(-mm*mm*tt)/mm val = val + sin(mm*zz)*c_e valu = valu + cos(mm*zz)*c_e/mm end_loop ppsol = val*2.*p0/pz global zdsol = valu*2.*c_biotc*p0/pz + zz - 1.
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end ; --- first establish undrained response --set fluid off mech on prop bu @c_bulku ini biot_mod 0.0 solve ini pp @p0 save ucons_und ; --- drained response --fix pp 0 range z 19.9 20.1 def my_solve local ii loop ii (1,10) global c_age = 500.0*ii command prop bu @c_bulk ini biot_mod @c_biotma set fluid on mech off solve age @c_age set fluid off mech on ini biot_mod 0.0 solve ratio 2e-5 end_command ytable(1,ii) = pp10 xtable(1,ii) = ft ytable(2,ii) = ppsol xtable(2,ii) = ft ytable(3,ii) = c_uz xtable(3,ii) = ft ytable(4,ii) = zdsol xtable(4,ii) = ft ytable(5,ii) = c_szz xtable(5,ii) = ft ytable(6,ii) = c_eszz xtable(6,ii) = ft end_loop table_name(1) = Flac Pore Pressure table_name(2) = Analytical Pore Pressure table_name(3) = Flac Vertical Displacement table_name(4) = Analytical Vertical Displacement table_name(5) = Total Stress table_name(6) = Effective Stress end @my_solve
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save ucons ret
Figure 1.33 Comparison between analytical and numerical values of pore pressure in a one-dimensional consolidation test
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Figure 1.34 Comparison between analytical and numerical values for vertical displacement in a one-dimensional consolidation test
Figure 1.35 Evolution of pore pressure, total and effective stresses in a onedimensional consolidation test
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1.8.6 Transient Fluid Flow to a Well in a Shallow Conned Aquifer A shallow conned aquifer of large horizontal extent is characterized by a uniform initial pore 0 . A well, fully penetrating the aquifer, is producing pressure, p0 , and initial isotropic stress, zz water at a constant rate, q , per unit depth from time, t = t0 . The elastic porous medium is homogeneous and isotropic, and the ow of groundwater is governed by Darcys law. Transient effects are linked to the compressibility of water and the soil matrix. In this problem, the effect of pore-pressure changes are small compared to the overburden, and the vertical stress in the aquifer may be assumed to remain constant with time. Also, horizontal strains are neglected compared to the vertical ones. The conditions of uid ow to the well are illustrated schematically in Figure 1.36. The numerical solution to this problem is presented using both coupled and uncoupled modeling approaches.
q
Figure 1.36 Flow to a well in a shallow conned aquifer A cylindrical system of coordinates is chosen with the z-axis pointing upward in the direction of the well axis. Substitution of the transport law in the uid mass-balance equation gives, taking into consideration that rr = = 0, zz p = M(k 2 p ) t t (1.116)
where k is the homogeneous permeability coefcient, M is the Biot modulus and is the Biot coefcient.
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0 + (p p ) = Partial differentiation, with respect to time, of the elastic constitutive relation zz zz 0 1 zz yields, for constant zz ,
where 1 = K + 4/3G. Using this last equation to express lations,

zz
zz p = 1 t t
(1.117)
in terms of p in Eq. (1.116), we obtain, after some manipu-
p = c 2 p t
(1.118)
where c = k/S is the diffusion coefcient, S = 1/M + 2 /1 is the storage coefcient and, with the problem being axisymmetric and not dependent on z, the Laplacian of p may be expressed as 2 p 1 p p= 2 + r r r
2
(1.119)
The solution to this differential equation with boundary conditions lim p = p0 q p = r k
r 0
lim 2 r
is due to Theis (1935). It has the form p = 1 E1 (u) + p 0 4 (1.120)
where p = pk/q . The dimensionless variable u is given by u= and E1 is the exponential integral, dened as r2 4c(t t0 )
(1.121)
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E1 (u) =
u
e d
(1.122)
The vertical displacement may be obtained by integration of the equilibrium equation zz /z = 0, after expressing zz in terms of zz by means of the mechanical constitutive equation and substituting zz /z for zz . This yields, after substitution of the boundary condition, and using Eq. (1.120), u z = = z/H . where u z = uk1 /(qH ) and x The stresses are derived from the mechanical constitutive equations and Eq. (1.120) for p . They have the form = rr = 1 0 E1 (u) + zz 2 (1.124) z E1 (u) 4 (1.123)
0 zz = zz
where = k1 /(qG). The FLAC 3D grid for this problem corresponds to a nine-degree wedge in a hollow cylinder of unit height. The axis and radius of the well correspond to cylinder axis and radius, respectively. The cylinder outer radius is selected as 100 m, to model the far boundary of the ow domain. Figure 1.37 shows the FLAC 3D grid.
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Figure 1.37 FLAC 3D grid for a well in a shallow aquifer A total of 31 zones are used, lined up and graded in the radial direction. The displacements are xed in the radial and tangential directions, and in the vertical direction at the cylinder base. A 0 is applied at the top of the model. vertical pressure of magnitude zz The properties for this example are dened: dry bulk modulus, K dry shear modulus, G water bulk modulus, Kf Biot coefcient, porosity, n permeability, k 118 MPa 71 MPa 2 GPa 1.0 0.4 2.98 108
m2 P a sec
The initial pore pressure is 147 kPa, and the initial isotropic stress is 147 kPa. Because the Biot coefcient is equal to one (incompressible soil grains), the Biot modulus is equal to the ratio between water bulk modulus and porosity (in this case, M = 5 GPa). The well-pumping rate per unit aquifer thickness is 2.21 103 m2 /s, and the well radius, rw , is selected as 1 m. Stresses and pore pressures are initialized to the values given above. The well ow-rate is modeled as a surface ux of magnitude q/(2rw ) applied to the well radius r = rw .
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Both coupled and uncoupled solutions are provided for this problem to a time of 32 seconds, with intermediate results at 4, 8 and 16 seconds. Both solutions are included in the FLAC 3D data le listed in Example 1.17. The corresponding project le, WellConfAquifer.f3prj, is located in folder datales\uid\WellConfAquifer. The coupled problem is solved (SET uid on mech on) using the explicit solution algorithm. The maximum out-of-balance mechanical force is limited to 10.0, the maximum number of mechanical sub-steps in the coupled uid-mechanical calculation step is limited to 1000, and the mechanical process is the slave module to the master uid-ow process. This is accomplished with the commands
set mech substep 1000 auto set mech force 10
By specifying these commands, the out-of-balance mechanical force will be kept to a small value while the uid-ow calculation proceeds. This example is pore-pressure driven, and the value for the stiffness ratio, Rk , is approximately 23 for the specied uid bulk modulus of 2 GPa. Thus, the ow calculation may be uncoupled from the mechanical calculation, and the approach discussed in Section 1.7.2.3 may be applied. The uid modulus during the ow-only step is dened by Eq. (1.103) in order to preserve the diffusivity of the system. During the mechanical-only step, the uid modulus is set to zero to prevent further adjustments by volumetric strains. The following commands are applied for the uncoupled calculation for a 4-second ow time:
set mech force 10 set fluid on mech off ini fmod = uwb solve age 4. set fluid off mech on ini fmod = 0.0 solve
The FISH variable uwb is the adjusted uid modulus calculated by Eq. (1.103). Note that, if conditions are such that Rk <<< 1, it is not necessary to adjust the uid modulus during the ow calculation because the diffusivity will be accurate. The analytical solutions for pore pressure, stresses and vertical displacement are programmed as FISH functions in Example 1.17. The exponential integral function used in the analytical solutions is programmed as a separate FISH function contained in le exp-int.s (see Example 1.18). Analytical and numerical values are stored in tables. The results are then compared in graphical form. The pore-pressure comparison at selected times is presented in Figure 1.38 for the coupled solution, and in Figure 1.39 for the uncoupled solution. The stresses and vertical displacement values at 32 seconds are processed by the FISH function well 32, and illustrated in Figures 1.40 and 1.42 for the coupled solution, and in Figures 1.41 and 1.43 for the uncoupled solution. The results for both the coupled and uncoupled solutions are essentially identical, and compare well with the analytical solution. The uncoupled solution is reached much more quickly than the
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coupled solution. Note that the coupled calculation requires more than 500,000 steps, while the uncoupled calculation requires approximately 16,000 steps. Example 1.17 Transient uid ow to a well in a shallow aquifer
new project set fish autocreate off title Transient fluid flow to a well in a shallow confined aquifer config fluid define constants global n1 = 31 global n2 = 1 global w_bulk = 2e9 global c_poro = 0.4 global c_biom = w_bulk / c_poro global c_bioc = 1. global eps = 1.e-3 global rn = 1. global qtot = 2.21e-3 ; model ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; constants zones in x-direction zones in y-direction water bulk modulus porosity Biot modulus Biot coefficient tolerance for well radius well radius well pumping rate / unit aquifer thickness equivalent flux
global qin = -qtot/(2.0*pi*rn) global rin = rn + eps global p0 = 147000. ; initial pore pressure global c_kw = 2.98e-8 ; Flac permeability global c_e = qtot / (4. * pi * c_kw * p0) global c_k = 11.8e7 ; bulk modulus global c_g = 7.1e7 ; shear modulus global sig0 = -1.47e5 ; initial isotropic stress global al1 = c_k + 4. * c_g / 3. global ss = (1. / c_biom + c_bioc2 / al1) * 0.25 / c_kw ; 1./4c global stor = c_poro/w_bulk + 1.0/al1 ; storativity global uwb = c_poro / stor ; adjusted fluid modulus global R_k = w_bulk / (c_poro * al1) ; stiffness ratio global err = get_array(15) end @constants ; --- model geometry (hollow cylinder - 9 degree wedge) --gen zone cshell p0 0. 0 1. p1 1.e2 0 p2 0. 0 0. p4 1.e2 0 p3 0.98769e2 0.15643e2 1. p5 0.98769e2 0.15643e2 0.
1. 0.
& & & &
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dim 1 1 1 1 size @n1 @n2 1 ratio 1.1 1 1 range name in cyl end1 0 0 -100 end2 0 0 100 rad @rin range name out cyl end1 0 0 -100 end2 0 0 100 rad 99. not range name xl y 0 z 0 ; --- mechanical model --model mech el prop bu @c_k sh @c_g fix x y fix z range z -0.001 0.001 ini sxx @sig0 ini syy @sig0 ini szz @sig0 apply szz @sig0 range z 1 ; --- fluid flow model --model fluid fl_iso prop perm @c_kw poro @c_poro ini fmod @w_bulk ini pp @p0 apply discharge @qin range nrange in ; --- fish functions --call exp-int.fis suppress define sol_pp(tab1,tab2) local pnt = gp_head local count = 0 local avg = 0 err(tab1) = 0 loop while pnt # null local rad = sqrt(gp_ypos(pnt)2 + gp_zpos(pnt)2) if rad < 1.e-4 then local x = gp_xpos(pnt) if x > 0.99 then count = count + 1 table(tab1,x) = gp_pp(pnt) / p0 local ft = fltime local e_val = ss * x * x / ft local val = exp_int(e_val) table(tab2,x) = - val * c_e + 1. err(tab1) = err(tab1) + (table(tab2,x)-table(tab1,x))2 avg = avg + table(tab2,x) end_if end_if pnt = gp_next(pnt) end_loop avg = abs(avg) err(tab1) = sqrt(count*err(tab1)) / avg
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end ; --- setting --set fluid on save ex1_17-ini ; ; --- pumping (coupled analysis) --set fluid substep 100 set mech substep 1000 auto ;slave set mech force 10. solve age 4. @sol_pp(1,2) solve age 8. @sol_pp(3,4) solve age 16. @sol_pp(5,6) solve age 32. @sol_pp(7,8) save ex1_17-cpl ; --- pumping (uncoupled analysis) --restore ex1_17-ini set mech force 10 set fluid on mech off ini fmod = @uwb solve age 4. set fluid off mech on ini fmod = 0.0 solve @sol_pp(1,2) ; set fluid on mech off ini fmod = @uwb solve age 8. set fluid off mech on ini fmod = 0.0 solve @sol_pp(3,4) ; set fluid on mech off ini fmod = @uwb solve age 16. set fluid off mech on ini fmod = 0.0 solve
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@sol_pp(5,6) ; set fluid on mech off ini fmod = @uwb solve age 32. set fluid off mech on ini fmod = 0.0 solve @sol_pp(7,8) save ex1_17-ucpl ; return
Example 1.18 Exponential integral function EXP-INT.FIS

