Processing of plastics

SHAPING PROCESSES FOR PLASTICS

y Properties of Polymer Melts y Extrusion and Related Processes y Molding Processes y Casting y Polymer Foam Processing and Forming y Product Design g Considerations

Plastic Products
y Plastics can be shaped into a wide variety of products:
y Continuous y Extruded sections y Films y Sheets y Insulation coatings on electrical wires y Fibers for textiles

y Discrete
y Molded parts p y Injected parts

Why y Plastic Shaping p g Processes are Important p

y Almost unlimited variety of part geometries y Plastic molding is a net shape process; further shaping is not

needed y Less L energy is required d than h f for metals l b because processing temperatures are much lower
y Handling of product is simplified during production because of

lower temperatures
y Strength to weight ratio is good.

Polymer Melts
y To shape a thermoplastic polymer it must be heated so that it

softens to the consistency of a liquid y In this form, it is called a polymer melt y Important I properties:
y Viscosity y Viscoelasticity

Viscosity y of Polymer y Melts

Fluid property that relates shear stress to shear rate during flow y Due to its high g molecular weight, g ap polymer y melt is a thick fluid with high viscosity y Flow rates are often large, leading to high shear rates and shear h stresses, so significant f pressures are required d to accomplish the processes

Viscoelasticity
Combination of viscosity and elasticity y Possessed by both polymer solids and polymer melts y This property determines the strain experienced by a material l when h subjected b d to a combination b of f stress and d temperature over time.
y Strain gradually increases under applied stress and decays

gradually on removal
y Example: die swell in extrusion, in which the hot plastic

expands when exiting the die opening

Die Swell
Extruded material "remembers" its former shape when in the larger g cross-section of the extruder and attempts p to return to it after leaving the die orifice

Die swell ratio

Extrusion
Compression process in which material is forced to flow through a die orifice to provide long continuous product whose cross-sectional shape is determined by the shape of the orifice y Widely used for thermoplastics and elastomers to mass produce items such as tubing, p g p pipes, p hose, structural shapes, p sheet and film, continuous filaments, and coated electrical wire y Carried d out as a continuous process; extrudate is then h cut into desired lengths

Components and features of a (single-screw) extruder for plastics and elastomers

L/d ratio of barrel for TP is high compared to elastomers

Two Main Components of an Extruder

1. Barrel 2. Screw y y y y y

Die - not an extruder component Feedstock fed by gravity onto screw whose rotation moves material l through h h barrel b l Electric heaters melt feedstock; subsequent mixing and mechanical working adds heat which maintains the melt Clearance between barrel and screw to limit leakage of the melt backward to the trailing g channel The dc changes from entry to exit

Extruder Screw
y

Divided into sections to serve several functions:

y y

Feed section - feedstock is moved from hopper pp and p preheated Compression section - polymer is transformed into fluid, air mixed with pellets is extracted from melt, and material is compressed cr compressed, crystallinity stallinit pla plays s a role in the length length. Metering section - melt is homogenized and sufficient pressure developed to pump it through g die opening g

Tan A = P/D

Die End of Extruder

y Progress of polymer melt through barrel leads ultimately to

the die zone y Before reaching die, the melt passes through a screen pack series of wire meshes supported by a stiff plate containing small axial holes y Functions of screen pack: p :
y Filter contaminants and hard lumps from melt y Build pressure in metering section y Straighten flow of polymer melt and remove its "memory" of

circular motion imposed by screw

Melt Flow in Extruder

y As screw rotates inside barrel, polymer melt is forced to move forward

toward die; as in an Archimedian screw y Principal transport mechanism is drag flow, Qd, resulting from friction between the viscous liquid and the rotating screw
y Qd = volume drag flow rate = 0.5vdw y V= DNcos DN A d A; d=d dc; w= wc= (Dtan D A wf)cosA; ) A wf is i small ll y Qd = 0.5 2D2Ndccos A sinA

y Compressing the polymer melt through the die creates a back pressure

that reduces drag flow transport (called back pressure flow, Qb ) Qb = [(DNdc 3 sin 2A)/12]*dp/dl dp/dl pressure gradient, we can assume to be constant, p= head pressure y Resulting flow in extruder is Qx = Qd Qb y We have design parameter and operational parameters in the formula

Extruder characteristics

Extrusion of Solid Profiles

y Regular shapes such as
y Rounds y Squares

y Irregular I l cross-sections ti such h as

y Structural shapes y Door and window moldings y Automobile trim y House siding

Cross-section of an extruder die

Hollow Profiles
y Examples: tubes, pipes, hoses, and other cross-sections

containing holes y Hollow profiles require mandrel to form the shape y Mandrel M d lh held ld in place l using a spider d
y Polymer melt flows around legs supporting the mandrel to

reunite into a monolithic tube wall

y Mandrel often includes an air channel through which air is

blown to maintain hollow form of extrudate during hardening

Wire Coating
y Polymer melt is applied to bare wire as it is pulled at high

speed through a die

y A slight l h vacuum is d drawn b between wire and d polymer l to

promote adhesion of coating

y Wire provides rigidity during cooling - usually aided by

passing coated wire through a water trough

Polymer y Sheet and Film

y Sheet Thickness from 0.5 mm - 12.5 mm y Film Thickness below 0.5 mm (0.020 in.) y Processes include:
y Slit-Die Extrusion of Sheet and Film y Blown-Film Bl Fil Extrusion E i P Process y Calendering

