General Telecom

Telecom Concepts 2000

Handout

770 00438 1100 VHBE Ed. 08

Status Change Note

Released

Short Title Telecom Concepts 2000 All rights reserved. Passing on and copying of this document, use and communication of its contents not permitted without written authorization from Alcatel.

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Contents

Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 1.2 1.3 2 3 Voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 13 14 15 15 17 19 19 20 20 21 21 23 27 28 30 33 34 35 36 36 40 41 44 54 59 59 64 69 69 72 73 79 81 83 85

Text Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Core Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 Network Structures and Topologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.1 Point to Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.2 Star Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.3 Meshed Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.4 Ring Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.5 Tree Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Links : Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH) . 3.2.2 Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) . . . 3.2.3 Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) 3.2.4 Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.5 Repeaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nodes : Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1 Switching Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2 Cross Connection (XC), Add Drop Mux (ADM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.3 Circuit Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.4 Packet Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.5 Signalling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Analogue Line Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ISDN Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Concentrating Remote Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Digital Subscriber Line, ADSL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hybrid Fiber Coax (HFC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fiber in the Loop (FITL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Microwave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GSM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.2

3.3

Access Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10

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4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15

4.16 4.17 5 5.1

4.10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.10.2 Network Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.10.3 Mobile Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.10.4 Other Mobile Evolutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GSM 1800 / GSM 1900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DECT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bluetooth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UMTS, Third Generation Mobile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Satellite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.15.1 Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) . . . . . . 4.15.2 Low Earth Orbit (LEO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.15.3 Satellite Frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.15.4 Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Satellite Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Internet Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Phone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.1 Analog Telephone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.2 ADSI/CLASS Telephone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.3 ISDN Telephone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.4 Facsimile, Fax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.5 Mobile Phone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Private Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1 Virtual Private Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Computer, Computer Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.1 Analog Modem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.2 ISDN Modem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.3 GSM Modem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.4 Local Area Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Personal Digital Assistant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Network Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Screenphone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Internet Phone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Web-TV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Supplementary Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.2 Services Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.3 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Centrex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

85 88 90 93 94 95 97 98 98 99 100 100 101 104 105 109 109 109 110 111 111 112 113 114 114 114 114 115 115 116 119 120 120 121 121 123 123 123 124 126 126

Customer Premises Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.2 5.3 5.4

5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 6 6.1

Network Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.2

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6.3

6.4

6.5 6.6 7 7.1

Intelligent Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.2 Services Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.3 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Internet Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.1 Internet Access Provider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.2 FireWall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.3 Proxy Server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.4 Internet Telephony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mobile Telephony Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quality of Service (QOS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1.1 Telecom Network Management (TMN) . . 7.1.2 Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

127 127 127 130 133 134 136 137 138 139 141 143 143 143 146 149 155 163 165 166 167 169 171

Network Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix A Appendix B Appendix C Appendix D Appendix E Appendix F Appendix G Appendix H Appendix I Appendix J Appendix K Appendix L Appendix M Appendix N Appendix O Analog versus Digital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Analog to Digital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Multiplexing - Concentration . . . . . . . Time - Frequency - Code . . . . . . . . . . Modulation & Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Asynchronous, Plesiochronous, Synchronous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Connection-Oriented vs. Connectionless . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Race for Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . a Protocol Stack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A Call Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the Frequency Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . MultiMedia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Links to Further Information . . . . . . . .

Real Life Networks and their Features 172 173 175 178 179 181 182 183 186

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Figures
Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 Figure 14 Figure 15 Figure 16 Figure 17 Figure 18 Figure 19 Figure 20 Figure 21 Figure 22 Figure 23 Figure 24 Figure 25 Figure 26 Figure 27 Figure 28 Figure 29 Figure 30 Figure 31 Figure 32 Figure 33 Figure 34 Figure 35 Figure 36 Figure 37 Figure 38 Figure 39 Figure 40 Figure 41 Figure 42 Figure 43 Text structure maps on 5 aspects of Telecom Networks . . . . . Point to Point network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Star network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Meshed Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ring Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Backbone Network : example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Protection Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Self Healing Ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hierarchical Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hierarchical Networks : example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . example 1 : the first Internet plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . example 2 : todays complex networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . example 3 : Map with European Fiber links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Basic E1 structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Multiplexing Hierarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Multiplexing Hierarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coupling PDH and SDH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Back to Back versus Add-Drop Multiplexer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Combining WDM and TDM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Space Switching : 4*5 space-switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Time Switching : 4*4 time-switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Time Space Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cascading switching elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Folded View, Reflection Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . User Information versus Signalling Information . . . . . . . . . . . Hierarchical Structure of the Telephone Network . . . . . . . . . . Hierarchical Structure of the Telephone Network : Multi-Carrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ATM Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STM versus ATM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IP Packet (IPv4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ATM versus IP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IP , ATM and SDH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Separation of Signalling Network and User Data Network . Modular Structure of CCS #7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Network evolution with Access Nodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Network evolution with Access Nodes : view from the sky . . Access to Several Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MultiService Access Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Unshielded) Twisted Pair, 4 pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coaxial Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Optical Fiber (8 fibers) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Radio : Microwave Dish and other antenna's . . . . . . . . . . . . Analogue Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 20 20 21 22 22 23 23 24 24 25 25 26 27 28 30 31 33 34 37 38 38 39 40 41 42 43 48 48 51 52 53 56 57 61 61 62 63 65 65 66 68 70

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Figure 44 Figure 45 Figure 46 Figure 47 Figure 48 Figure 49 Figure 50 Figure 51 Figure 52 Figure 53 Figure 54 Figure 55 Figure 56 Figure 57 Figure 58 Figure 59 Figure 60 Figure 61 Figure 62 Figure 63 Figure 64 Figure 65 Figure 66 Figure 67 Figure 68 Figure 69 Figure 70 Figure 71 Figure 72 Figure 73 Figure 74 Figure 75 Figure 76 Figure 77 Figure 78 Figure 79 Figure 80 Figure 81 Figure 82 Figure 83 Figure 84 Figure 85 Figure 86 Figure 87 Figure 88 Figure 89

ISDN Basic Rate Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ISDN Primary Rate Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ADSL Frequency Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Discrete Multi-Tone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Internet Access Provider, ADSL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Different DSL techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IP on ATM over ADSL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ADSL Access on ATM core Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ADSL Network Termination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hybrid Fiber Coax evolution : Full Coax Star Network . . . . . Hybrid Fiber Coax evolution : Optical Backbone, Coax Tail Typical spectrum allocation for Cable-Access . . . . . . . . . . . . Fiber in the Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Local Multipoint Distribution Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Example of Frequency Planning : groups of 7 frequencies . GSM Frequency/TDM Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GSM Network Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Network Elements for Short Message Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . Network Elements for WireLess Access Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . GPRS Network Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DECT Frequency/TDM Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Positioning of Bluetooth in Bandwidth versus Distance . . . . . Satellite Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Parabolic dish to GeoStationary Satellite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Globalstar logo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SkyBridge logo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Iridium logo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Internet Access via combination Modem / Satellite . . . . . . . . Internet Access : Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alcatel 21XX, Analog Telephone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alcatel 2810, ISDN Telephone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mobile Phone (Alcatel One Touch Easy db-W@p . . . . . . . . Ethernet LAN without / with a Hub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Token Ring LAN without / with a Hub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3COM Palm V and Alcatel One Touch Com . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alcatel 'Web Touch' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Centrex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Intelligent Network Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Internet Access Provider, Analog or ISDN Dial-Up . . . . . . . . Internet Access Provider, ADSL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Internet Access Provider, Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FireWall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Proxy Server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Voice over IP , all functionality in the terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . Voice over IP , functionality in Gateways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Management Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

71 71 74 74 75 77 78 78 79 80 80 81 82 84 86 87 90 91 92 93 96 97 99 100 101 102 103 105 107 110 111 113 117 118 119 121 127 131 135 136 136 137 138 139 139 145

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Figure 90 Figure 91 Figure 92 Figure 93 Figure 94 Figure 95 Figure 96 Figure 97 Figure 98 Figure 99 Figure 100 Figure 101 Figure 102

SNMP Protocol Stack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 QAM : Quadrature Amplitude Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . ITU logo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ETSI logo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bellcore logo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ATM Forum logo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ISO logo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bandwidth growth predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Protocol Stack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ISDN Local Call Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Frequency Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . One Touch Com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Overlapping Businesses, MultiMedia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

148 170 175 175 176 176 176 178 179 181 182 184 185

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Tables
Table 1 Table 2 Table 3 Table 4 Table 5 Table 6 Table 7 Table 8 Table 9 Table 10 Table 11 Table 12 Table 13 Voice versus Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SDH Containers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SDH Multiplex Signals, STMn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PDH versus SDH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Types of Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Routing/Connection Table Contents : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STM versus ATM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Types of Access Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Active/Passive Optical Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Satellite Frequency Bands, a comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Analogue versus Digital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Connection Oriented versus Connection-Less . . . . . . . . . . . 16 29 31 32 33 36 39 50 60 83 101 164 174

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Preface

Preface
The purpose of this Telecom Concepts 2000 course is to introduce you to the basic principles and techniques used in the Telecom business. As this area is quite large, the introduction goes wide, rather than deep : all relevant concepts are explained, principles are generalized, overviews and comparisons are made. For more details, the course points you, where-ever possible, to additional more in-depth information. As the Telecom business undergoes a rapid evolution, not to say a revolution, this material needs constant updating. If you'd like to contribute a comment, suggestion or anything else, you are welcome to send it to : gete@bec.bel.alcatel.be

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Preface

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1 Introduction

1 Introduction
Telecom systems provide a service to their users which is all about transporting information. In the past there were mainly two distinct types of information :
" "

voice, also called speech data

As we are heading towards a multi-media communicating world, the difference between these two types becomes blurred or no longer relevant. Therefore this text will no longer categorize all telecom technologies in either the voice-world or the data-world. Rather this text will try to describe these technologies or principles in the order in which you would act if you were to build such a system or network yourself : a) the Core Network b) the Access Network c) the Terminals d) the Services e) the Network Management However, some basic understanding of the specifics and differences of voice and data communication is important. Therefore both are introduced here.