; --- Exponential integral E1(e_val) --; Input: e_val ; define exp_int(e_val) local e_e1 if e_val < 0.0 then local ii = out( Argument of Exponential function must be positive) exit end_if if e_val = 0.0 then exp_int = 1.e12 exit end_if if e_val < 1. then e_e1 = ((.00107857 * e_val - .00976004) * e_val + .05519968) * e_val e_e1 = ((e_e1 - .24991055) * e_val + .99999193) * e_val exp_int = e_e1 - .57721566 - ln(e_val) else e_e1 = .250621 + e_val * (2.334733 + e_val) e_e1 = e_e1 / (1.681534 + e_val * (3.330657 + e_val)) exp_int = e_e1 * exp(-e_val) / e_val end_if end return
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Figure 1.38 Pore-pressure distribution at 4, 8, 16 and 32 seconds coupled solution (analytical values = lines; numerical values = symbols)
Figure 1.39 Pore-pressure distribution at 4, 8, 16 and 32 seconds uncoupled solution (analytical values = lines; numerical values = symbols)
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Figure 1.40 Radial, tangential and vertical stress distributions at 32 seconds coupled solution (analytical values = lines; numerical values = symbols)
Figure 1.41 Radial, tangential and vertical stress distributions at 32 seconds uncoupled solution (analytical values = lines; numerical values = symbols)
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Figure 1.42 Radial displacement distribution at 32 seconds coupled solution (analytical values = line; numerical values = symbols)
Figure 1.43 Radial displacement distribution at 32 seconds uncoupled solution (analytical values = line; numerical values = symbols)
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1.8.7 Pressuremeter Test The pressuremeter test is used to determine in-situ mechanical properties of soils (Wood 1990). A long, rubber membrane is expanded against the walls of a vertical borehole (Figure 1.44). The pressure inside the membrane is constant. Radial displacements of the borehole wall are measured as a function of the pressure. The soil deforms in plane strain in the plane normal to the borehole and sufciently distant from the ends of the membrane.
Figure 1.44 Cylindrical cavity expansion in pressuremeter test The borehole (radius a = 0.03 m) is drilled in homogeneous, isotropic soil. The soil is assumed to behave as a linearly elastic material saturated with groundwater. The following mechanical properties of the soil and groundwater are assumed in this problem: shear modulus (G) bulk modulus (K ) porosity (n) soil permeability (k ) bulk modulus of water (Kf ) 11.1 MPa 33.3 MPa 0.48 1.02 1014 500 MPa
m2 P a sec
The initial state of (total) stress in the soil is isotropic: 1 = 2 = 3 = 327.87 kPa, while the initial pore pressure is p = pi = 147.0 kPa.
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The soil is allowed to consolidate for 300 seconds after the drilling of the borehole. After the consolidation, the pressure inside the rubber membrane is increased from zero to 1 MPa during 600 seconds. (The rubber membrane prevents further drainage of the groundwater into the borehole.) The analytical solution for two-dimensional consolidation of a borehole in an elastic medium was obtained by Detournay and Cheng (1988). The drilling of the borehole is simulated by removing the stress acting on the inner boundary of the borehole and setting the pore pressure to zero at time t = 0. Since the initial stress is isotropic, the loading conditions can be decomposed into two modes: (1) mode 1, an isotropic stress; and (2) mode 2, an initial pore-pressure distribution. The boundary conditions at the wall of the borehole for each loading mode can be expressed as follows: (1) mode 1 rr = i r = 0 p=0 (2) mode 2 rr = 0 r = 0 p = pi The stresses and displacements due to mode 1 loading are described by the classical Lam solution. Since the volumetric strain computed from the Lam solution is zero throughout the domain, the mode 1 loading does not generate pore pressure, and deformation takes place instantaneously. The evolution of the pore-pressure eld due to mode 2 loading is governed by a homogeneous diffusion equation. The deformation and stress elds can be calculated from the pore-pressure eld. The problem is solved in the Laplace transform domain, and the solutions are transformed back to the time domain using the numerical inversion method developed by Stehfest (1970). The complete solution is described by Detournay and Cheng (1988). The analytical solutions are calculated and imported into FLAC 3D tables for comparison to the numerical results. Because the problem is axisymmetric, it is simulated using a row of 61 zones forming a truncated wedge of 9 angle. The geometry of the model and boundary conditions are illustrated in Figure 1.45. The FLAC 3D grid is shown in Figure 1.46. The far-eld boundary is at radius b = 1.50 m and can be considered at innity if radius b is scaled to the radius of the borehole (a = 0.03 m). (The length resulting from the diffusivity of the model, and time of the simulation, are also much smaller than b.)
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Figure 1.45 Domain of FLAC 3D simulation
Figure 1.46 FLAC 3D grid
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The simulation is conducted in the steps corresponding to the actual operations in the eld test: (1) The total stress on the contour of the borehole is reduced to zero, simulating drilling of the borehole. Although the total stress (in the FLAC 3D model) is reduced to zero in steps, the change in real ow time is instantaneous (i.e., the model undergoes undrained deformation). (The uid ow calculation is turned off: SET uid off.) The model is iterated to reach mechanical equilibrium. (2) The pressure boundary condition at the contour of the borehole is set to zero. The model consolidates for 300 seconds (SET uid on), resulting in the drainage of the groundwater into the borehole. (3) The contour of the borehole is dened as impervious (due to installation of the rubber membrane), and the pressure boundary condition is applied on the contour of the borehole: 1.0 MPa in 100 increments at each 6 seconds. That is, the soil consolidates under the applied load for 6 seconds before the next load increment (0.01 MPa) is applied. The FLAC 3D model requires approximately 9 MB RAM and takes less than 15 minutes to run all stages of the simulation on a 2.8 GHz Pentium IV computer. The proles of the normalized pore pressure, p/pi , normalized radial stress, rr /i , and tangential stress, /i (as a function of the normalized radius r/a ), after 300 seconds of consolidation, calculated from FLAC 3D and using the closed-form solution from Detournay and Cheng (1988), are shown in Figures 1.47 and 1.48. Agreement between the curves is very good. The proles of the normalized pore pressures, and the radial and tangential stresses after 600 seconds of pressurization of the borehole are shown in Figures 1.49 and 1.50.
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Figure 1.47 Pore-pressure proles 300 seconds consolidation
Figure 1.48 Proles of radial and tangential normal stresses 300 seconds consolidation
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Figure 1.49 Pore-pressure proles 600 seconds consolidation
Figure 1.50 Proles of radial and tangential normal stresses 600 seconds consolidation
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The pressure variations in the pressuremeter test are often such that nonlinear, plastic deformations are induced in a soil. Therefore, the same problem is simulated using a Mohr-Coulomb model for plastic deformation of the soil. The following strength parameters are assumed in the simulation: friction angle ( ) dilation angle ( ) cohesion (c) 22 10 26 kN/m2
The proles of the normalized pore pressures, and the normalized radial and tangential stresses after 600 seconds of pressurization of the borehole in a Mohr-Coulomb material, are shown in Figures 1.51 and 1.52. The numerical solution for a linearly elastic material is generated using the data le listed in Example 1.19. The input data le for a Mohr-Coulomb material is the same, except that: (1) the material model is declared a Mohr-Coulomb material (MODEL mohr); and (2) the corresponding material properties are added (PROP fric 30 dil 10 coh 26000). The data le pressuremetermaket.f3s generates the tables with the proles of the normalized pore pressure and the normalized stresses (see Example 1.20). The data le preana.dat contains tables in which the analytical elastic solutions for pore pressure, radial and tangential stress proles, after 300 seconds of pressurization, are stored. The corresponding project le, pressuremeter.f3prj, is located in folder datales\uid\pressuremeter.
Figure 1.51 Pore-pressure prole 600 seconds consolidation (Mohr-Coulomb material)
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Figure 1.52 Proles of radial and tangential normal stresses 600 seconds consolidation (Mohr-Coulomb material)
Example 1.19 Pressuremeter test