Slit-Die Extrusion of Sheet and Film

Production P d of f sheet h and d film f l by b conventional l extrusion, using a narrow slit as the die opening y Slit may be up to 3 m wide and as narrow as around 0.4 0 4 mm y A problem in this method is uniformity of thickness throughout g width of stock, , due to drastic shape p change g of polymer melt during its flow through die y Edges of film usually must be trimmed because of thickening at edges

Blown-Film Extrusion Process

Combines C b extrusion and d bl blowing to produce d a tube b of f thin h f film l y Process begins with extrusion of tube that is drawn upward while still molten and simultaneously expanded by air inflated into it through die mandrel y Air is blown into tube to maintain uniform film thickness and tube diameter

Calendering
Feedstock F d k is passed d through h h a series of f rolls ll to reduce d thickness h k to desired gage y production rate is high high, good surface finish and high gage accuracy y Typical yp materials: rubber or rubbery y thermoplastics p y Products: PVC floor covering, shower curtains, vinyl table cloths, pool liners, and inflatable boats and toys

Fiber and Filament Products

y Definitions: Definitions
y Fiber - a long, thin strand whose length is at least 100 times its

cross-section y Filament - a fiber of continuous length

Fiber and Filament Production - Spinning

y

The term spinning is Th i ah holdover ld f from methods h d used d to d draw and d twist i natural l fibers into yarn or thread

For synthetic fibers, spinning = extruding a polymer melt or solution through a spinneret (a ( die di with i h multiple l i l small ll holes), h l ) then h d drawing i and d winding i di the h product onto a bobbin
y

Three variations, depending on polymer processed: 1. Melt spinning :Starting polymer is heated to molten state and pumped through spinneret, similar to conventional extrusion 2. Dry spinning :Similar to melt spinning, but starting polymer is in solution and solvent can be separated by evaporation 3. Wet spinning :Polymer is also in solution, only solvent is non-volatile , To separate polymer, extrudate is passed through a liquid chemical that coagulates or precipitates the polymer into coherent strands which are then collected onto bobbins Filaments produced by any of the three processes are usually subjected to f h cold further ld drawing d to align l crystal l structure along l d direction of ff filament l axis

Injection Molding discrete products

y Polymer is heated to a highly plastic state and forced to flow under

high pressure into a mold cavity where it solidifies; molded part is th removed then d from f cavity.TP,TS it TP TS and d El Elastomers t are used d as working material. y Complex and intricate shapes are possible y Typical cycle time 10 to 30 sec., but cycles of one minute or y contain multiple p cavities more are not uncommon. Mold may y Two principal components:
y Injection unit melts and delivers polymer melt, operates much like an

extruder y Clamping unit opens and closes mold each injection cycle

Diagram of an injection molding machine, reciprocating screw type (some mechanical details are simplified)

Inside the barrel is a screw which has two functions: 1 Rotates for mixing and heating the polymer 1. 2. Acts as a ram to inject molten plastic into mold Non-return valve near tip of screw prevents melt flowing backward along screw threads y Functions of clamping unit 1. Holds two halves of mold in proper alignment with each other 2 2. Keeps mold closed during injection by applying a clamping force sufficient to resist injection force 3. Opens and closes the mold at the appropriate times in molding cycle

Typical molding cycle : (1) mold is closed (2) melt is injected into cavity (3) screw is retracted (4) mold opens and part is ejected

The Mold
y The Th special l tool l in injection molding ld y Various types of mold for injection molding:
y Two-plate Two plate mold y Three-plate mold y Hot-runner mold

(a) closed (b) opening

Two-Plate Mold Features

y Cavity has g geometry of part but slightly g oversized to allow for y

y y

shrinkage y Created by machining of the mating surfaces of two mold halves Distribution channel through which polymer melt flows from nozzle into mold cavity y Sprue - leads from nozzle into mold y Runners - lead from sprue to cavity (or cavities) y Gates - constrict flow of plastic into cavity Ejection system function is to eject molded part from cavity at end of molding cycle y Ejector pins built into moving half of mold usually accomplish this function Cooling system - consists of external pump connected to passageways in mold, through which water is circulated to remove heat from hot plastic Air vents to permit evacuation of air from cavity as polymer melt rushes in

Three-Plate Mold
Uses three plates to separate parts from sprue and runner when mold opens y Advantages over two two-plate plate mold:
y Allows automatic operation of molding machine y As mold opens, runner and parts disconnect & drop by gravity into two containers i under d mold ld y Flow of molten plastic is through a gate at the base of part

rather than side, allowing g more even distribution of plastic melt into sides of cup