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1 Introduction

Network Management Services

Terminal Access Network Core Network

Access Network

Core Network

Figure 1

Text structure maps on 5 aspects of Telecom Networks

1.1

Voice
The majority of all telecommunication today uses Digital techniques, and the dominance of digital is so strong that in this text we will neglect Analog communication almost completely. (For an explanation, comparison of analog versus digital, refer to appendix A) When communicating voice digitally, the soundwaves in the air must be digitalized. This is done by Sampling the soundwaves : measuring their shape, and converting this measurement into numbers. These numbers are a digital form of the voice signal. At the receiver, the measurement-values (called samples) are used to reconstruct the original soundwave. To be able to reconstruct the voice with sufficient quality, the number of samples taken (called the Sampling-rate) and the accuracy of each sample (called the Resolution) must be sufficient. This is a trade-off, because the more samples, the more digital numbers needs to be transmitted, and this costs money. As a good compromise for understandable voice, the telecom community agreed to take 8000 samples per second, each 8 bits precise. This will not result into perfect audio-quality, but it is enough to understand the person on the other side of the line. As you are converting the soundwaves to digital numbers, you create a continuous stream of information flow : every second you generate - transport - terminate 8000*8 = 64000 bits. This

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amount is called the Bit-rate. As a result a single digital voice connection is often referred to as a 64 kbps (kilo-bits-per-second). This continuous stream lasts as long as the phone conversation lasts, typically a few minutes. Note As a comparison, an audio CD signal uses 44100 samples per second, each 16 bit precision, and two channels (left+right) to provide stereo. You will agree that CD sound quality is much better than a phone-line, but the price for this is that you need to transport 1.411 Mbps for the CD (mega-bits-per-second), where only 64 kbps for a telephone line. From this explanation, it is clear why telephone calls are usually charged as a function of the duration : each second 64000 bits need to be handled by the telecom system, the longer the call lasts, the more total bits need to be handled.

Note

1.2

Data
When computers or machines communicate with each other, they usually don't send a continuous stream of information. Typically a computer needs some limited input data, then processes this, and then responds with a limited amount of result data. Therefore data communication is using the concept of information packets : a group of information bits. So one computer sends a packet of input to the other computer, which processes it, and then returns a packet with the results.

1.3

Comparison
The two above communication mechanisms are fundamentally different, and it is important to understand this in order to understand the future evolution of the telecom industry. Although this is no strict rule, today the majority of voice is transported using synchronous circuit switching, whereas the majority of data uses packet switching. (These terms will be explained in more detail later) Given this simplification, circuit switching (voice) and packet switching (data), can be compared as follows :

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1 Introduction

Table 1

Voice versus Data Packet Switching : Data Undefined time between packets Bitrate can be anything Bitrate can vary dynamically

Circuit Switching : Voice Fixed time between samples Bitrate is multiple of 64 kbps Bitrate is fixed during 'the call' Note

The aspect of transporting voice or data is called the Service : the function you deliver to the end-user. The aspect of using circuit or packet switching to accomplish this is called the Transport Mode or also Bearer Capability. Strictly speaking transport mode and service are independent of each other : a service can be realized using different transport modes, and different services can be realized using the same transport mode.

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2 Text Structure

2 Text Structure
This text is divided into five chapters, and a set of appendices. See also Figure 1.

Chapte The chapters cover the most important telecom technologies and
concepts in the following order :
"

the Core Network : this is the part of the network that provides information transfer at high speeds over long distances. It is shared by all users of the network. When comparing with the roads network, the core network maps onto the Highways. When thinking about the classical telephone network, the Core Network is the international telephone network, whereby all telephone exchanges are interconnected. The Core Network is also called the BackBone. the Access Network : this is the part of the network that allows the user to get him onto the core network. Compare it to the roads network where you have smaller access roads between you and the highways. Highways don't pass next to each house. Most of the access network is only used by a limited number of users, some of it is dedicated to just a single user. When thinking of the classical telephone network, the Access Network would be your telephone connection from your home to your local exchange. the Customer Premises Equipment : this is the equipment which the end user uses. Simple examples are a telephone, a mobile phone, a computer with modem, a local network of computers, etc. the Network Services : when we have a network (by installing a core network, access network and terminals) this network can be used for several different functions. As an example, when you have the classical telephone network, you can use it (a.o.) to :
D D

"

"

"

make voice communications between two persons let the network wake you up, by making a call to you at a specified time.

So different services can be offered, using the same network infrastructure. In this chapter the services made available to the end-user are described. The services or features which are important for the network provider, are described together with the description of each of the technologies.

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2 Text Structure

"

the Network Management : when we have a network (by installing a core network, access network and terminals) this network must also be operated : you must constantly check for errors, add new customers, increase capacity, reconfigure, etc. The network operator is the one who is directly involved in Network Management, however for the end user, a well-managed network provides services such as reliability, low signal distortion, low information loss, etc.

Appendi In addition to the five main chapters, there is a set of Appendices.

They each cover a specific item which is more generic and is used in several different telecom systems. Therefore they are grouped at the back, and the chapters will point to them.

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3 The Core Network

The core network refers to a (public or private) infrastructure that provides the connections between communicating users. This infrastructure contains network nodes and transmission links. Examples of core networks" are :
" " " "

the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN), Public (and Private) Data Networks, the Broadband Integrated Services Digital Network (B-ISDN), the Internet. transport information fast over long distances, transport information at low cost, transport information with minimal amount of errors.

Purpo

The main purpose of the Core Network is to :

" " "

As for the low cost aspect, note that Core Networks are always shared by many users. So the cost of these networks is also shared by many users and therefor, even if the networks themselves are typically very expensive, per user they are economical, due to the large number of users.

3.1

Network Structures and Topologies

Because networks typically grow in an organic way, each network is different. However, some basic principles for the structure of networks can be sorted out :

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3.1.1

Point to Point
The simplest form of a 'network' is a point-to-point connection between two terminals. Although not much of a real network, it is the basic building block of more complex networks and many networks start as a simple point to point, later growing to more complex structures. Some examples are :
" "

direct connection between two computers, radio connection between satellite and ground-control station. direct connection between two sub-networks. simple routing, addressing, etc. secure : no intermediate 'nodes'

"

The advantages of a point-to-point connection are :

" "

Figure 2

Point to Point network

3.1.2

Star Network
Another simple way to interconnect more than two terminals is a Star network. One Network Element forms the center of it, all other terminals are on radii of the star. Some examples are :
" "

private telephone network : Private Branch Exchange (PABX) mainframe computer with terminals

Figure 3

Star network

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The advantages of a star network are :

" "

simple routing, addressing in the center of the star. simple next step from a point-to-point network : add the network center device, then add terminals.

A disadvantages of a star network is its reliability : if the device in the center of the star fails, all terminals are out of service.

3.1.3

Meshed Network
In a meshed network, every node is connected to all the other nodes. It is a collection of point to point links between a collection of nodes. You can easily see that when the number of nodes grows, the number of links grows quadratically (n*(n-1)/2). So fully meshed networks, are only found when there are a limited number of nodes in the network. A big advantage of a meshed network is its reliability : even when some links would break, there are always alternative interconnections between a pair of nodes. A price for this reliability or redundancy is that the nodes are more complex : each node needs to be able to route information further to the destination.

Figure 4

Meshed Network

3.1.4

Ring Network
Ring networks simplify the interconnection of a large number of nodes : each node interconnects to only two neighbor nodes, resulting into only n links. This is not only reducing equipment

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3 The Core Network

and installation costs, but also simplifies operation of such a network.

" " "

University Campus Backbone, Metropolitan Area Networks, 'Token ring' computer networks.

Figure 5

Ring Network

Figure 6

Backbone Network : example

A disadvantage of the ring network is the lower reliability : a single broken link can open the ring and put the network out of service. There exist however solutions to this : with Protection Switching the Active fibres can be protected against failures by a Spare fibre. Other mechanisms use a double ring, and the nodes can isolate a failing segment, restoring the ring. Such networks with 'automatic' repair in case of faults are also called Self-Healing Networks.

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Node

Active fibre Spare fibre

Node

Figure 7

Protection Switching
Node Fiber cut

Node

Restoration

Node

Node

Figure 8

Self Healing Ring

3.1.5

Tree Network
With a very large number of nodes, each network becomes complex to manage. To simplify a network, a hierarchical tree concept with different levels can be used : the highest level is the backbone, on the backbone the nodes are actually subnetworks. Each network, consists again of subnetworks, etc. Examples :
" "

Telephone network Internet

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Backbone Network

Regional Network 1 Regional Network 3 Regional Network 2

Figure 9

Hierarchical Networks

Figure 10

Hierarchical Networks : example

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Figure 11

example 1 : the first Internet plan

Figure 12

example 2 : todays complex networks

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Figure 13

example 3 : Map with European Fiber links

Conclus In real life, a network will almost never be as simple as one of the

above basic topologies, but rather consist out of a combination of them. However, as a conclusion we can see that all networks consist of Nodes interconnected with Links.