;-------------------------------------------------------------------; pressuremeter test in poro-elastic material ; (a) Elastic model ;-------------------------------------------------------------------new project set fish autocreate off title Pressuremeter - elastic model call pressuremeter-maket.f3fis suppress def test0 global tim0=clock end def test1 global tim=(clock-tim0)/100.0 end @test0 config fluid
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; --- constants --define gcons global n1 = 61 global w_bulk = 5e8 global c_poro = 0.48 global c_biom = w_bulk / c_poro ;Biot modulus end @gcons ; --- locations of history points --define findid local c_id local pnt = gp_head loop while pnt # null c_id = gp_id(pnt) if c_id = 1 then global id1 = pnt end_if if c_id = 17 then global id2 = pnt end_if if c_id = 37 then global id3 = pnt end_if if c_id = 57 then global id4 = pnt end_if if c_id = 77 then global id5 = pnt end_if if c_id = 117 then global id6 = pnt end_if pnt = gp_next(pnt) end_loop pnt = zone_head loop while pnt # null c_id = z_id(pnt) if c_id = 1 then global zid1 = pnt end_if if c_id = 5 then global zid2 = pnt end_if if c_id = 10 then global zid3 = pnt end_if
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if c_id = 15 then global zid4 = pnt end_if if c_id = 20 then global zid5 = pnt end_if if c_id = 31 global zid6 = pnt end_if pnt = z_next(pnt) end_loop end define radin radin = 1.001*gp_xpos(id1) end gen zone brick p0 0.03 0 0 p1 1.5 0 0 p2 0.03 0 -0.01 p4 1.5 0 -0.01 p3 2.96307e-2 0.46930e-2 0 p6 1.48153 0.23465 0 p5 2.96307e-2 0.46930e-2 -0.01 p7 1.48153 0.23465 -0.01 size @n1 1 1 ratio 1.1 1 1 range name out cyl end1 0 0 -10 end2 0 0 10 rad 1.48 not range name xl y -.001 .001 z -.001 .001 @findid ; --- mechanical model --; elastic model mech elastic prop bu 3.33e7 sh 1.11e7 ini sxx -327870 ini syy -327870 ini szz -327870 apply nstress -327870 range nrange out apply nstress -327870 range cyl end1 0 0 -10 end2 0 0 10 rad @radin ; --- gw model --model fluid fl_iso set fluid biot on prop perm 1.02e-14 ini biot_mod @c_biom ini pp 147000 ; --- histories --def gwtime gwtime = fltime global rad = gp_xpos(id1) global pp1 = gp_pp(id1) global pp2 = gp_pp(id2) global pp3 = gp_pp(id3)
& & & &
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global pp4 = gp_pp(id4) global pp5 = gp_pp(id5) global pp6 = gp_pp(id6) global sx1 = z_sxx(zid1) global sx2 = z_sxx(zid2) global sx3 = z_sxx(zid3) global sx4 = z_sxx(zid4) global sx5 = z_sxx(zid5) global sx6 = z_sxx(zid6) end set hist_rep 50 his add fish @gwtime his add fish @rad his add fish @pp1 his add fish @pp2 his add fish @pp3 his add fish @pp4 his add fish @pp5 his add fish @pp6 his add fish @sx1 his add fish @sx2 his add fish @sx3 his add fish @sx4 his add fish @sx5 his add fish @sx6 ; --- excavate: reduction of total pressure to zero in steps --define slow_excav local nn loop nn (1,100) local fac = 1.0 - float(nn) / 100.0 global ap_press = -327870.0 * fac local ii = out( applied pres = +string(ap_press)) radin command apply nstr @ap_press range cyl end1 0 0 -10 end2 0 0 10 rad @radin solve force 0.1 end_command end_loop end @radin fix pp range cyl end1 0 0 -10 end2 0 0 10 rad @radin fix y z range y -.00001 .00001 apply nvel 0. pl nor -0.46930e-2 2.96307e-2 0 & dvel 0. pl nor -0.46930e-2 2.96307e-2 0 & range plane nor -0.46930e-2 2.96307e-2 0 orig 0 0 0 dist 0.00001
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set fluid off set large set echo off @slow_excav set echo on solve for 0.001 save pre1 ; --- fish function --define charge local zz local pas = 0 global pis global abc loop zz (0,100) abc = -1e4 * zz pas = pas + 6 pis = 300 + pas local ii = out( applied mec. pressure = +string(-abc)) radin command apply nstress @abc range cyl end1 0 0 -10 end2 0 0 10 rad @radin set mech substep 1 set fluid off solve for 0.001 set fluid on set mech substep 100000 auto ;slave set mech force 0.01 solve age @pis end_command end_loop end ; --- let water flow out for 300 s --set fluid on @radin ini pp 0 range cyl end1 0 0 -10 end2 0 0 10 rad @radin set mech substep 100000 auto ;slave set mech force 0.01 solve age 300 save pre2 ; --- apply pressure inside the borehole --@radin free pp range cyl end1 0 0 -10 end2 0 0 10 rad @radin @charge @test1 list @tim
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save pre3 return
Example 1.20 Generate tables