Hot-Runner Mold
y Eliminates Eli i solidification lidifi i of f sprue and d runner b by l locating i h heaters around d the h

corresponding runner channels

y While plastic in mold cavity solidifies, material in sprue and runner channels

remains i molten, l ready d to b be i injected j di into cavity i i in next cycle l y This saves material that otherwise would be scrap in the unit operation

Shrinkage Factors
y Fillers in the plastic tend to reduce shrinkage y Injection pressure as pressure is increased, forcing more material into mold

cavity, shrinkage is reduced

y Compaction C ti ti time - similar effect - forces more material into cavity ca it during

shrinkage
y Molding temperature - higher temperatures lower polymer melt viscosity,

allowing ll i more material t i l to t be b packed k d into i t mold ld and d reducing d i shrinkage hi k

Blow Molding
Molding process in which air pressure is used to inflate soft plastic into a mold cavity y Important for making one-piece hollow plastic parts with thin walls, such as bottles y Since these items are used for consumer beverages be erages in mass markets, production is typically organized for very high q quantities

Blow Molding Process

y

Accomplished in two steps:

Fabrication of a starting tube, called a parison 2. Inflation of the tube to desired final shape
1.

F Forming i th the parison i i is accomplished li h d b by either ith

y y

Extrusion or Injection molding

Extrusion blow molding: (1) extrusion of parison; (2) parison is pinched at the top and sealed at the bottom around a metal blow blo pin as the two t o halves hal es of the mold come together; (3) the tube is inflated so that it takes the shape of the mold cavity; and (4) mold is opened to remove the solidified part

Injection blow molding: (1) parison is injected molded around a blowing rod; (2) injection mold is opened and parison is transferred to a blow mold; (3) soft polymer is inflated to conform to the blow mold; and (4) blow mold is opened and blown product is removed

Stretch blow molding: (1) injection molding of parison; (2) stretching; and (3) blowing
Variation of injection blow molding in which blowing rod extends downward into parison in step 2, 2 stretching the soft plastic for a more favorable stressing of polymer than conventional blow molding Resulting structure is more rigid, with higher transparency and better impact resistance

Rotational molding Alternative to blow molding large components

Thermoforming
Flat thermoplastic p sheet or film is heated and deformed into desired shape p using ga mold
y Heating usually accomplished by radiant electric heaters located on one or both

sides of starting gp plastic sheet or film

y Widely used in packaging of products and to fabricate large items such as

bathtubs, contoured skylights, and internal door liners for refrigerators

Negative mold concave cavity Positive mold - convex shape

Thermoplastic Foam Injection Molding

Molding of thermoplastic parts that possess dense outer skin surrounding lightweight foam center y Part has high g stiffness-to-weight g ratio suited to structural applications y Produced either by introducing a gas into molten plastic in injection unit or by mixing a gas-producing ingredient with starting pellets y During injection, injection a small amount of melt is forced into mold cavity, where it expands to fill cavity y Foam in contact with cold mold surface collapses to form dense skin, while core retains cellular structure

Compression Molding

y An old and widely y used molding g process p for thermosetting g

plastics y Applications also include rubber tires and polymer matrix composite parts y Molding compound available in several forms: powders or pellets, ll t li liquid, id or preform f y Amount of charge must be precisely controlled to obtain repeatable consistency in the molded product

Compression molding for thermosetting plastics: (1) charge is loaded, (2) and (3) charge is compressed and cured, and (4) part is ejected and removed

Transfer Molding
TS charge is loaded into a chamber immediately ahead of mold cavity, where it is heated; pressure is then applied to force soft p polymer y to flow into heated mold where it cures y Two variants:
y Pot transfer molding - charge is injected from a "pot" through a

vertical sprue channel into cavity y Plunger transfer molding plunger injects charge from a heated well through channels into cavity

(a) Pot transfer molding (1) charge h is i l loaded d di into t pot, t (2) softened polymer is pressed into mold cavity and cured, and (3) part is ejected

plunger transfer molding (1) ( ) charge g is loaded into pot, p , (2) softened polymer is pressed into mold cavity and cured, and (3) part is ejected

Compression and Transfer Molding Compared

y In both processes, scrap is produced each cycle as leftover

material, called the cull y The TS scrap cannot be recovered y Transfer T f molding ld is capable bl of f molding ld more intricate part shapes than compression molding but not as intricate as injection j molding g y Transfer molding lends itself to molding with inserts, in which a metal or ceramic insert is placed into cavity prior to injection, and the plastic bonds to insert during molding

Polymer Foam
A polymer-and-gas polymer and gas mixture that gives the material a porous or cellular structure y Most common polymer foams: polystyrene (Styrofoam, a trademark), polyurethane y Other polymers: natural rubber ("foamed rubber") and polyvinylchloride (PVC)

Characteristic Properties of a Foamed Polymer

y Low density y High strength per unit weight y Good thermal insulation y Good energy absorbing qualities

Two polymer foam structures

(a) closed l d cell ll and d (b) b open cell ll