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3.2

Links : Transmission
Multiple xin All telecom technologies which interconnect nodes with links,
deploy some form of Multiplexing. Multiplexing is a technique to transport several information-flows over the same carrier. Multiplexing reduces the cost, because all individual data-flows, share the cost of the common carrier. There exist a number of different techniques to do multiplexing, and they are explained and compared in Appendix D :
" " "

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)

Furthermore these multiplexing techniques can be combined into more complicated schemes : for example the Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) uses a combination of FDM-TDM. The building block for building a multiplex is a Channel (CH). A sequence of channels is combined into a so-called Frame. A very popular multiplex structure is shown in Figure 14 : 32 channels are combined into a frame. The frame repeats itself 8000 times per second.
frame synchronization (optional) signalling

CH 0

CH 1

CH 15 CH 16 CH 17

CH 31

1 Frame = 125 sec

Figure 14

Basic E1 structure

Multiplexing is different from Concentration, this difference is explained in Appendix C.

Hierar Today's multiplexing systems can send a huge number of

information-channels over a single medium. In order to keep it manageable, a hierarchy is used :

"

basic information channels are multiplexed into a so-called first-order multiplex, sometimes also called lower-order. a number of the first order multiplex signals are again multiplexed into a second-order multiplex.

"

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3 The Core Network

"

this mechanism repeats itself a number of times : small signals are combined into bigger, combined into bigger, combined into the final multiplex signal.
First Order Multiplex Second Order Multiplex Third Order Multiplex

Basic Signals

Figure 15

Multiplexing Hierarchy

Information transmission systems typically span different countries and continents, and employ equipment from different manufacturers. therefore all these systems must be compatible. To guarantee this, international standards are defined. (See Appendix I)

3.2.1

Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH)

The Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH) multiplex system uses Time Division Multiplexing (TDM). Three different variants have been standardized for Europe, North-America and Japan.

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Table 2 1st

Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy North-America Japan T1 24 * 64 kbps, 1.544 Mbps T2 4 * 1.544 Mbps 6.312 Mbps T3 7 * 6.312 Mbps 44.736 Mbps T4 3 * 44.736 Mbps 139.264 Mbps 24 * 64 kbps, 1.544 Mbps

order Europe E1 32 * 64 kbps, 2.048 Mbps 2nd E2 4 * 2.048 Mbps 8.448 Mbps 3rd E3 4 * 8.192 Mbps, 34.368 Mbps 4th E4 4 * 34 Mbps, 139.264 Mbps Note

From one order to the next order multiplex is not exactly an integer factor, because the PDH system includes a little of Overhead information in each step :
"

bits for Frame Synchronization : to mark the boundaries of the frame bits for stuffing : bits which can be used or skipped in order to compensate for the slight differences in clocks used in the network.

"

In the early days of PDH, the inter-continental communication traffic was still relatively small, and so the differences between Europe, North America and Japan where not a big problem. However, as this traffic grew, the incompatibility became a serious disadvantage. Another important aspect of PDH lies in the word plesiochronous : plesiochronous means 'almost ' synchronous. The timing reference used by all nodes in the network are 'almost' synchronous to each other. A good analogy are our wrist-watches : they all indicate the same time, almost the same, because, down to the seconds, they are all slightly different.

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When the timing references are all slightly different, interconnection becomes more complicated, just like making an exact appointment becomes more difficult when all wrist-watches indicate different times. This complexity limits the PDH bit-rates to the fourth order 140 Mbps. It also makes it impossible to extract the E1 out of an E4, without first extracting the E3..E2. It results in the so called Back-to-Back multiplexing.
Third Order Multiplex

Second Order Multiplex First Order Multiplex Basic Signals

Figure 16

Multiplexing Hierarchy

A lot of PDH is still installed and operated today. However given the limitations, todays new networks are all using the more advanced SDH system.

3.2.2

Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)

From the experience of PDH, and the push of new technological developments, a new multiplex system was defined : Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH). SDH improves PDH in the following ways:
"

It is standardized as a worldwide standard. As a matter of fact Europe (SDH) and North-America (SONET) had different standards, but they were defined in a more compatible way. This allows easy connection of SDH and SONET. SDH simplifies interconnection of nodes, by using a single reference clock for a whole group of nodes, a so-called SDH-'island'. This clock is generated by a Primary Reference Clock and distributed through the whole SDH-network. given the simpler interconnection, SDH allows to multiplex to higher bitrates.

"

"

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"

given the large installed base of PDH equipment, SDH is made in such a way that it is backward compatible with existing PDH. This means that existing PDH can be interconnected with new SDH :
D D

PDH signals can be sent 'inside' a higher speed SDH signal, SDH islands can be interconnected using PDH links.

"

Synchronous : no introduction of additional overhead.

PDH Source

SDH Network

PDH Sink

SDH Network 1

PDH Link

SDH Network 2

Figure 17
"

Coupling PDH and SDH

SDH added more network management functions : networks grew bigger and bigger, and decent network management became a necessity :
D D D D

detecting and measuring bit errors labelling and naming the multiplex components alarm indications protection mechanisms, eg. Automatic Protection Switching (APS) SDH Containers bitrate 1.544 Mbps 2.048 Mbps 8 Mbps 34 Mbps 140 Mbps

Table 3

SDH Containers VC11 VC12 VC2 VC3 VC4

In SDH, the signals are named Synchronous Transport Module (STM). For example, the Unit signal is the STM-1. This

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signal is then multiplexed into higher orders STM-n. The components of the STM-1 are called Virtual Container (VC). The most important Virtual Containers contain the standard PDH signals. Table 4 SDH Multiplex Signals, STMn bitrate 155.52 Mbps 622.08 Mbps 2.488 Gbps 10 Gbps 40 Gbps

Multiplex order STM-1 / STS-3 STM-4 / STS-12 STM-16 / STS-48 STM-64 / STS-192 STM-256 / STS-768 Note

The different multiplex orders are also referred to as OC-n, where n is the order-number of the STS multiplex (this is the typical naming in the USA) :
" "

STM-1 = OC-3 STM-16 = OC-48

Note

Multiplexing a number of STM-1 into higher levels (STM-4, STM-16, ..) introduces no additional overhead.

Add Drop Multiplexin Another important advantage of SDH is the possibility to directly

access lower-order signals within a high-order multiplex : the SDH overhead includes a number of Pointers and by applying the pointer-processing, the multiplexer can find any contributing signal (tributary) in the multiplex signal. This feature allows then to make simpler Add Drop Multiplexers. As a result from this, SDH networks are often deployed in ring-topologies : a boackbone ring, with at each station, an Add-Drop Multiplexer contributing traffic to the ring.

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Back to Back Multiplexer (PDH)

Add-Drop Multiplexer (SDH)

Figure 18 Table 5 PDH

Back to Back versus Add-Drop Multiplexer PDH versus SDH SDH Synchronous One Higher order Hierarchy Flexible Hierarchy Extended management features Very limited bit-stuffing -> simpler Pointers to frame-boundary -> Add-Drop multiplexing

Plesiochronous Different Hierarchies Fixed Hierarchy Limited management features Stuffing Bits -> complicated multiplexing No pointers to frame-bound ary -> back-to-back multi plexers

Alcatel Product & Lin

" "

http://www.alcatel.com/products search in categories SDH", Sonet", Backbone Service Provider"

3.2.3

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) is in fact a form of frequency multiplexing : wavelength = reciprocal of frequency. It combines several colors of light onto the same optical fiber. Each of the individual colors can be any signal, but typically the signal components are SDH signals, eg. STM-16. Therefor, WDM is not a direct replacement or successor of SDH or PDH, but rather a complementary new technology which can be combined with existing ones to further increase bandwidth capacity. Example of combination of SDH and WDM :
"

SDH : STM-16 = 2.488 Gbps

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"

WDM : 40 wavelengths, also called 40 's total capacity : 40 * 2.488 = 100 Gbps

WDM is one of the first functions of what is becoming a whole new technological area : the Optical Networking. Its rapid development being fueled by the exponential increasing demand for bandwidth, next to multiplexers, other optical functions like cross connects, add-drop muxes, etc. are being developed.

Alcatel Product & Lin

" " "

WDM Products : http://www.alcatel.com/products ITU-T Standards : G.692 Flash animation explaining DWDM http://www.alcatel.com/telecom/snd/keytech/wdm/index.htm

The bandwidth carried by a WDM signal is the product of the number of lambdas and the bandwidth of each lambda signal. As such, the WDM signal can increase its capactity in two ways : increasing the number of lambdas, and increasing the bitrate of each member-signal. This results in an even faster increase of bandwidth capacity. In the next figure, each a*b bps refers to a lambdas, each at b bps.
Fiber Capacity [Gbps]
1000 100 10 1 0.1 128*2.5 Gbps 40*10 Gbps 96*2.5 Gbps 8*10 Gbps 16*2.5 Gbps 8*2.5 Gbps 4*2.5 Gbps 2*2.5 Gbps 565 Mbps 140 Mbps 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 2.5 Gbps

Year
2004

Figure 19

Combining WDM and TDM

see Appendix J for an article about the race for bandwidth.

3.2.4

Media
Different media can be used for the high-speed interconnection-links :
"

Fiber

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" " "

Coaxial Cable Radio Laser-light

The most common deployed medium today is fiber, more precisely glass-fiber, because of its relative low cost, resistance to interference and huge bandwidth capacity. Fiber technology is rapidly evolving. Fibers with smaller losses, smaller dispersion, better handling, etc. are being developed. Under certain circumstances, other media may be preferred :
"

Radio : with radio, the bandwidth is more limited (eg. STM1 or 155 Mbps) but you don't have to route kilometers of fiber : just raise a tower, for example every 50 km.
D D D D

when you want very rapid deployment (days), want to have a network for only a limited time when the terrain is very hostile (mountains, rivers, etc) when the terrain is not free accessible (roads, buildings, land-owners)

"

Coax : Coaxial Cable has also less bandwidth potential than fiber, but can be deployed for :
D D

short distances, 100m or less at the border of the network, lower bandwidths could be required, yielding coax as economically preferred.