; numerical solution for pressuremeter test ; table 1: pore pressure profile ; table 2: radial stress profile ; table 3: tangential stress profile ; table 4: vertical stress profile define maket local sig_0 = -327870 local pp_0 = 147000 local a = 0.03 local ang = 4.5*degrad local sagn = sin(ang) local cagn = cos(ang) local ss = sagn*sagn local cc = cagn*cagn local s2a = 2.*sagn*cagn local tab1 = 1 local tab2 = 2 local tab3 = 3 local tab4 = 4 local pnt = zone_head loop while pnt # null local x = z_xcen(pnt) local y = z_ycen(pnt) local z = z_zcen(pnt) local rad = sqrt(x*x+y*y+z*z)/a table(tab1,rad) = z_pp(pnt)/pp_0 table(tab2,rad) = (z_sxx(pnt)*cc+z_sxy(pnt)*s2a+z_syy(pnt)*ss)/sig_0 table(tab3,rad) = (z_sxx(pnt)*ss-z_sxy(pnt)*s2a+z_syy(pnt)*cc)/sig_0 table(tab4,rad) = z_szz(pnt)/sig_0 pnt = z_next(pnt) end_loop end ; Compare tables tab1 and tab2 define checkError(tab1,tab2,tol) local str = mismatch between tables + string(tab1) str = str + and + string(tab2) local ie local tab = tab1 if table_size(tab1) > table_size(tab2) then
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tab1 = tab2 tab2 = tab endif local err = 0 local max_ = -1e20 loop ie (1,table_size(tab1)) local xval1 = xtable(tab1,ie) local yval1 = ytable(tab1,ie) local yval2 = table(tab2,xval1) max_ = max(max_,yval1) err = err + (yval2-yval1)2 endloop err = sqrt(err/table_size(1)) / max_ if err > tol then error = str + error is : + string(err) endif end return
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1.9 Verication of Concepts, and Modeling Techniques for Specic Applications 1.9.1 Solid Weight, Buoyancy and Seepage Forces When uid ows through a porous medium there are, following Terzaghi (1943) and Taylor (1948), three forces acting per unit volume on the solid matrix: the solid weight, the buoyancy, and the drag or seepage force (also see Bear 1972). These forces are automatically taken into account in the FLAC 3D formulation. This may be shown as follows. In FLAC 3D, equilibrium is expressed using total stress: ij + s gi = 0 xj (1.125)
where s is the undrained (saturated bulk) density, and gi is gravitational vector. (Note that Einstein notation convention for summation over repeated indices applies to the equations in this section). Undrained density may be expressed in terms of drained density, d , and uid density, w , using the expression s = d + nsw where n is porosity, and s is saturation. The denition of effective stress is ij = ij pij Substitution of Eqs. (1.126) and (1.127) in Eq. (1.125) gives, after some manipulations, ij xj + d gi (1 n) p nw =0 xi xi (1.127) (1.126)
(1.128)
where we have introduced uid unit weight w and piezometric head as w = w g = and g is the gravitational magnitude.
nw x with seepage force (drag). i p with buoyancy, and In Eq. (1.128), the term d gi can be associated with solid weight, (1 n) x i
(1.129) (1.130)
p w g
xk gk g
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1.9.1.1 A Simple Example Illustrating Solid Weight, Buoyancy and Seepage Forces A simple example is given below to illustrate the contribution of these individual terms in the context of FLAC 3D methodology. We consider a layer of soil of large lateral extent and thickness, H = 10 m, resting on a rigid base. The layer is elastic, the drained bulk modulus, K , is 100 MPa, and the shear modulus, G, is 30 MPa. The density of the dry soil, d , is 500 kg/m3 . The porosity, n, is uniform with a value of 0.5. The mobility coefcient, k , is 108 m2 /(Pa-sec). The uid bulk modulus, Kw , is 2 GPa, and gravity is set to 10 m/sec2 . Initially, the water table is at the bottom of the layer, and the layer is in equilibrium under gravity. We study the heave of the layer when the water level is raised, and also the heave or settlement under a vertical head gradient. The problem is one dimensional; the FLAC 3D model is a mesh composed of a single column of 10 zones in the z-direction. The axes origin is at the bottom of the model. The mechanical boundary conditions correspond to roller boundaries at the base and sides of the model. The uid-ow boundary conditions are described for the individual cases below. This example is run using the groundwater conguration (CONFIG uid). The coupled groundwatermechanical calculations are performed using the basic uid-ow scheme. The calculation times are quite short for this small model; for larger models, uncoupled modeling can be applied to speed the calculation. For reference, in comparison of FLAC 3D results to the analytical solutions, the one-dimensional incremental stress-strain relation for this problem condition is zz + p = (K + 4G/3)
zz
(1.131)
where is the Biot coefcient (set equal to 1 for this simulation), K is the drained bulk modulus, G is the shear modulus, and zz is the vertical strain. Solid Weight We rst consider equilibrium of the dry layer. The dry density of the material is assigned, and the saturation is initialized to zero (the default value for saturation is 1 in CONFIG uid mode). The ow calculation is turned off, and the mechanical calculation is on. The value of uid bulk modulus is set to zero to prevent any generation of pore pressure under volumetric straining for this stage. The model is cycled to equilibrium. By integration of Eq. (1.125) applied to the dry medium, we obtain
(1) zz = d g(H z)
(1.132)
Vertical stress at the end of the FLAC 3D simulation is plotted versus elevation in Figure 1.53. The values match those obtained for equilibrium under gravity of the dry medium (Eq. (1.132)), as expected.
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Figure 1.53 Vertical stress versus elevation dry layer The vertical displacement at the top of the model is found from the equation d gH 2 u= 2(K + 4G/3)
(1.133)
The calculated value from FLAC 3D matches the analytical value at this stage (1.786 103 m). Note that the equilibrium ratio limit (SET mech ratio) is reduced to 106 to provide this level of accuracy for this example. Buoyancy We continue this example by raising the water table to the top of the model. We reset the displacements to zero, and assign the uid properties listed above. The pore pressure is xed at zero at the top of the model, and the saturation is initialized to 1 throughout the grid. (Note that a uid-ow calculation to steady state is faster if the state starts from an initial saturation 1 instead of a zero saturation.) Fluid-ow and mechanical modes are both on for this calculation stage, and a coupled calculation is performed to reach steady state. The code uses the saturated density for this calculation, as determined (internally) from Eq. (1.126). By integration of Eq. (1.125) for the saturated medium, we obtain
(2) zz = s g(H z)
(1.134)
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The comparison of total vertical stress prole from FLAC 3D to that from Eq. (1.134) is shown in Figure 1.54:
Figure 1.54 Vertical stress versus elevation saturated layer At steady state, the pore pressure is hydrostatic: p(2) = w g(H z) Contours of pore pressure at steady state are shown in Figure 1.55. (1.135)
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Figure 1.55 Pore pressure contours at steady state saturated layer The vertical displacement induced by raising the water table is now upwards. The amount of heave is calculated starting from Eq. (1.131). We write this equation in the form
(2) (1) zz ) + (p(2) p(1) ) = (K + 4G/3) (zz
du dz
(1.136)
For this example, p (1) = 0. After substitution of Eqs. (1.132), (1.134) and (1.135) into Eq. (1.136), we obtain, after some manipulation, (s w ) d g(H z) = (K + 4G/3) du dz (1.137)
The term (s w ) is the buoyant density. Substitution of Eq. (1.126) for undrained density in Eq. (1.137) produces (1 n)w g(H z) = (K + 4G/3) Finally, after integration between 0 and H, we obtain du dz (1.138)
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u= and, for z = H , this gives
z (1 n)w g H z (K + 4G/3) 2
(1.139)
u=
(n 1)w gH 2 2(K + 4G/3)
(1.140)
The nal numerical displacement at the top of the model compares well with the analytical value (+1.786 103 m). The displacements, induced upward, are plotted in Figure 1.56:
Figure 1.56 Heave of the layer at steady state saturated layer Additional Rise in Water Table We continue from this stage, and model the effect of an additional rise in the water level on the layer. This time, the water table is raised to 20 m above the top of the model. The corresponding hydrostatic pressure is p = w gh, where h is 20 m and p = 0.2 MPa. We reset displacements to zero and apply a pressure of 0.2 MPa at the top of the model. A uid pore pressure is applied (with FIX pp 2e5), as is a mechanical pressure (with APPLY nstress), along the top boundary. We now perform the coupled calculation again for an additional 500 seconds of uid-ow time. No further movement of the model is calculated. This is because the absolute increase in zz is balanced by the increase in pore pressure, and the Biot coefcient is set to 1. Thus, no displacement is produced. At the end of this stage, the hydrostatic pore pressure is given by
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p(3) = pb
(3)
(3)
z z + pt H H
(1.141)
where pb is the uid pressure at the base of the layer, and pt is the pressure at the top. For this (3) case, pb = 0.3 MPa, and pt = 0.2 MPa. Seepage Force (Upwards Flow) We now study the scenario in which the base of the layer is in contact with a high-permeability over-pressured aquifer. The pressure in the aquifer is 0.5 MPa. We continue from the previous stage, reset displacements to zero, and apply a pore pressure of 0.5 MPa at the base (FIX pp 5e5). The coupled mechanical-ow calculation is performed until steady state is reached. The plot of displacement vectors at this stage, shown in Figure 1.57, indicates heave as a result of the upwards ow.
Figure 1.57 Heave of the layer at steady state seepage force from overpressured aquifer The analytical solution for the heave can be calculated from Eq. (1.131). There is no change in total stress, and so the term zz drops out. Also, the Biot coefcient is equal to unity. Thus we can write p (4) p(3) = (K + 4G/3) du dz (1.142)
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where p (3) is given by Eq. (1.141), and p (4) is the steady-state pore pressure distribution at the end of this stage. This pore pressure is given by p(4) = pb
(4) (4)
z z + pt H H
(1.143)
where pb = 0.5 MPa. Substitution of Eqs. (1.143) and (1.141) into Eq. (1.142), and further integration produces p pb z u= b z 1 (K + 4G/3) 2H For y = H , we obtain p pb H u= b (K + 4G/3) 2
(4) (3) (4) (3)
(1.144)
(1.145)
The FLAC 3D result for surface heave compares directly to this result (u = 7.143 103 m). Seepage Force (Downwards Flow) The seepage force case is repeated for the scenario in which the base of the layer is in contact with a high-permeability under-pressured aquifer. This time, a (5) pressure value of pb = 0.1 MPa is specied at the base. The displacements are reset and the coupled calculation is made. The layer settles in this case, which can be seen from the displacement vector plot in Figure 1.58. The analytical value for the displacement may be derived from Eq. (1.145) (5) (4) after replacing pb for pb . The FLAC 3D settlement compares well with the analytical settlement of u = 7.143 103 m.
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Figure 1.58 Settlement of the layer at steady state seepage force from underpressured aquifer The complete data le for all of these cases is listed below in Example 1.21. The corresponding project le, WeightBuoyancySeepage.f3prj, is located in folder datales\uid\WeightBuoyancySeepage. Example 1.21 Solid weight, buoyancy and seepage forces
;; Solid weight, buoyancy and seepage forces new project set fish autocreate off title Buoyancy - fully coupled config fluid define setup global m_bu global m_sh global m_d global m_n global w_d global _grav
= = = = = =
1e8 0.3e8 500.0 0.5 1000.0 10.0
; ; ; ; ; ;
drained bulk modulus shear modulus material dry mass density porosity water mass density gravity
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global _H ;
= 10.0
; height of layer
global mgrav = -_grav end @setup define num_dis local al1 = m_bu+4.0*m_sh/3.0 global m_rho = m_d+m_n*w_d ; material wet density global ana_dis1 = -(m_d)*_grav*_H2/(2.0*al1) global ana_dis2 = -(m_n-1.0)*w_d*_grav*_H2/(2.0*al1) global ana_dis3 = 0.0 global ana_dis4 = 2e5*_H/(2.0*al1) ; new pp - old pp=2e5(_H-y)/_H global ana_dis5 = -2e5*_H/(2.0*al1) ; new pp - old pp=-2e5(_H-y)/_H global pnt = gp_near(1,0,10) global num_dis = gp_zdisp(pnt) end gen zone brick size 1 1 10 model mech e fluid fl_iso prop bu @m_bu sh @m_sh ini dens @m_d ; --- (column is dry) --ini sat 0 ; --- boundary conditions --fix z range z 0 fix x range x 0 fix x range x 1 fix y range y 0 fix y range y 1 ; --- gravity --set grav 0 0 @mgrav ; --- histories --his add fish @num_dis his add fish @ana_dis1 ; --- initial equilibrium set fluid off mech on solve list @num_dis @ana_dis1 save ini ; ------------------------------------------------; --- Fully coupled --; ------------------------------------------------restore ini
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title Buoyancy - fully coupled ini xdis 0 ydis 0 zdis 0 his reset ; --- histories --his add fish @num_dis his add fish @ana_dis2 his add fltime ; --- add water --ini sat 1 ini fden=@w_d fmod=2e8 ftens=-1e10 prop poro=@m_n perm 1e-8 ; --- boundary conditions --fix pp 0 range z 10 ; --- static equilibrium --set fluid on mech on set mech force 0 set mech ratio 1e-6 set mech substep 10 auto set fluid substep 256 ; --- we can run this simulation coupled, using --solve age 300 list @num_dis @ana_dis2 save ex1a ; ------------------------------------------------; --- Uncoupled --; ------------------------------------------------restore ini title Buoyancy - uncoupled ini xdis 0 ydis 0 zdis 0 his reset ; --- add water --ini sat 1 ini fden=@w_d fmod=2e8 ftens=-1e10 prop poro=@m_n perm 1e-8 ; --- boundary conditions --fix pp 0 range z 10 ; --- static equilibrium --set fluid on mech off set mech force 0 set mech ratio 1e-6 ; --- we can run this simulation uncoupled, using --solve age 300 ; --- histories ---
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his add fish @num_dis his add fish @ana_dis2 set flow off mech on ini fmod 0 solve list @num_dis @ana_dis2 save ex1b ; ------------------------------------------------; --- Sink it deeper, under 20m of water --; ------------------------------------------------restore ex1b ini fmod 2e8 title Sink it deeper, under 20m of water ini xdis 0 ydis 0 zdis 0 his reset ; --- fluid boundary conditions --fix pp 2e5 range z 10 ; --- apply pressure of water --apply nstress -2e5 range z 10 ; --- static equilibrium --; --- we can run this simulation uncoupled, using --set flow on mech off solve age 600 ; --- histories --his add fish @num_dis his add fish @ana_dis3 set flow off mech on ini fmod 0 solve list @num_dis @ana_dis3 save ex1c ; ------------------------------------------------; --- Seepage force: flush up --; ------------------------------------------------restore ex1c ini fmod 2e8 title Seepage force: flush up ini xdis 0 ydis 0 zdis 0 his reset ; --- flush fluid up --fix pp 5e5 range z 0
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; --- static equilibrium --; --- we can run this simulation uncoupled, using --set flow on mech off solve age 1200 ; --- histories --his add fish @num_dis his add fish @ana_dis4 set flow off mech on ini fmod 0 solve list @num_dis @ana_dis4 save ex1e ; ------------------------------------------------; --- Seepage force: flush down --; ------------------------------------------------restore ex1c ini fmod 2e8 title Seepage force: flush down ini xdis 0 ydis 0 zdis 0 his reset ; --- flush fluid up --fix pp 1e5 range z 0 ; --- static equilibrium --; --- we can run this simulation uncoupled, using --set flow on mech off solve age 1200 ; --- histories --his add fish @num_dis his add fish @ana_dis5 set flow off mech on ini fmod 0 solve list @num_dis @ana_dis5 save ex1f
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1.9.2 Pore Pressure Initialization and Deformation In FLAC 3D, when equilibrium stresses are initialized in the model with the INITIAL command (following, for example, the procedure as described in Section 3.4.2 in the Users Guide) and mechanical steps are taken, no stress increment is calculated by the code, and thus no displacement is generated, because the model is in equilibrium with the stress boundary conditions and applied loads. In other words, FLAC 3D does not calculate the deformations associated with installation of equilibrium stresses, when using the INITIAL command. If the stress state is installed in this way at the beginning of a run, the initial stress state is taken as the reference state for displacements. (This is worth noting because the logic may be different from other codes, in which the zero stress state is taken as reference for calculation of displacements.) The situation regarding pore pressure in a uid-mechanical simulation is similar: by default, if pore pressures are initialized with the INITIAL pp command and are in equilibrium with the uid boundary conditions and hydraulic loading, and uid steps are taken, then, by default, no increment of pore pressure will be generated by the code. If the INITIAL pp command is issued at the beginning of the run, this initial state is taken as the reference state for pore pressure. There will be no stress change (and, if mechanical steps are taken, no displacement) as a result of the pore pressure initialization, because no increment of pore pressure is calculated by the code. In other words, by default, FLAC 3D does not calculate the deformation associated with installation of equilibrium pore pressures when using the INITIAL pp command. This only applies, by default, to equilibrium pore pressures established using the INITIAL pp command, the WATER table command or a FISH function to initialize pore pressures. Pore pressure change that is calculated by FLAC 3D, on the other hand, will always generate stress change; if the system is brought out of equilibrium by the stress change and mechanical steps are taken, then deformations will be generated, if conditions allow. If the deformation associated with a new distribution of pore pressure, assigned using the INITIAL pp command, the WATER table command or a FISH function to initialize pore pressures, needs to be calculated, then a special stress-correction technique needs to be used. This technique consists of: 1) subtracting from the total normal stresses the increment of pore pressure in the zones affected by the change, multiplied by Biot coefcient (the pore pressure increment in a zone is calculated by averaging nodal values); 2) adjusting the saturation to zero in the dry region, and to one in the region lled with uid; 3) adjusting the input material density to the bulk value, above and below the phreatic surface (in case it exists), and the simulation is run using CONFIG uid; and 4) cycling the model to mechanical equilibrium. A simple example illustrating the heave of a soil layer using this technique is presented below. For the example, we consider a layer of soil of large lateral extent, and thickness H = 10 meters, resting on a rigid base. The layer is elastic, the drained bulk modulus, K , is 100 MPa, and the shear modulus, G, is 30 MPa. The bulk density of the dry soil, , is 1800 kg/m3 , and the density of water, w , is 1000 kg/m3 . The porosity, n, is uniform; the value is 0.5. And gravity is set to 10 m/sec2 . Initially, the water table is at the bottom of the layer, and the layer is in equilibrium under gravity. We evaluate the heave of the layer when the water level is raised to the soil surface. This simple problem is similar to the one analyzed in Section 1.9.1.1. The difference is, here, we do not require
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the code to nd the new pore pressure distribution. The simulation can be carried out with or without using the groundwater conguration (CONFIG uid). We consider both cases. The grid for this example contains 20 zones: 10 in the z-direction, 2 in the x -direction, and 1 in the y -direction. The origin of axes is at the bottom of the model. The mechanical boundary conditions correspond to roller boundaries at the base and lateral sides of the model. We rst consider equilibrium of the dry layer. We initialize the stresses, using the INITIAL sxx, INITIAL syy and INITIAL szz commands, using a value of 0.5714 (equal to (K 2G/3)/(K + 4G/3)) for the coefcient of earth pressure at rest, ko . There are two competing effects on deformation associated with raising the water level: rst, the increase of pore pressure will generate heave of the layer; and second, the increase in soil bulk density due to the presence of the water in the pores will induce settlement. To model the combined effects on deformation, of a rise in water level up to the soil surface, we proceed as follows. If we do not use CONFIG uid, we specify a hydrostatic pore-pressure distribution corresponding to the new water level by using either the INITIAL pp command or the WATER table command, and we specify a wet bulk density for the soil beneath the new water level. We apply the stress correction described under point 1) above, using INI sxx add, INI syy add and INI szz add. Finally, we cycle the model to static equilibrium. If we do use CONFIG uid, we again specify a hydrostatic pore-pressure distribution corresponding to the new water level using the INITIAL pp or WATER table command. The saturation is initialized to 1 below the water level, and to zero above. However, we do not update the soil density to account for the presence of water beneath the new water level (this is done automatically by the code). We again perform a stress correction, as described earlier. Finally, we SET ow off and cycle the model to static equilibrium. The nal response is identical for both cases. The plot of displacement vectors in Figure 1.59 indicates that the rise of the water table has induced a heave of the soil layer. The surface heave, uh , can be evaluated analytically using Eq. (1.146), uh = (1 n)w g 2 H 21 (1.146)
where 1 = K + 4G/3. The theoretical value for uh is 1.786 103 meters. The theoretical and numerical values compare well. The data les for the simulations are listed in Examples 1.22 and 1.23.
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Figure 1.59 Heave of a soil layer The project le for this example, PPInitAndDeformation.f3prj, is located in folder datales\uid \PPInitAndDeformation. Example 1.22 Heave of a soil layer, without cong uid
new project set fish autocreate off title Raising the water table - not in config fluid define setup global m_bu = 1e8 ; drained bulk modulus global m_sh = 0.3e8 ; shear modulus global m_d = 1800. ; material dry mass density global m_n = 0.5 ; porosity global w_d = 1000. ; water mass density global _grav = 10. ; gravity global _H = 10. ; height of column ; --- derived quantities --global m_rho = m_d+m_n*w_d ; material bulk wet density global mgrav = -_grav end @setup define num_dis
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local al1 = m_bu+4.0*m_sh/3.0 global ana_dis = -(m_n-1.0)*w_d*_grav*_H2/(2.0*al1) global pnt = gp_near(1,0,10) global num_dis = gp_zdisp(pnt) end gen zone brick p0 (0,0,0) size 2 1 10 ratio 1 1 model mech elas prop bu @m_bu sh @m_sh ; --- column is dry --prop density @m_d ; --- boundary conditions fix z range z 0 fix x range x 0 fix x range x 2 fix y range y 0 fix y range y 1 ; --- gravity --set grav 0 0 @mgrav ; --- histories --his nstep 10 his add fish @num_dis his add fish @ana_dis ; --- initial equilibrium ini szz -1.8e5 grad 0 0 ini sxx -1.029e5 grad 0 0 ini syy -1.029e5 grad 0 0 ; set mech ratio 1e-6 solve save ini P1 (2,0,0) P2 (0,1,0) P3 (0,0,10) & 1
---
--1.8e4 1.029e4 1.029e4
; --- raise water level --; (note: when not in CONFIG FLUID, water density is assigned using:) water density @w_d ; (we can do it this way ...) ini pp 1e5 grad 0 0 -1e4 ; (or this way ...) ;water table origin 0 0 _H normal 0 0 -1 ; (total stress adjustement) ini sxx add -1e5 grad 0 0 1e4 ini syy add -1e5 grad 0 0 1e4 ini szz add -1e5 grad 0 0 1e4 ; --- use wet density below water table --prop dens @m_rho
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; --- static equilibrium --solve list @num_dis @ana_dis save ncfl return
Example 1.23 Heave of a soil layer, with cong uid