"

Laser : a beam of Laser-light can be focused over long distances, through the air. It can be used for interconnection over short distances only, but can be deployed as fast as radio. Furthermore Laser is not susceptible to interference, but requires line-of-sight.

These media are described in more detail in chapter 4.2.

3.2.5

Repeaters
When signals are sent over fibers or coax for long distances, the signals attenuate and must be re-amplified. This function is called a repeater. Nothing happens to the flow of information, and to the network topology the repeaters are not important. With today's fibers, a distances-span of a few hundred kilometers can be realized without repeaters. For long haul links, the repeaters are needed and form a part of the network infrastructure cost.

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3.3

Nodes : Switching
When sending information through the core network, it typically has to traverse several nodes. Inside the nodes, the incoming link has to be connected to the outgoing link. Several techniques exist to do this. Below these concepts are listed, ordered by the life-time of the connection they make. Table 6 Types of Switching Switching Concept Cross Connect Add Drop Multiplexer between 1 hour - 1 second typically less than 1 second Note Circuit Switch Packet Switch

Connection Life Time* typically more than 1 hour

Connection Life Time refers to the duration of the connection inside the switching node. Even for packet switched systems, an end-to-end connection may exist for longer times, eg. hours.

3.3.1

Switching Techniques
Switching information is physically performed using Space-switching, Time-switching, or a combination of Both.

Space Switching

In Space switching, a number of physically distributed inputs are connected to a number of physically distributed outputs by the means of Switches. (hence the origin of the name 'switching'). When there are m inputs and n outputs, you need m*n switches. Typically each user has an input and an output, and then m=n and equals the number of users. To make a bidirectional connection, usually two switches need to be closed.

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Space Switch

Figure 20

Space Switching : 4*5 space-switch

Space switches are limited by the physical density of the input and output ports.

Switching T ime

Time switching occurs in the dimension of time : the individual users are all on the same physical medium, but multiplexed in time. Typically the Time Division Multiplex (TDM) structure consists of a number of channels, occurring in a cyclic pattern. In many telecom systems this pattern repeats at 8000 times per second. When doing time switching, information received on one particular time-slot or channel is sent out on another time-slot / channel.

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In

Time Switch

Out

Time Division Multiplex In Out

CH 1 CH 2 CH 3 CH 4 CH 1 CH 2 CH 3 CH 4 CH 1 CH 2 CH 3 CH 4 CH 1 CH 2 CH 3 CH 4 CH 1 CH 2 CH 3 CH 4 CH 1 CH 2 CH 3 CH 4

Figure 21

Time Switching : 4*4 time-switch

Time switches are limited by the frequencies of the TDM input/outputs.

T ime Space Switching

Both mechanisms described above are usually combined in order to maximize the density in both physical and frequency domain. As an example, the A1000 S12 switch element uses 16*16 Space switching, combined with 32 channels TDM signals in order to build a 512*512 channels switch element. Any time-slot/channel (of 32) from any port (of 16) can be switched to any other time-slot/port.
In
PORT 1 PORT 2 PORT 3 PORT 4 CH 1 CH 2 CH 3 CH 4

Out
CH 1 CH 2 CH 3 CH 4 PORT 1 PORT 2 PORT 3 PORT 4

CH 1 CH 2 CH 3 CH 4

Time-Space Switch

CH 1 CH 2 CH 3 CH 4

CH 1 CH 2 CH 3 CH 4

CH 1 CH 2 CH 3 CH 4

CH 1 CH 2 CH 3 CH 4

CH 1 CH 2 CH 3 CH 4

Figure 22

Time Space Switch

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Table 7 Port 1 2 4

Routing/Connection Table Contents : Channel 1 4 1 Connect to : Port 2, Ch 3 Port 4, Ch 2 Port 4, Ch 4

Switching Stages

Even with a combination of Space- and Time-switching, a single switching element cannot handle all ports from a large exchange. The solution to this is to interconnect several switching elements in a cascade. These are called Switching Stages. In figure 23, it is shown how a 4*4 switching element can be made, using four 2*2 switch elements. In order to set up a connection from input to output, a connection in 2 switch elements must be made. For even bigger capacities, the concept can be applied recursively, the 'new' 4*4 element can be combined to form (eg.) a 16*16 element. As such by increasing the number of stages, an arbitrary large switch can be built, of course at the cost of more and more 'basic' switch elements.
Resulting 4*4 Switch Element First Stage 2*2 Switch Element Second Stage 2*2 Switch Element

2*2 Switch Element

2*2 Switch Element

Figure 23

Cascading switching elements

Poin Because in most systems Inputs and Outputs are paired, the Reflection

system is represented symmetrical in a so-called Folded view. The folding line of such a folded system is called the Reflection Point : information travels into the switch up to the reflection point, and then travels back out to the destination output.

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First Stage 4*4 Switch Element 4*4 Switch Element 4*4 Switch Element 4*4 Switch Element

Second Stage

4*4 Switch Element

Switch Element

Figure 24

Folded View, Reflection Point

Redundan A switching system must always be designed in a reliable way :

even a single fault should not lead to a service degradation. For switching systems this redundancy is usually obtained from one of two approaches :
"

the switching matrix is provided in two copies, often called Aand B-matrix. Each connection is set up over both matrices in an independent way. If one matrix fails, the other one still services the connection. (eg. Alcatel 1000 E10) the switching matrix is built with stages of Orthogonal Planes. (eg. Alcatel 1000 S12)

"

3.3.2

Cross Connection (XC), Add Drop Mux (ADM)

When the connections made in the nodes, typically last hours or more, we call the nodes Cross Connects, or in some special case Add-Drop Multiplexers. Connections are made manually through operator actions Examples :
"

Communications connections established between sport-stadium and broadcasting services for the coverage of the Olympic games, the world cup football, the world expo, etc.

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Reflection Point

4*4

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3.3.3

Circuit Switching
When a connection is only needed for a duration from (typically) seconds to hours, it becomes too much a burden to have the connections set up manually through an operator. In that case a Circuit Switch can do that automatically. This kind of switching is called Call-by-Call switching". One extra function required for a switch, is to communicate directly with the end-user, called Signalling. Signalling is a meta-communication, that controls the real user to user communication : through signalling, the user instructs the network what kind of connection to set up and to what destination.

User Information Connection Signalling Information Connection

Figure 25

User Information versus Signalling Information

An important aspect of a circuit switched connection is that it consists of a dedicated, end-to-end path. A channel is reserved strictly for the end-user during the whole duration of the call. This is sometimes referred to as a physical connection in contrast to a virtual connection from a packet switch.

Hierar For large public networks, it is impossible to connect all

subscribers to a single exchange. So regional areas will be covered by several exchanges, and all of these must be interconnected to provide a worldwide network. This interconnection can be a fully meshed network, but from a certain size, this becomes also unmanageable, and a hierarchical network is used. In this hierarchy, there are the following levels :
"

Local : at the 'lowest' level, the Local Exchange collects the subscribers, using access networks (see Section 4). The local exchange can be recognized by the fact that it has a Subscriber Database with all information about its subscribers.

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"

Transit/Toll : Several local exchanges are interconnected through Transit exchanges, also called Toll exchanges. In a very large network, several layers of Transit/Toll can be provided. Each Transit/Toll layer collects a number of exchanges from the lower layer, and interconnects to other exchanges in the same layer, as well as to a higher layer. These Transit/Toll exchanges do not 'know' individual subscribers. International Gateway : At the highest National level is the International Gateway Exchange : the exchange which is at the boundary between the national toll/Transit network, and the international network. International : The highest level is the International Exchange. For example for the telephone network, there are a limited number of international exchanges : London, New York, ... Tandem : a tandem exchange is a special case that does not fit perfectly in the hierarchy. It provides interconnections within a certain layer, but no connections to higher levels. It is a bypass of the hierarchy for more efficient interconnection of certain areas.
International

"

"

"

International Gateway Tandem Transit - Toll

Local

Figure 26

Hierarchical Structure of the Telephone Network

In some countries there are several transit networks (or core networks) called Carriers, each one operated/provided by a different company. In such a network structure, the user must be

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able to use any of the transit networks. In this case, there is an additional level in the hierarchy :
"

InterExchange Carrier : all Carriers access the local exchanges via this special transit exchange.

Note

In the US, the names Transit, toll and Tandem are used in a less strict and interexchangeable way.

Carrier 1

Carrier 2

Carrier 3

Tandem InterExchange Carrier

Local

Figure 27

Hierarchical Structure of the Telephone Network : Multi-Carrier

DisAdvant Some critiques of the current Public Switched Telephone

Network (PSTN) are the following :
"

It is Narrowband (NB), i.e. it can deliver bitrates up to a few kbps. It is half-integrated, i.e. different services must be provided by different networks, e.g. PSTN, Datanetworks, Cable Television Network (CATV), ... It is 64 kbps based. Although this bitrate is quite adequate to provide telephony, it can not support new services like videophony.

"

"

Therefore, the tendency of the future (which is progressing very slowly) is to come to 1 unified, multi-service B-ISDN

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3.3.4

Packet Switching
When computers are communicating, they don't need a strictly reserved channel. Because computers communicate with packets of information, they can share a single channel with other computers. A switch being able to switch information packets is called a Packet Switch.

Connection Oriented

Some packet switches still need the user to set up a connection using signalling, so that the packet switches in the network know how to send the packet to the destination. They are called Connection Oriented Packet Switches. Before sending the first real packet of information, the user must first send some signalling packets to set up a connection, then send his user payload and afterwards release the connection. pre-programmed to analyze the final destination address, and forward the packet in the right direction.

Connectio Other packet switches operate ConnectionLess. They are

Note

Appendix H explains the difference between Connection-Oriented and Connectionless operation.

Pack ets versus Frame There exist different terms to name the information packets :
" " "

Cells, eg. ATM Cells Frames, eg. Frame Relay Packets, eg. IP Packets, X.25 Packet

These names reflect a difference in how much processing is needed to handle the packet in the packet switch, versus how much is done in the end terminals :
"

Cells : only require a minimum of processing in the nodes. Cells also have fixed lengths. Frames : medium processing in the nodes Packets : intensive processing in the nodes : error correction, retransmission, flow control, resequencing...

" "

In the early days of computer communication, the links had poor quality, and the end terminals were very expensive (main frame computers), in which case Packet switching was the best solution. today, the network is of much better quality, and the end terminals are cheaper (PCs), so Cell switching achieves the same results, while being simpler, cheaper and faster.

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Exampl Some examples of Packet Switching techniques are :

" " " "

X.25 Frame Relay Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) Internet Protocol (IP)

Their key characteristics are worked out here in a bit more detail.

X.25
X.25 is the name of an International Telecommunication Union (ITU) standard describing a packet switching system. The X.25 system offers :
" " " " " "

Error-Free delivery of data packets to the destination Delivery of data packets without loss. In-sequence delivery of data packets. Flow-Control Procedures Bit-rates up to 64 Kbit/sec. Packets up to 4096 bytes, however, typical packets will be 128 bytes. (each network specifies the maximum supported packet length) The packet switching protocol is connection-oriented.

"

X-25 is a mature technology. The X.25-related protocols are among the most used packet protocols and offer worldwide interconnectivity.

Chargi The provider of a network requires that you pay for the usage of

his network infrastructure. This is called Charging. For different types of networks, there are different ways of charging developed. For example, for the telephone network, you will have to pay as a function of : duration of the call distance between originator and receiver

" "

However for packet switched networks, this is not the best way to charge : because of the 'packet' nature of the information, you may be connected for several hours, only exchanging packets

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during some minutes. In this case, the charging will be on Volume : the amount of packets sent. Note In fact, the X-25 protocol describes the interface between the user and the network, the so-called User-to-Network Interface (UNI). In addition, the X.75 protocol has been defined for communication on the Network-to-Network Interface (NNI).

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Frame Relay
As the quality of the network improved, it became a burden to do all the error checking, retransmitting, etc. in each node, as there was hardly any error in the network. A first simplification led to Frame Relay (FR). In fact, no more processing is performed anymore, on the packet level, which explains the name Frame Relay. Frame Relay was originally designed in1981 as a NB ISDN packet mode bearer service, but the main driving force was the demand for the interconnection of Local Area Networks. Although the functionality of the FR network, and consequently its services, is more limited than in a packet switching network, this is more than compensated for by the higher bit rates. The most important aspect of the reduced functionality of FR is the lack of error correction. Error detection is performed and erroneous frames are discarded, with the result that not all the information is delivered to the destination. Thus, what the FR network offers is :
" " " " "

In-sequence delivery of data frames. Higher Throughput Lower Delay bit rates of 45 Mbps (US) or 2 Mbps (Europe). The Frame Relay protocol is connection-oriented.

Asynchronous Transfer Mode

ATM is a form of connection-oriented cell-switching. ATM-cells are Fixed-size packets, 53 bytes long. The cell is divided into a Header and a Payload part. The header is standard, the payload part can contain whatever information : speech, video, text, data, graphics, ... ATM offers a uniform method for the transport of these multiple services, i.e. the contents of the payload completely transparent to the network (there is even no error control). Therefore, ATM is recommended by ITU-T as the technology to be used in the future B-ISDN.

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5 Bytes
HEC CLP VCI VPI PTI

48 Bytes

Header

User Payload

Figure 28

ATM Cell

On an ATM link, a continuous stream of cells is transmitted. A specific user can send at any moment in time, which explains the term asynchronous". Therefore, the receiver can not distinguish information (coming from different users ) by means of the timeslots. To solve this, the ATM cell header carries a Virtual Path Identifier (VPI) / Virtual Channel Identifier (VCI).
Synchronous Transfer Mode (STM)
ch 1 ch 2 ch 3 ch 4 ch 1 ch 2 ch 3 ch 4 ch 1 ch 2 ch 3 ch 4

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

A B A C A A B

Idle cells

Figure 29

STM versus ATM

ATM operates in the connection-oriented mode, i.e. a setup of a virtual connection must be performed first.
"

An important effect of this setup phase, is that it is possible to have some guaranty of service, the minimum performance of the connection can be negotiated. (for example the Cell Loss Ratio (CLR) ) Another effect of the connection-oriented mode is that the sequence of ATM cells will be preserved.

"

ATM allows extreme fast switching, up to the Gbps range, because of

" "

the connection-oriented nature, the simple protocol stack (no error control, no flow control, no reassembly in intermediate nodes), the fixed size of the cells.

"

However the connection setup/release requires some time, some signalling, and is due to the large feature-set quite complex.

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Also the number of terminals providing an ATM interface (PC, WS, Multimedia-phone, etc..) is still very limited. In a Local Area Network (LAN) (PC-network) environment, it is currently only justified for high-end workstations.

Streng ATM cels have the following strengths :

"

small bandwidth granularity : you dontt have to buy bandwidth in chunks of 64 kbps : any number of 'cells per second' is allowed, resulting into any possible bitrate. allows variable bitrates allows flexible multiplexing of different 'streams' onto a single carrier. Possible allows Statistical Multiplexing : eg. multiplexing 1000 virtual connections of 1 Mbps Max. each onto a carrier of 150 Mbps. As not all of the 1000 virtual connections require the full 1 Mbps at the same time, 1000 * 1 fits into 150. Fast switching because of simple, small, fixed-size cell-format, and because of connection oriented nature. This then allows ATM to deliver real-time services such as speech, video, ...

" "

"

Weaknes

Despite the strengths of ATM technology, today it is not yet very widespread, and is is seriously threatened by a competing technology : IP . The limited success of ATM is probably due to several factors, (technical and non-technical) but here are some of the difficulties with ATM :
"

Connection Oriented nature makes it quite complex for the terminal : he has to talk a complex signalling language dialogue to setup a connection. ATM switching itself is quite simple, but additional functions on top of that are quite complex : resource management, operations and mainenance, adaptation layers, flow control,...

"

Figure 29 shows a comparison between ATM and 'traditional' circuit switching or Synchronous Transfer Mode (STM).

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Table 8 STM

STM versus ATM ATM Reservation of Virtual channels Variable number of channels Variable bitrate of channels Small granularity of bitrates

Reservation of Physical chan nels Fixed number of channels Fixed bitrate of channels Large granularity of bitrates

Resources are permanently re Resources only used if some served, even if nothing is trans thing is really transmitted mitted Overhead 1/27 (STM-1) Overhead 5/53 (ATM Cell)

ATM cells can be transmitted without any other transmission system (called a 'cell based interface'), but they can also be transmitted in SDH frames, PDH frames, over an ADSL link, .... Charging for ATM-connectivity is not yet available. Most systems today are private networks (Local Area Networks), for which there is no need for charging. In the future charging could be a function of time, provided bandwidth and effective data volume.

Alcatel Product & Lin IP

"

http://www.alcatel.com/products

IP means Internet Protocol. IP is very popular because many popular applications use it : email, WWW-browser, ftp, Newsgroups. IP is a form of connection-less packet switching. IP packets are variable in size. An IPv4 (version 4) header is 20 bytes, the IPv4 payload can vary between 0 and 65535 bytes. Typical packet sizes are 576 or 1500 bytes. Note today, IP version 4 is the most common used IP . However, a future version of the IP protocol is being standardized, the so-called IPv6, or 128-bit IP : An IPv6 (version 6) header is 40 bytes, the IPv6 payload can vary between 0 and 65535 bytes.

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20 Bytes

0..65535 Bytes

Header

User Payload

Figure 30

IP Packet (IPv4)

As an IP-network is connection-less, it is more computing intensive for the nodes to route the packets. On the other hand there is no need to set up a connection. Routing decisions will be based upon the destination IP address carried in the IP header. This IP address has to be unique in the network. Today (IPv4) the IP address is 32 bits wide, allowing a theorethical 4 billion possible addresses. IP addresses are represented in a so-called dotted notation, which splits the 32 bits into 4 bytes, and each byte has a value from 0 to 255. Example : 138.203.048.001 An IP network operates in the best effort" mode : no guarantee is given if and when an IP packet will reach its destination. This makes it somewhat more difficult for the terminals. Most IP networks are charged as flat fee (fixed monthly price), or connection time.

Evolut IP is 30 years old. Nevertheless, there is a fast evolution of the

protocol, fueled by the succes of internet applications. The following are fast developing areas in the IP world : IPSEC : a mechanism to improve security in the Internet. A security protocol will provide cryptographic security services that support combinations of authenticication, integrity, access control and confidentiality. IP Multicast : Multicast is a protocol that enables the same information to be sent from a server to a number of clients. By avoiding duplicate sending of the same information, it improves efficiency. This makes the Internet more acceptable for applications that are similar to conventional TV broadcast. IPv6 : The current Internet addressing scheme is being updated. The growth in the Internet has led to a shortage of addresses. IPv6 increases the length of the addresses. IP QoS : A lot of effort is going on to provide some quality of service in IP networks, thus also allowing real-time services, e.g. Voice over IP (VoIP). 2 models are defined :

"

"

"

"

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IntServ : Integrated Services providing QoS in an ATM-like way, reserving bandwidth to a particular destination, by means of the Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP). DiffServ : The difficulties of large-scale implementation of RSVP have led to alternative suggestions for solving the problem of securing sufficient bandwidth. The Differentiated Services model is based on the idea of tagging individual packets with an indication of their priority.