new project set fish autocreate off config fluid title Raising the water table - config fluid define setup global m_bu = 1e8 ; drained bulk modulus global m_sh = 0.3e8 ; shear modulus global m_d = 1800. ; material dry mass density global m_n = 0.5 ; porosity global w_d = 1000. ; water mass density global _grav = 10. ; gravity global _H = 10. ; height of column ; --- derived quantities --global m_rho = m_d+m_n*w_d ; material bulk wet density global mgrav = -_grav end @setup define num_dis local al1 = m_bu+4.0*m_sh/3.0 global ana_dis = -(m_n-1.0)*w_d*_grav*_H2/(2.0*al1) global pnt = gp_near(1,0,10) global num_dis = gp_zdisp(pnt) end gen zone brick p0 (0,0,0) P1 (2,0,0) P2 (0,1,0) P3 (0,0,10) & size 2 1 10 ratio 1 1 1 model mech elas fluid fl_iso prop bu @m_bu sh @m_sh ; --- column is dry --; (initialize sat at 0) ini sat 0 prop density @m_d ; --- boundary conditions --fix z range z 0
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fix x range x 0 fix x range x 2 fix y range y 0 fix y range y 1 ; --- gravity --set grav 0 0 @mgrav ; --- histories --his nstep 10 his add fish @num_dis his add fish @ana_dis ; --- initial equilibrium ini szz -1.8e5 grad 0 0 ini sxx -1.029e5 grad 0 0 ini syy -1.029e5 grad 0 0 ; set mech ratio 1e-5 set fluid off mech on ini fmod 0 solve save ini
--1.8e4 1.029e4 1.029e4
; --- raise water level --; (initialize sat at 1 below the water level) ini sat 1 ; (note: in CONFIG FLUID, water density is assigned using:) ini fdens @w_d ; (we can do it this way ...) ini pp 1e5 grad 0 0 -1e4 ; (or this way ...) ; (note: we can use water table command in config fluid, ; this is different from FLAC) ;water table origin 0 0 _H normal 0 0 -1 ; (total stress adjustement) ini sxx add -1e5 grad 0 0 1e4 ini syy add -1e5 grad 0 0 1e4 ini szz add -1e5 grad 0 0 1e4 ; --- Note: no need to specify wet density below water table --; --- static equilibrium --set fluid off mech on ini fmod 0 solve list @num_dis @ana_dis save cfl return
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1.9.3 Effect of the Biot Coefcient The Biot coefcient, , relates the compressibility of the grains to that of the drained bulk material: =1 K Ks (1.147)
where K is the drained bulk modulus of the matrix, and Ks is the bulk modulus of the grains (see Detournay and Cheng 1993, for reference). For soils, matrix compliance is usually much higher than grain compliance (i.e., 1/K >>> 1/Ks ), and it is a valid approximation to assume that the Biot coefcient is equal to 1. For porous rocks, however, matrix and rock compliances are most often of the same order of magnitude and, as a result, the Biot coefcient may be almost zero. Consider, for example, a sample of porous elastic rock. The pores are saturated with uid at a pressure, p, and a total external pressure, P , is applied around the periphery (i.e., on the outside of an impermeable sleeve). The problem can be analyzed by superposition of two stress states: state a, in which uid pressure and external pressure are both equal to p ; and state b, in which pore pressure is zero, and the external pressure is P p (see Figure 1.60).
Figure 1.60 Decomposition of stresses acting on a porous, elastic rock The stress-strain relation for state a may be expressed as p = Ks For state b (there is no uid), we can write P p =K
b a
(1.148)
(1.149)
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The total strain is given by superposition of the strain in state a and in state b: = After substitution of
a a b
(1.150)
from Eq. (1.148), and =
from Eq. (1.149), we obtain (1.151)
P p p + Ks K
After some manipulations, the stress-strain equation takes the form P 1 K p = P p = K Ks (1.152)
Clearly, then, in the framework of Biot theory, a zero Biot coefcient implies that the elastic stress-strain law becomes independent of pore pressure. Of course, in general, porous rocks do not behave elastically, and pore pressure has an effect on failure. Also, if uid ow in rocks occurs mainly in fractures, Biot theory may not be applicable. Nonetheless, there are numerous instances where the small value of the Biot coefcient may help explain why pore pressure has little effect on deformation for solid, porous (i.e., unfractured) rocks. (For example, the effect on surface settlement of the raising or lowering of the water table in a solid porous rock mass may be unnoticeable.) Note that the preceding discussion addresses only one of the effects of grain compressibility. The Biot coefcient also enters the uid constitutive law, which relates change of uid content to volumetric strain. The logic for grain compressibility, as developed in the framework of Biot theory, is provided in FLAC 3D. Simple verication examples are described below to illustrate the logic. For reference, in the examples below, in the special case have the form xx + p = (K + 4G/3) zz + p = (K + 4G/3) p = M(
v) v xx zz yy
= 0, the principal stress-strain relations
+ (K 2G/3) + (K 2G/3)
zz xx
(1.153) (1.154) (1.155) is the incre-
where is the variation of uid content per unit volume of porous media, and mental volumetric strain.
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1.9.3.1 Undrained Oedometer Test An undrained oedometer test is conducted on a saturated poro-elastic sample. The Biot modulus is 1 MPa, and the Biot coefcient is 0.3 for this test. The model is a single square zone of unit dimensions with roller boundaries on the sides and bottom. A constant velocity, v , is applied to the top. Fluid ow is turned off, and the simulation is run for 10 calculational steps. The SET biot on command is given to select the Biot modulus and coefcient rather than the uid bulk modulus. Because the sample is laterally conned, xx = yy = 0 and v = zz . For undrained conditions, = 0. The analytical value for pore pressure (see Eq. (1.155)) is then p = M
zz
(1.156)
The analytical stresses are obtained by substituting pore pressure and strain components into Eqs. (1.153) and (1.154): xx = (K 2G/3) + 2 M zz = (K + 4G/3) + 2 M (1.157)
zz
zz
(1.158)
After 10 calculation steps, zz = 10v . The agreement between analytical and numerical values for pore pressure and stresses is checked with the FISH function checkit. The analytical and numerical results are identical. Example 1.24 lists the data le for this example. The corresponding project le, oedometer.f3prj, is located in folder datales\uid\oedometer. Example 1.24 Undrained oedometer test
; file for Undrained Oedometer test new project set fish autocreate off config fluid title Undrained define setup global c_b = global c_s = global c_n = global c_a = global c_bm = global c_zv = global c_ns = Oedometer test 1e8 0.3e8 0.5 0.3 1e8 -1e-3 10 ; ; ; ; ; ; ; drained bulk modulus shear modulus porosity Biot coefficient (alpha) Biot modulus z-velocity number of steps
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end @setup gen zone brick p0 (0,0,0) P1 (1,0,0) P2 (0,1,0) P3 (0,0,1) & size 1 1 1 model mech elas fluid fl_iso prop bu @c_b sh @c_s ini ftens -1e10 set fluid biot on prop poro=@c_n biot_c=@c_a ; --- boundary conditions --fix x y z ini zvel=@c_zv range z 1 ; --- undrained compression --ini biot_mod=@c_bm set fluid off mech on step @c_ns return
1.9.3.2 Pore Pressure Generation in a Conned Sample The effect of pore pressure generation is shown for the case of a conned sample in an impermeable sleeve. The sample geometry and properties are the same as in the previous example, in Section 1.9.3.1. Roller boundaries are set on all four sides of the model. The boundaries are also impermeable (by default). Fluid ow is turned on, and a volumetric water source with a unit ow rate is applied to the model to raise the pore pressure. The simulation is run for 10 uid ow steps. At the end of the simulation, = 10 t . The grid is fully constrained, hence xx = = = 0. The analytical value for pore pressure is found, from Eq. (1.155), to be zz v p = M(10 t) The analytical stresses are then derived from Eqs. (1.153) and (1.154) to be xx = yy = zz = M(10 t) (1.160)
yy
(1.159)
Numerical and analytical values for pore pressure and stresses are compared with the FISH function checkit, and the results are identical. Example 1.25 lists the data le. The corresponding project le, ppgen-conned.f3prj, is located in folder datales\uid\ppgen-conned.
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Example 1.25 Pore pressure generation in a conned sample