ATM versus IP
ATM and IP are to some extent overlapping (and as such competing) technologies, as well as complementary. A lot of research is going on which technology is the best answer to our current and future needs. ATM and IP originate from a different Business : ATM from Telecom, IP from computer networks. Both these businesses have their own history, legacy and practices. IP is currently very successful, and extremely fast-growing. There is a lot of support for it, thanks to the (relatively) simple and proven protocol stack. 20 years of legacy do not seem to burden new innovations, and the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) standardization body seems to work decent, steadily and efficiently. ATM has been developed as a Broadband Multimedia technology from scratch. This way it is not at all compromised by backward compatibility to legacy systems. On the other hand, the complexity (and cost) of many aspects of this new technology were under-estimated : policing, call acceptance control, OAM, ...
IP : virtuous circle ATM : vicious circle
Slow Take-Up High Growth Rapid Innovation High cost of Ownership Lack of Applications

Figure 31

ATM versus IP

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IP , ATM and SDH

For 'applications' to communicate to each other, there exist today several possibilities. This can be represented in a protocol stack graph as shown in Figure 32.
"

The 'Optical/Physical' layer takes care of the actual transmission of the bits at the lowest level. All systems need this, The SDH layer can be included : it provides the standardization and the management features of SDH (protection switching, bit error detection, signal labels, ...) The ATM layer can be included when high-speed switching is needed : ATM can provide high-quality, high bandwidth 'pipes' of information transfer. The pipes can be any bandwidth with any Quality of Service. The IP layer can be included for the service integration : many existing applications allow to exchange information via IP packets.

"

"

"

Applications 1. 2. IP 3. 4.

ATM

SDH

Optical Layer (WDM) / Physical Layer

Figure 32

IP , ATM and SDH

As a result of this, Figure 32 shows four ways to combine all these: 1. The application generates IP packets, and transmits them directly onto a physical medium. This is under development, as the IP and Optical layer need to be completed with some maintenance features. 2. The application generates IP packets, and transmits them in SDH containers onto a physical medium. Very popular, but still lacking a guaranteed real-time service.

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3. The application generates IP packets, packages a number of streams into ATM virtual connections. The ATM cells are transmitted in SDH containers onto a physical medium. Quite flexible, but also complex. Also there is some overlap between the protocol stack layers, which leads to some inefficiency and higher cost. 4. The application generates ATM Cells. The ATM cells are transmitted in SDH containers onto a physical medium. This is the stack proposed by the ATM community. Because it is still quite complex, and because there is very little applications being able to interface to an ATM protocol stack, this solution is not yet that successful.

Conclus Today, telecom observers estimate that the future could be 80% IP
and 20% ATM. Most applications will use the IP protocol. Inside the network, traffic can be optimized by using (a subset of) ATM : semi-permanent connections between subnetworks and routers.

3.3.5

Signalling
Signalling can be categorized in two types : Signalling inside the network, and signalling between the user and the network. The signalling between user equipment and the network is called User to Network Interface (UNI) signalling. The signalling inside the network, i.e. between 2 exchanges is called the Network to Network Interface (NNI) signalling. Different protocols are defined because of a number of reasons :
"

Different addressing identification for channels, because of higher degree of multiplexing for the NNI. NNI signalling is protected, versus UNI is not protected. NNI signalling is multi-service, versus UNI is single-service. Historical reasons

" " "

The older signalling systems can only communicate a limited number of events, states and digits. The newer signalling systems are very flexible, because they use messages (packets of information) between the network elements. A sequence of these messages is called a Scenario. See appendix L for a simple, typical call setup/release scenario.

User to Network Interface Signalling (UNI)

Following is a list of popular UNI signalling systems :

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"

Analog Subscriber Signalling System (ASSS) : one of the functions of the analog signalling system, is to transport digits dialled by the subscriber to the exchange. In the early days this was done using a Pulse system : short interruptions of the line circuit. Today the more advanced Dual Tone Multiple Frequency (DTMF) system is used, where each digit is represented by a mix of two tone-frequencies. ISDN Digital Subscriber Signalling System 1 (DSS1) B-ISDN Digital Subscriber Signalling System 2 (DSS2)

" "

Network Node Interface Signalling (NNI)

Following is a list of popular NNI signalling systems :
" " "

Channel Associated Signalling (CAS) ISDN User Part (ISUP) B-ISDN User Part (B-ISUP)

Common Channel Signalling System #7

To transport ISUP signalling messages in a reliable way, a transport mechanism called Common Channel Signalling System #7 (CCS #7) was developed. In the mean time this transport mechanism has been extended with many other features, and has become the dominant system for signalling and other control communication. Therefore it is described in a little more detail in this chapter.
Signalling Transfer Point

Signalling Network

User Payload Network

Figure 33

Separation of Signalling Network and User Data Network

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CCS #7 has become the dominant signalling system (and will most probably stay it in the future) because of a number of its characteristics :
"

Its modular structure, which makes it :

D D D

multi-purpose, e.g. signalling for calls, for IN, for charging and billing information, for TMN, ... expandable future-safe

"

It uses a common channel for the signalling of different users, as is shown in figure 33. Moreover, the paths of the signalling information and the user information can be different. This complete separation of the signalling network offers some advantages :
D D

more efficient use of signalling links a much higher protection can be foreseen for the signalling network, than for the user data, e.g. by using Signalling Transfer Points (STPs) more advanced protocols can be implemented, e.g. look-ahead signalling.

Application Layers
Mobile Application Part (MAP) Intelligent Network Application Part (INAP) (MRVT) (SRVT)

B-ISDN User Part (B-ISUP)

Telephone User Part (TUP)

ISDN User Part (ISUP)

Base Station Subsystem Application Part (BSSAP)

OSI

Transaction Capabilities ApplicationPart (TCAP)

Transport Layers
Signalling Connection Control Part SCCP)

Message Transfer Part (MTP)

Figure 34

Modular Structure of CCS #7

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Message Transfer Par The Message Transfer Part (MTP) is capable of sending messages

over the network. Error Correction and Flow Control functions are provided to ensure reliable information transfer.

Signalling Connection The Signalling Connection Control Part (SCCP) increases the . It supports a more efficient routing Control Par functionality of the MTP

algorithm (connection-oriented) as well as extended addressing capabilities. All user parts rely on the MTP , but not necessarily on the SCCP .

T ransac Recently a new common part was introduced to support new Capabil telecom services, such as the Global System for Mobile Par communications (GSM) and the Intelligent Network (IN). Known as Applicatio
the Transaction Capabilities Application Part (TCAP), it supports remote operations in a real-time environment.

T elephone User Par Telephone User Part (TUP): signalling for telephony. ISDN User Par ISDN User Part (ISUP): signalling in the ISDN network. BISDN User Par Broadband ISDN User Part (B-ISUP): signalling in the B-ISDN
network.

MTP Routi MTP Routing Verification Test (MRVT): procedures to test that data Verificati Tes in the MTP routing tables is consistent. SCCP Routi SCCP Routing Verification Test (SRVT): various procedures to verify . Verificati Tes the routing functions performed by the SCCP
On top of the SCCP connection oriented an OSI stack can run. Typically this is required for Operations and Maintenance and in the TMN (Telecommunications Management Network).

Mobile Application The Mobile Application Part (MAP) is used to exchange call state Par information not only between Mobile Switching Centers (MSC), but
also between a Mobile Switching Center and its associated Visitor Location Register and Home Location Register.

Base Station Subsystem The Base Station Subsystem Application Part (BSSAP) is used for Applicatio Par signalling between the Base Station Subsystem and the Mobile
Switching Center.

Intelligent Network The Intelligent Network Application Part (INAP) is used to Par exchange messages between the Services Switching Point and the Applicatio
Service Control Point during a service call.

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4 Access Networks

4 Access Networks
4.1 Objectives
the Last Mile
Access networks are to solve the so-called Problem of the Last Mile". The Access network must bridge the distance between the user (at home, at work, on the move, etc.) and the core network. The main difference between core network and access network is that the access part of the network, is used only for a single (or small number of) subscriber, where the core network is shared by thousands of subscribers. This makes the Access Network much more cost-sensitive. It is for example still too expensive to bring optical fiber to all homes directly. Other names for Access Network are : subscriber loop, local loop, subscriber line. As a result of this different costing, the main targets of an Access Network are :
"

Note

Providing existing services, on new infrastructure, in a more cost-effective way. (a cost-improvement for existing services) Providing new services on existing infrastructure, thus for the same cost. (re-using existing infrastructure to keep the cost down) Providing new services on new infrastructure.

"

"

Table 9 groups some access network concepts according to these criteria. They will be explained in more detail below.

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Table 9

Types of Access Networks Existing Service New Service XDSL HFC V5.x HFC GSM DECT LMDS

Existing Infrastructure New Infrastructure

User Density

An important factor when dimensioning an access network, is the physical distribution of the users in space. Density can be high, low, users can be clustered or evenly spread. Following is a list of 'design-parameters' for deploying an access network :
" " " " " " "

operator's existing infrastructure, service(s) to be provided, traffic requirements, estimated growth and new services, user density, user clustering, accessibility of the terrain,

Network Structure

The Access Node is an additional network element in the network hierarchy. (see Figure 35) On the other hand, network builders want to simplify the networks, to reduce the operation cost. The Access Node can achieve this because it reduces the number of Local exchanges. This results in a trend where networks evolve from a large number of small locals, to a small number of large locals, using access nodes to collect the users. An Access Node is smaller and simpler than an Exchange. It requires less maintenance.

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to Transit Level

100 Local Exchanges, 2.000 subscribers

10 Local Exchanges, 20.000 Subscribers Access Nodes

Users

Figure 35

Network evolution with Access Nodes

Traditional MultiExchange topology

Exchange with 5k subscribers Exchange Serviced Area 10 5 20 20 3 5 10 5 20 10 5

Access Nodes based topologyy

Access Node with 5k subscribers 5 5 0.5 30 1 1 0.5 5 1 0.5 1 78 5 1 5 5 0.5 0.5 1 5 Access Node Serviced Area 1 0.5 5 0.5 1 5

Figure 36

Network evolution with Access Nodes : view from the sky

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Liberali

Access Nodes also simplify the network design in a Multi-operator market. Each user should be free to choose whichever telecom-service-provider he wants. On the other hand, the access to the user is so expensive, that it is certainly not economical to provide a separate access from each service provider to each user.
Transit Level Voice Network Provider 1

Voice Network Provider 2

Data Network Provider 1

Access Nodes

Users

Figure 37

Access to Several Networks

With Access Networks, different aspects of Telecom Services can be splitted over several providers :
" "

one provider operates the access. one or more other providers operate the core network.

In some countries the government-owned network provider is to provide the access network, where as the network behind that is liberalized. In the US. different companies are licensed to service different parts of the network :
" "

regional Bells : Access AT&T : Core Transit Network

Some time later, additional core network companies, called Long Distance Carriers have been added : MCI-Worldcom, Sprint, ... Which service provider is choosen by the user can be statically configured in the Access Node. It can also be choosen dynamically, by dialling a carrier prefix. Even if no Access Node exists, long distance calls can still be made via a long-distance operator, selected via a prefix.

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Local Loop Unbundling

One step further in the liberalization process, is to give new service providers, (high-speed internet providers) direct access to the subscribers local loop. This is referred to as unbundling of the local loop. Further, a unique Access Node can provide all the services from the different networks to the different users at their offices and at their homes. This is the multiservice aspect. Integration of a flexible mix of NB and BB services on a single platform : POTS, ISDN, Data, Leased Lines, BB. switching exchange.

Multise

Multiven As explained, open interfaces allow interoperability with any Multisce Access Nodes can support different topologies in the access

network : star, tree, ring or a mix, depending on the nature of the subscribers you want to connect. Fiber can reach them (FFC, FTTB, FTTH). access nodes capacity can range in size up to 2000 users per node (typically 100 - 600 subscribers per access node) This is shown in figure 38.

TV

Mixed subscriber Business subscriber Residential subscriber

Telephony

Access Network :
Star, Ring,

Internet

Tree, Mixed

MultiService Access Node

Other... MultiScenario MultiService MultiVendor Local Loop Unbundling

Figure 38

MultiService Access Networks

Alcatel Product & Lin

"

http://www.alcatel.com/products. Search in 'Competitive Access Providers'

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4.2

Media
In the access networks, a multitude of different media are used. On one hand because there is existing infrastructure from the past, on the other hand because new services install additional new media. Most access networks use a Combination of :
" " " "

twisted pair coaxial cable optical glass-fiber and plastic fiber radio

The Combination of media results from the fact that the two segments are very different, and thus optimized differently :
"

the part between the user and the Access Node, also called the Tail. the part between the Access Node and the Core Network.

"

T wisted Pai Twisted pair is the oldest and cheapest medium. Originally used

for telephone lines, it was reused for data-networks, and XDSL technologies create an extra life-cycle for Twisted Pair. The pair is twisted, in order to reduce the interference with the environment. Usually more than one pair is combined into a single cable : from 2 to hundreds of pairs. Twisted pair comes in an Unshielded and Shielded variant. For the latter, the whole bunch of pairs, (or each pair individually) is additionally shielded from interference with a metal cover. Th unshielded variant is called Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP), sometimes with an additional number indicating the type of wire used. Example UTP-5 is a common type of twisted pair wire used for local area networks. The advantage of Twisted Pair is that it is cheap, and most of all, that it is already installed to all of our houses. Re-using the existing Twisted Pair infrastructure, as XDSL does, avoids the cost of routing new media to the subscriber. Typical throughputs of twisted pair are in the range 100 kbps (ISDN) to 100 Mbps (Ethernet).

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Figure 39

(Unshielded) Twisted Pair, 4 pairs

Coaxial Cable

Coaxial Cable (nicknamed Coax) is a single wire, protected from interference and signal loss by a metal cover. This allows higher frequency signals to be transported compared to twisted pair. Coax is more expensive than Twisted pair, but allows more bandwidth as well. As with Twisted Pair, many Coax is already installed, and can be re-used, avoiding installation costs. For example the Cable-TV network, brings a Coax to most of the homes in cities. Typical throughputs of coaxial cable are in the range 10 Mbps (Ethernet) to 1 Gbps (digital TV broadcast).

Figure 40

Coaxial Cable

Optical Fiber

Optical fiber has many advantages as a signal carrier (for that reason it is widely deployed in core networks) :
" " "

very high bandwidth capability. (Terabits/s or more) resistant to interference, noise, crosstalk, etc. it is made from cheap materials (sand), although the handling is more expensive.

Fiber is also an interesting medium for the network builder because its bandwidth is currently only limited by the Terminations. This means that a given Fiber carries today (eg.) 2.5 Gbps, because the Laser-transmitter, and receiver-diode are limited to this speed. The Fiber actually allows much more than 2.5 Gbps. As soon as better transmitters/receivers are developed, the

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capacity of the same Fiber can be upgraded to (eg.) 10 Gbps or 40 Gbps. This is actually happening with Wavelength Division Multiplexing in the Core Network. (see Chapter 3.2.3). The Disadvantage of Fiber is the cost of bringing it to the subscriber : this requires trenches to be digged through streets, etc. which implies a high labor cost. The Fiber cable itself is not so expensive, so as soon as it is decided to bury Fibers, immediately a group of Fibers (eg. 100) is laid, resulting in a lot of spare capacity. This way you don't need to dig into the streets again in the short future. The Fibers which are currently not yet used, are called Dark Fibers, because no light is sent through them yet.

Figure 41

Optical Fiber (8 fibers)

Several research activities are ongoing to further improve the quality and capacity of fiber-systems. Fiber-link lengths are currently limited by (ao.) dispersion : the smoothing out of pulses. An interesting concept to overcome this is the soliton. It is an optical pulse, which has such a shape that it is in-sensitive to dispersion. http://soliton.ucsd.edu/ http://soliton.ucsd.edu/links.html Another domain of innovation is Plastic Optical Fiber (POF) : fibers which are made of plastic instead of glass.

Radi Radio can be used in a 'Point to Point' or in a Broadcasting way of

communicating :
"

Point to Point : Microwave links, Satellite - Groundstation link, etc. Broadcasting : Radio/TV-broadcasting, Mobile telephony, etc.

"

The advantages of radio are :

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"

no medium to be installed, (it works in vacuum) so lower installation costs. This can be a particularly important advantage in hostile environments like mountains, swamps, etc. short installation time, short reconfiguration time. in the broadcasting case, terminals can be Mobile.

" "

Radio has however some severe limitations : (Therefor radio is usually only deployed for applications really requiring mobility or for environments where wiring is more expensive)
"

Point-to-Point radio-links require Line of Sight : the sender- and receiver-antenna must be able to see each other. Because the earth is a sphere, for a long link this requires relay-stations every 50 km or so. Objects blocking the line-of-sight also block the communication : new buildings, trees, flying craft, ... the radio-medium is shared by everyone :
D D D

"

it is not so secure, everyone can listen-in on your transmission, it is susceptible to interference. Everyone can send at the same time in the same frequency band, its bandwidth is limited. Given the fact that there is only one spectrum for everyone, governments have regulated the usage of this. They define the spectrum into several bands, each for a particular application. Although there is no real upper-limit to the spectrum, these bands are limited. For example, a typical SDH point to point link is limited to STM-1, 155 Mbps.

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Figure 42 Note

Radio : Microwave Dish and other antenna's

MCI is an abbreviation for Microwave Communications Incorporation : started as a microwave radio based network provider, they have expanded into many other telecom markets. http://www.wcom.com/ Negroponte switch : Professor Negroponte (MIT MediaLab) noted that concerning wired and wireless, the world seems to evolve in a remarkable way : information which used to be broadcasted through radio (TV, Radio) is now being distributed through Wires (Cable TV). On the other hand, information that used to be 'wired' like telephone, is becoming more and more wireless via radio (Mobile phones). This observation is called the Negroponte switch. This observation may not stand for the long term : when demand for bandwidth grows to more than just telephony, wired provides a much more cost-effective solution. Also low-cost may be more important to users than mobility. http://www.media.mit.edu/

Note

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4.3

Analogue Line Access

A simple, low-cost twisted pair from the local exchange (or from the Access Node) to the subscriber is all you need for analogue telephony. Millions of these lines are installed worldwide, some of them operating for many decennia. See figure 43 and 44 for comparison with ISDN

4.4

ISDN Access
The Integrated Digital Services Network (ISDN) is a concept defined in the late 70's as a first attempt to define a single uniform network for all services. Part of the standards describe the Access part of the network, not only the physical layer, but up to the protocols. ISDN defines two types of Access :
"

Basic Rate Access (BRA), in the US also called Basic Rate Interface (BRI). It consist of 2 user payload channels, each 64 kbps, and 1 signalling channel of 16 kbps. The user channels are know in the standards as B-channels, and the signalling channel as D, so the BRA is sometimes referred to as 2B+D. Primary Rate Access (PRA), in the US also called Primary Rate Interface (PRI). It consists of 30 user payload channels of 64 kbps, and 1 signalling channel of 64 kbps. (another channels is used for synchronization and is not available to the user). The PRA is also referred to as 30B+D. The physical layer bandwidth is 2.048 Mbps, the user has 1.92 Mbps available.