; file for Pore pressure generation in a confined sample new project set fish autocreate off config fluid title Pore pressure generation in a confined sample def setup global c_b = 1e8 ; drained bulk modulus global c_s = 0.3e8 ; shear modulus global c_n = 0.5 ; porosity global c_a = 0.3 ; Biot coefficient (alpha) global c_bm = 1e8 ; Biot modulus global c_k = 1e-10 ; mobility global c_ws = 1.0 ; volumetric water source global c_ns = 10 ; number of steps end @setup gen zone brick p0 (0,0,0) P1 (1,0,0) P2 (0,1,0) P3 (0,0,1) & size 1 1 1 model mech elas fluid fl_iso prop bu @c_b sh @c_s ini ftens -1e10 set fluid biot on prop poro=@c_n biot_c=@c_a perm=@c_k ini biot_mod=@c_bm ; --- boundary conditions --fix x y z ; --- water source --apply vwell @c_ws set fluid on mech off step @c_ns return
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1.9.3.3 Pore Pressure Generation in an Innite Layer This example is similar to the preceding conned sample, except that the top boundary is not constrained. All boundaries are impermeable, and a volumetric water source with unit ow is applied to raise the pore pressure. Both mechanical and uid-ow calculations are turned on, and the simulation is run for 10 uid-ow steps. Note that 200 mechanical sub-steps are taken every uid step in order to keep the system in quasi-static equilibrium state. For this example, xx = Eq. (1.154), we obtain
yy
= 0,
zz
and
zz = 0. Using these conditions in
p=
(K + 4G/3)
zz
(1.161)
zz ,
After substituting Eq. (1.161) for p in Eq. (1.155) and solving for = M (K + 4G/3) + 2 M
we nd (1.162)
zz
Analytical expressions for pore pressure and stress can now be derived from Eqs. (1.153) and (1.155): p = M( xx = (K 2G/3)
zz ) zz
(1.163) p (1.164)
Numerical and analytical values for vertical displacement, pore pressure and stresses are compared with the FISH function checkit, and the results are identical. Example 1.26 lists the data le. The corresponding project le, ppgen-innite.f3prj, is located in folder datales\uid\ppgeninnite.
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Example 1.26 Pore pressure generation in an innite layer

; file for Pore pressure generation in an infinite layer new project set fish autocreate off config fluid title Pore pressure generation in an infinite layer define setup global c_b = 2.0 ; drained bulk modulus global c_s = 1.0 ; shear modulus global c_n = 0.5 ; porosity global c_a = 0.3 ; Biot coefficient (alpha) global c_bm = 1 ; Biot modulus global c_k = 1.0 ; mobility global c_ws = 1. ; volumetric water source global c_ns = 10 ; number of steps end @setup gen zone brick p0 (0,0,0) P1 (1,0,0) P2 (0,1,0) P3 (0,0,1) & size 1 1 1 model mech elas fluid fl_iso prop bu @c_b sh @c_s ini ftens -1e10 set fluid biot on prop poro=@c_n biot_c=@c_a perm=@c_k ini biot_mod=@c_bm ; --- boundary conditions --fix x y fix z range z 0 ; --- water source --apply vwell @c_ws set fluid on mech on set mech force 0 mech ratio 1e-10 set fluid substep 1 set mech substep 200 auto solve age 1.6 return
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1.9.4 Semi-conned Aquifer Fluid leakage into a shallow semi-conned aquifer can be modeled with FLAC 3D using the APPLY leakage command. This is demonstrated for the example dened by the sketch in Figure 1.61. The aquifer has a length L, height H , and rests on an impermeable base. Fluid ow obeys Darcys law; the mobility coefcient k is homogeneous and isotropic. The semi-permeable top layer has permeability k , and thickness H . The effect of gravity is neglected in this example. Fluid pressure at the top of the leaky layer is constant and equal to p . The lateral uid-ow conditions correspond to a constant pressure p0 at the left boundary, and p1 at the right. The objective is to determine the steady-state pore-pressure prole and total leakage into the aquifer. The general solution of pore pressure for a shallow semi-conned aquifer has the form (see Strack 1989) p p = Aex/ + Bex/ where is the seepage factor, which has the dimension of length and is dened as = A and B are constants determined from the pressure boundary conditions. (1.165) kH H /k ;
Figure 1.61 Shallow semi-conned aquifer The boundary conditions for this problem are p = p0 p = p1 at at x=0 x=L
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The pore pressure solution is p = Aex/ + Bex/ + p where A= (p1 p )eL/ (p0 p ) e2L/ 1 (1.166)
(p0 p )e2L/ (p1 p )eL/ B= e2L/ 1 The steady state discharge over the height of the aquifer is obtained from Darcys law: Qx = kH dp dx (1.167)
After differentiation of Eq. (1.166) with respect to x , and substitution into Eq. (1.167), we obtain Q= kH Aex/ Bex/ (1.168)
The total amount of leakage into the aquifer is, by continuity of ow, equal to the difference between the discharge leaving at x = L and that entering at x = 0. Using Eq. (1.168), we obtain, after some manipulation, Qx = 2 kH eL/ 1 p0 + p1 p eL/ + 1 2
(1.169)
Eqs. (1.166) and (1.169) are used for comparison to the FLAC 3D solution. The FLAC 3D data le for this problem is listed in Example 1.26. The analytical solution is programmed in FISH as part of the data le. The FLAC 3D model is a 20 zone by 2 zone mesh with a constant pore pressure of p0 = 20 kPa applied at the left boundary, x = 0, and a constant pore pressure of p1 = 10 kPa applied at the right boundary, x = 20 m. A leaky aquifer boundary condition is applied along the top boundary of the model, y = 1 m, using the APPLY leakage command. The pore pressure at the top is p = 1.8 kPa, and the leakage coefcient h (see Eq. (1.18)), is evaluated to be k /H = 2.98 109 m3 /(N sec), based on the properties of the leaky layer. The properties for this problem are listed in the ini h4 function in Example 1.26. The uid-ow calculation mode is turned on, the mechanical calculation mode is turned off, and the simulation is run until steady-state ow is reached.
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The FISH function tab pp compares the amount of leakage calculated by FLAC 3D to the solution of Eq. (1.169) at steady-state ow. The difference is printed (in a FISH dialog message) to be 0.03%. The analytical and numerical pore pressure proles recorded along the base of the model, from x = 0 to x = 20, are compared in Figure 1.62:
Figure 1.62 Pore pressure prole The project le for this example, semi-confAquifer.f3prj, is located in folder datales\uid \semi-confAquifer. Example 1.27 Shallow conned aquifer with leaky boundary
; file for Semiconfined aquifer new project set fish autocreate off config fluid title Semiconfined aquifer define setup ; --- aquifer --global c_h = 1. global c_l = 20.
; height ; lateral extent
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global c_n = 0.4 ; porosity global c_k = 2e-8 ; mobility global c_wb = 2e9 ; water bulk modulus global c_p0 = 2e4 ; upstream pp global c_p1 = 1e4 ; downstream pp ; --- leaky layer --global c_hs = 0.1 ; height global c_ks = 3e-10 ; mobility global c_ps = 1.8e4 ; pp ; --- utility --global _eps = 0.1 ; small length compared to zone size ; --- derived value --global c_cs = c_ks/c_hs ; leakage coefficient global zm = c_h-_eps global zp = c_h+_eps global xm = c_l-_eps end @setup gen zone brick p0 (0,0,0) P1 (@c_l,0,0) P2 (0,1,0) P3 (0,0,@c_h) & size 20 2 2 model fluid fl_iso ini ftens -1e10 prop poro=@c_n perm=@c_k ini fmod=@c_wb ftens -1e10 ; --- boundary conditions --apply leakage @c_ps @c_cs range z @zm @zp ;c_h fix pp @c_p0 range x 0 fix pp @c_p1 range x @c_l ; --- fluid flow solution --set fluid on mech off solve age 1 ; save confaquifer return
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1.10 Input Instructions for Fluid-Flow Analysis This section summarizes all of the FLAC 3D commands and FISH variables related to uid-ow analysis. See Section 1 in the Command Reference and Section 1 in the Plot Command Reference for a complete listing of FLAC 3D commands, and Section 2.5 in the FISH volume for a listing of FLAC 3D -specic variables accessed by FISH. 1.10.1 FLAC 3D Commands The following commands are provided to run uid-ow problems. Note that the uid-ow commands are invoked by keywords used with existing commands for a standard mechanical analysis. For a transient uid-ow analysis, the CONFIG uid command must be the rst uid-ow command given, before any other uid-ow commands are invoked. CONFIG uid does not have to be given rst in a data le, but can be specied at the point that the uid-ow calculation is to begin.
APPLY
keyword <keyword> value <keyword> <range . . . > The APPLY command is used to apply uid-ow boundary conditions to any external or internal boundary of the model grid, or to interior gridpoints. The user must specify the keyword type to be applied (e.g., discharge), the numerical value (if required), and the range over which the boundary conditions are to be applied. The range can be given in several forms (see Section 1.1.3 in the Command Reference). If no range is specied, then the command applies to the entire model. Optional keywords may precede or follow the numerical value. The optional keywords are described for the APPLY command in Section 1.3 in the Command Reference. Three keyword types are used to apply uid-ow boundary conditions. The associated keywords are given for each type: Gridpoint-Type Keywords
pp
<interior>
A uid pore pressure, v, is applied at the boundary gridpoints. (Note that this is not a mechanical boundary condition. Use the APPLY nstress command to specify a mechanical pressure boundary condition.) Use the interior keyword to apply a pore pressure to an interior gridpoint.
pwell
<interior>
A uid-ow rate, v, (e.g., in m3 /sec) is applied at each boundary gridpoint in the specied range. This command is used to specify a constant inow (v > 0) or outow (v < 0) along a uid-ow boundary. Use the interior keyword to apply the condition to an interior gridpoint. When a new well is applied to a gridpoint with an existing well, the new well ow rate replaces the existing well ow-rate.
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Face-Type Keywords
discharge
v Fluid ux v is the component of the specic discharge vector (e.g., in [m/sec]) applied normal to the boundary.
leakage
v1 v2 v1 is the pore pressure in the leaky layer. v2 is the leakage coefcient, h (e.g., in m3 /N sec). See Eq. (1.18) for the formula for a leaky boundary condition. A leaky condition is applied over the range of faces specied. The history keyword is not active for leakage.
Zone-Type Keywords
vwell
v A volume rate of ow, v (i.e., uid volume per zone volume per unit time), is specied for each zone in the specied range (v > 0 for inow). When a new volumetric source is applied to a zone with an existing source, the new source replaces the existing source.
CONFIG
uid
This command species extra memory to be assigned to each zone or gridpoint for a uid-ow analysis. CONFIG uid can be given at any stage of a FLAC 3D analysis, but it must be given before any other uid-ow commands are invoked.
FIX
pp <value> <range . . . >

The pore pressure is xed at points in the gridpoint range. If a value is given, the pore pressure is xed at that value.
FREE
pp <range . . . >
The pore pressure at points in the gridpoint range is allowed to change.
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HISTORY add <id nh> <nstep = n> keyword . . . x y z

The variables available for sampling are identied by the following keywords:
gp
pp Pore-pressure variables are sampled at gridpoint x,y,z.
zone
pp Pore-pressure variables are sampled at zone x , y , z.
History of Real Time
time INITIAL
creates a history of real time for uid-ow problems.
keyword <keyword> value <grad gx gy gz> <range . . . > The following keywords apply. Units for uid-ow properties are listed in Table 2.7 in the Users Guide.
biot mod
Biot modulus, M , is initialized to the given value at all gridpoints in the range specied. The Biot modulus is applied for the uid mode involving compressible grains (SET uid biot on). This property only applies for CONFIG uid mode. The uid mass density, f , is initialized to the given value at all zones in the range specied. This property only applies for CONFIG uid mode. Use the WATER density command in non-CONFIG uid mode. The uid modulus, Kf , is initialized to the given value at all gridpoints in the range specied. The uid modulus is applied for the uid mode involving incompressible grains (SET uid biot off). This property only applies for CONFIG uid mode. The uid tension limit is initialized to the given (negative) value at all gridpoints in the range specied. This property only applies for CONFIG uid mode. (The default value is 1015 units.) The pore pressure is initialized to the given value at all gridpoints in the range specied. The uid saturation is initialized to the given value at all gridpoints in the range specied. (By default, value = 1 for fully saturated zones when CONFIG uid is specied.) This property only applies for CONFIG uid mode.
fdensity
fmodulus
ftens
pp saturation
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LIST
keyword <keyword> . . . <range . . . > This command prints various uid-ow variables. The following keywords apply:
gp
keyword gridpoint data. A keyword is specied to print selected gridpoint data pertaining to uid ow. The following keywords apply:
biot modulus gridpoint Biot modulus fmodulus ftens pp saturation zone

keyword zone data. A keyword is specied to print selected zone data pertaining to the uid ow. The following keywords apply: gridpoint uid modulus gridpoint uid tension limit gridpoint pore pressure gridpoint saturation
fdensity pp property
zone uid density zone pore pressure (average from gridpoint values) keyword uid-ow properties assigned to zones. Values are printed for the property keyword. The keywords available are listed below for the PROPERTY command.
MODEL
keyword <range . . . > This command associates a uid-ow model with a range of zones.
uid
keyword
anisotropic anisotropic uid ow isotropic null

isotropic uid ow Zone is null for uid ow. (Null zones model impermeable material.) Note that zones made null mechanically are not automatically made null for uid ow.
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PROPERTY
keyword value <keyword . . . > <region i,j> <var vx vy> <i = i1,i2 j = j1,j2> This command assigns properties for the uid-ow model identied by the MODEL command. The required keywords to specify properties are listed below. Units for uid-ow properties are listed in Table 2.7 in the Users Guide.
anisotropic
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) biot c fdip fdd frot k1 k2 k3 kxx kyy kzz kxy kxz kyx porosity u thc Biot coefcient, principal permeability dip angle, dip principal permeability dip direction angle, dd principal permeability rotation angle, rot principal permeability value, k 1 principal permeability value, k 2 principal permeability value, k 3 xx -component of permeability tensor yy -component of permeability tensor zz-component of permeability tensor xy -component of permeability tensor xz-component of permeability tensor yx -component of permeability tensor porosity, n undrained thermal coefcient,
isotropic
(1) (2) (3) (4) biot c permeability porosity u thc Biot coefcient, isotropic permeability coefcient, k porosity, n undrained thermal coefcient,
Note: The principal directions of permeability, corresponding to k 1, k 2, k 3, form a right-handed system. The angles dip and dd are the dip angle and dip-direction angle of the plane in which k 1 and k 2 are dened. The dip angle is measured from the global xy -plane, positive down (in negative global z-direction). The dip-direction angle is the angle between the positive y -axis and the projection of the dip-direction vector on the xy -plane (positive clockwise from the global y -axis). The angle rot is the rotation angle between the k 1-axis and the dip-direction vector, in the k 1-k 2-plane (positive clockwise from dip-direction vector). See Figure 1.1.
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SET
keyword <keyword value> . . . This command is used to set parameters in a FLAC 3D model. The following keywords apply:
uid
keyword <keyword value> . . . The following keywords apply:
age
t t is the uid-ow time limit for the uid-ow calculation using the SOLVE command.
biot
on off
The uid-ow calculation uses the Biot coefcient, , and the Biot modulus, M , if on. If off, then the uid modulus, Kf , and porosity, n, are used, and = 1. The default is off.
dt
t t denes the uid-ow timestep. This timestep must be specied for the implicit-solution scheme. By default, FLAC 3D calculates uid-ow timestep automatically for the explicit-solution scheme. This keyword allows the user to choose a different timestep. If FLAC 3D determines that the user-selected value is too large for numerical stability, the timestep will be reduced to a suitable value when uid-ow steps are taken. The calculation will not revert to the user-selected value until another SET uid dt command is issued.
implicit on off
The implicit-solution scheme in the uid-ow model is turned on or off. The default is off.
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SET
keyword <keyword value> . . .
uid
on off
The uid-ow calculation process is turned on or off. The uid-ow process is on by default when the CONFIG uid command is given. The uid-ow calculation is turned off for a mechanical-only calculation or a thermal-only calculation.
ratio
value The uid-ow ratio limit is set to value for the SOLVE command. The value of ratio is dened as (|outf low| |inf low|) / (|outf low| + |inf low|) where inow (outow) is the total volume of uid entering (leaving) the ow domain per unit time (applied contributions included). (Different forms of ratio can be specied see the SET ratio command.) When the ratio falls below value during the calculation process, the uid-ow calculation will stop. (By default, the ratio limit is set to 1.0 105 .)
step
value The maximum number of steps to be taken when the SOLVE command is issued is set to value. (By default, unlimited stepping is allowed.)
substep value <auto>

The number of uid-ow sub-steps in a coupled uid ow-mechanical calculation or a coupled thermalmechanical-uid ow calculation is set to value. (The default is value = 1.) The uid-ow calculation is identied as the slave component in the uid-ow mechanical process or in the thermal-mechanical-uid ow process when the optional keyword auto is given.
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SET
time
t Fluid time is initialized to t.
mechanical
keyword <keyword value> . . . This command sets parameters for the mechanical calculation in a coupled mechanical-uid-ow analysis. The following keywords apply:
force
value The out-of-balance force limit is set to value for the SOLVE command. When the maximum out-of-balance force falls below this limit, the mechanical calculation will stop. (By default, the out-of-balance force limit is zero.)
on off
The mechanical calculation process is turned on or off. The mechanical process is on by default. The mechanical calculation is turned off for a ow-only calculation.
ratio
value The force ratio limit is set to value for the SOLVE command. By default, ratio is dened as the average unbalanced force magnitude for all gridpoints in the model, divided by the average applied force magnitude for all the gridpoints. (Different forms of ratio can be specied see the SET ratio command.) When the ratio falls below value during the calculation process, the mechanical calculation will stop. (By default, the ratio limit is set to 1.0 105 .)
step
value The maximum number of steps to be taken when the SOLVE command is issued is set to value. (By default, unlimited stepping is allowed.)
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SET
mechanical
substep value <auto>

The number of mechanical sub-steps in a coupled uid-ow mechanical calculation or a coupled thermal-mechanical uid-ow calculation is set to value. (The default is value = 100.) The mechanical calculation is identied as the slave component in the uid-ow mechanical process when the optional keyword auto is given.
SOLVE
keyword value <keyword value> . . . This command controls the automatic timestepping for uid-ow and coupled uidow mechanical and thermal uid-ow mechanical calculations. A calculation is performed until the limiting conditions, as dened by the following keywords, are reached.
age
t t is the maximum time limit for all processes involved in the calculation.
clock
t t is the computer runtime limit, in minutes. (By default, there is no limit on computer runtime.)
ratio
value value is the ratio limit for the active calculation process. (By default, the limit is 1.0 105 .)
WATER
keyword value <keyword value> . . . This command assigns a xed groundwater table position and properties from which a constant hydrostatic pore-pressure distribution is derived for use in an effective stress calculation (not in CONFIG uid mode). During calculation, FLAC 3D uses effective stresses (i.e., total stresses plus pore pressure) in constitutive models. Pore pressures are dened at gridpoints. Zone pore pressures are calculated as the average of the zone gridpoints and are not stored. Pore pressures are not affected by zone volume changes; nor is there any ow of water. Total stresses are displayed on plots and printouts. Note that, when using this command, the saturated material density must be specied for zones below the water table, and the dry density for zones above.
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The following keywords apply:
density
value groundwater density, w [SI units; kg/m3 ]
table
keyword value . . . The WATER table command sets pore pressure for all gridpoints below the water table. The pore-pressure gradient is given by the direction of the gravity vector, which can be arbitrary (see the SET gravity command). The water table plane can be dened in two forms: a single innite plane, or an assembly of planar convex polygons. For an innite plane, the following keywords are used:
normal nx ny nz
normal direction to the plane, dened by unit vector nx, ny, nz and pointing in the direction of increasing pore pressure
origin
x y z one point at coordinate location (x y z) on the plane
Alternatively, the water table can be dened by an assembly of planar, convex polygons. The following keyword phrase applies:
face
x1,y1,z1 . . . xn,yn,zn <face . . . > The face polygon is dened by nodes x1, y1, z1 to xn, yn, zn. The nodes must produce a convex polygon. Faces can have any number of nodes but are split into triangles for storage. Only gridpoints that project along the gravity direction inside faces are assigned pore pressure. No checking of face overlapping or intersection is performed.
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1.10.2 FISH Variables The following scalar variables are available in a FISH function to assist with uid-ow analysis:
dt time uid ratio
uid-ow timestep uid-ow time current uid-ow ratio (set by the SET ratio command)
The following FLAC 3D grid variables can be accessed and modied by a FISH function:
gp ftens gp pp gp sat
gridpoint uid tension limit gridpoint pore pressure gridpoint saturation
The following FLAC 3D grid variable can be accessed but cannot be modied by a FISH function:
gp ow
out-of-balance ow discharge at a gridpoint
The following FLAC 3D zone variables can be accessed but cannot be modied by a FISH function:
z pp z qx z qy z qz
zone pore-pressure x -component of the specic discharge vector y -component of the specic discharge vector z-component of the specic discharge vector
Also, uid-ow property values may be accessed (changed, as well as tested) in a FISH function. See the PROPERTY command in Section 1.10.1 for a list of the uid-ow properties.
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1.11 References Barenblatt, G. Dimensional Analysis. Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 1987. Bear, J. Dynamics of Fluids in Porous Media. New York: Dover, 1972. Berchenko, I. Thermal Loading of a Saturated Rock Mass: Field Experiment and Modeling Using Thermoporoelastic Singular Solutions. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Minnesota, 1998. Biot, M. A. General Solutions of the Equations of Elasticity and Consolidation for a Porous Material, J. Appl. Mech., Trans. ASME, 78, 91-96, 1956. Carslaw H. S., and J. C. Jaeger. Conduction of Heat in Solids, Second Edition. Oxford at the Calderon Press, 1959. Chaney, R. C. Saturation Effects on the Cyclic Strength of Sands, in Proceedings: ASCE Geotechnical Engineering Division Specialty Conference (Pasadena, California, June 19-21, 1978), Vol. 1, pp. 342-358, 1978. Crank, J. The Mathematics of Diffusion, 2nd Ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1975. Dahlquist, G., and A. Bjorck. Numerical Methods. Prentice Hall, 1974. Detournay, E., and A. H. D. Cheng. Comprehensive Rock Engineering. Pergamon Press Ltd., 1993. Detournay, E., and A. H. D. Cheng. Fundamentals of Poroelasticity, in Comprehensive Rock Engineering, Vol. 2, pp. 113-171. J. Hudson et al., eds. London: Pergamon Press, 1993. Detournay, E., and A. H. D. Cheng. Poroelastic Response of a Borehole in a Non-Hydrostatic Stress Field, Int. J. Rock Mech. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr., 25(3), 171-182, 1988. Harr, M. E. Groundwater and Seepage. Dover, 1991. Karlekar, B. V., and R. M. Desmond. Heat Transfer, 2nd Ed. St. Paul: West Publishing Co., 1982. Kochina, I., N. Mikhailov, and M. Filinov. Groundwater Mound Damping, Int. J. Engng. Sci., 21, 413-421, 1983. Polubarinova-Kochina, P. Y. Theory of Groundwater Movement. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1962. Stehfest, H. Numerical Inversion of Laplace Transforms, Communic. Ass. Comput. Mach., 13, 47-49, 1970. Taylor, D. W. Fundamentals of Soil Mechanics. New York: John Wiley, 1948. Terzaghi, K. Theoretical Soil Mechanics. New York: John Wiley, 1943.
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Theis, C. V. The Relation between the Lowering of the Piezometric Surface and the Rate and Duration of Discharge of a Well Using Groundwater Storage, Trans. Am. Geophys. Union, 10, 519-524, 1935. Voller, V., S. Peng and Y. Chen. Numerical Solution of Transient, Free Surface Problems in Porous Media, Int. J. Numer. Meth. Engng., pp. 2889-2906, 1996. Wood, D. M. Soil Behaviour and Critical State Soil Mechanics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
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Fluid Mechanical Interaction

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FLAC3D

Fast Lagrangian Analysis of Continua in 3 Dimensions Fluid-Mechanical Interaction

* Please see the errata page in the \Manuals\Flac3d400 folder.

TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 FLUID-MECHANICAL INTERACTION SINGLE PHASE FLUID

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