"

Note

On top of the B and D channels, ISDN also specifies an S-channel, used for synchronization. The Basic Rate Access requires a Network Termination (NT) at the subscribers premises. A number of terminals can be connected to this box, allowing several devices (Telephones, Fax, Computer, ..) to share the access. Existing analog line terminals (telephone, fax, modem) can still be connected through a so-called Terminal Adapter (TA).

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Users requiring more bandwidth, such as computers, or private exchanges, will connect through a Primary Rate Access, as shown in figure 45. Note The D channel of Basic Rate Access and Primary Rate Access are different in bandwidth (16 resp. 64 kbps). This bandwidth is somewhat proportional to the amount of user channels (B) that have to be controlled, and is found to be sufficient in both access types. ISDN is more than just an Access Network : it is also about services. This services aspect will be described in chapter 6.

Note

Subscriber Premises
Analogue Line Analog Telephone

Local Exchange Office

Local Exchange

Figure 43

Analogue Access

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Subscriber Premises
S-Bus

Local Exchange Office

ISDN Digital Telephone(s)

U Interface ISDN NT

Local Exchange

ISDN Fax

Analog Telephone

Terminal Adapter

Owned by Subscriber

Owned by Network Provider

Figure 44

ISDN Basic Rate Access

Local Exchange Office

Subscriber Premises

Primary Rate Access

Local Exchange

Primary Rate Access ISDN Private Exchange

Local Exchange

Figure 45

ISDN Primary Rate Access

ISDN Features

Using ISDN as Access has the following advantages :

"

Multi-Service : voice, data, fax, ...

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"

Higher speeds than analogue : 64 kbps, 128 kbps, 1920 Kbps. High speed Signalling : 16 Kbps D-channel. SubAddressing : several terminals onto a single access. Easy implementation of Supplementary Services (see also chapter 6.1)

" " "

Always On / Dynamic With the above features, ISDN can be well employed as an Access ISD for voice and data. In the so-called Always-On / Dynamic
ISDN (AOD ISDN) the user is connected fulltime using only the 16 Kbps D-channel. This is sufficient for low-bitrate data-services, such as email, chat, etc. When you need more bandwidth (for a data-transfer, or for a voice call) one or more B-channels are opened. Using the fast signalling possibilities of the D-channels, this can happen very fast. This is an efficient way of using the ISDN network, and with the right charging strategy could become an interesting way to provide internet access.
" "

Alcatel Product & Lin

http://www.alcatel.com/products search in ISDN ISDN : http://www.alumni.caltech.edu/~dank/isdn/

4.5

Concentrating Remote Users

There is a trend in the telecom networks, going from a network with many smaller exchanges to a network with a few big exchanges. (see also Figure 35) This is (among others) to reduce the operation costs. When collecting more subscribers to a local exchange, they must be collected from a larger radius around the exchange, which gives rise to more cabling. As a solution to this there are access nodes, locally collecting/concentrating users, and then bringing them to the exchange in an efficient way. In some cases, the number of twisted pairs available was exhausted, and network providers searched for a solution to service more subscribers over the available twisted pairs. The Accesses behind the Access Node are typically analogue lines, or Basic Rate Accesses, or a combination of them.

RTS The first systems were proprietary solutions :

" "

the Alcatel Remote Terminal Subscriber Unit (RTSU) the Alcatel Remote Concentrator Unit (ARCU)

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V5. More and more, operators demand standard products with open
interfaces One of the most successful products of this open standard type is the V5.x access node. There are two types :
"

V5.1 : multiplexed non-concentrated. 30 subscribers on a 2 Mbps access. V5.2 : concentrated, multiplexed : typically 200 subscribers on a 2 Mbps access.

"

4.6

Digital Subscriber Line, ADSL

Digital subscriber lines apply modern digital techniques on twisted pair medium to deliver new services over existing infrastructure. The bandwidth and quality of a typical analog telephone line is relatively low (300..3400 Hz). This is mainly because there is a wide variety of types, lengths, qualities, etc of twisted pairs used, and an analog line must assume the worst case common denominator of all. However, today's more powerful signal processing and computing techniques allow to build equipment that adapts to each particular twisted pair, optimizing the use of it case by case, and resulting in much higher throughputs. For the Telecom operator, the advantages are :
" "

no additional cable-cost : uses existing telephone line. telephone network is not used for data-services, like accessing the Internet. Telephone networks are dimensioned for phonecalls, not for accessing the Internet. for example the average phonecall duration is 100 seconds, when 'surfing' the Internet this is much longer, resulting in congestion in the telephone network. high throughput : up to Mbps telephone is still available when surfing the Internet, telephone and data-services can be used at the same time.

Advantages for the end-user :

" "

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POT S ban d

ADSL

Upstream 800 kbps

Downstream 8 Mbps Frequency [Hz]

Figure 46

ADSL Frequency Spectrum

Discrete Multi-Tone Discrete Multi-Tone (DMT) is an advanced form of Frequency

Multiplexing. The total bandwidth of the twisted pair cable, is divided into a large set of small bands. For each band the line terminals determine what is the quality of each individual sub-band, by testing it. Better quality means less noise and interference, and that results into less bit-errors. Another way to look at this is that for the same amount of bit-errors, a good-quality frequency sub-band allows to transmit more bits per second. After measuring the quality of all the sub-bands, it is decided for each band how much bits-per-second can be sent over this. For the total twisted pair, this results in a total bandwidth capacity, much higher than the classical analog telephone line. As each twisted pair is different, its possibilities are also different, resulting into typical capacities from 1 Mbps to tens of Mbps. For example, for ADSL, the DMT technique partitions the frequency band 5 KHz to 1.1 MHz in to 255 sub-bands of 4.3 kHz. Each sub-band uses its own modulation scheme. See Appendix E for more info on modulation.
POTS band sub-bands

Quality, Throughput [bps]

Frequency [Hz]

Figure 47

Discrete Multi-Tone

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HDS

XDSL is a family name for a number of similar techniques. The x is a placeholder for several variants of Digital Subscriber Line (DSL). The first one which was deployed was High Speed Digital Subscriber Line (HDSL) It is a symmetrical technique : the same bandwidth is available in both directions. HDSL is typically deployed in the network where 2.048 Mbps are needed, but only twisted pair (no coax or fiber) is available. variant of XDSL : The main principles are the same, but the bandwidths are divided Asymmetrical : more bandwidth is made available from network to user (Downstream) then from network to user (Upstream). This matches with typical residential applications such as :
"

ADS Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) is the best known

Video-on-Demand (VOD) : video, typically a few Mbps going downstream, with the user control (selecting the video, play, stop, rewind, etc) only a few kbps going upstream. Internet : WEB-contents going downstream is megabytes, user requests are only a few hundred bytes.

"

ADSL does not make changes to use of the twisted pair as an access to an analog phone : The new services come on top of the existing Plain Old Telephony Service (POTS), or, in the newer version, on top of ISDN.

Computer ADSL Modem (NT) ADSL Modem (LT) Router

Internet

Telephone

Local Exchange

Telephone Network (PSTN)

Figure 48

Internet Access Provider, ADSL

Adaptive ADSL

A future evolution will be Adaptive ADSL. In the current system, the capabilities of the twisted pair are measured once, before taking the ADSL-line into service. This is called Automatic Rate Adaptive at Startup. Should the capacity of the line change drastically after it is put into service, the ADSL Modem will restart

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and then adapt to the new line conditions. This will result in a 15 seconds outage. Further improvement is possible, when these measurements are done continuously, resulting in the maximum capacity of the line at that time to be made available. This is called Automatic Rate Adaptive at On-Line. An additional complexity is that is requires applications aware of flow-control : the applications must adapt to the bandwidth which is available. Todays ADSL modems are Rate Adaptive at Startup, not yet Rate Adaptive On-Line. However, each time the modem starts up, he reserves a small amount of spare capacity. This margin can be used to adapt to small changes in the line conditions. This technique is called Bit Swapping.

ADSL on ISDN

First generations ADSL provide a large bandwidth on top of a standard Analog Line Access. New developments have extended this to ADSL on ISDN Basic Rate Access. ADSL on ISDN Access is very similar to ADSL on analog lines. However, since IDSN uses more bandwidth for the Telephony, less bandwidth is available for the ADSL-part. This results in a 15% lower throughput for the ADSL data.

ADSL Lite

The throughput of ADSL is directly determined by the 'quality' of the twisted pair. For this reason, ADSL positions the Splitter and ADSL NT where your telephone line enters your house. This however required then that you build two networks in your house : a telephone network (POTS) and a data-network (for example, Ethernet). sometimes it would be convenient to have just the telephone network, and tap the ADSL data at any position where you have a telephone. This is possible with ADSL Lite : the Splitter and ADSL NT are placed at the telephone plug, not where the line enters your house. One drawback however, is that the data-capacity of the ADSL Lite is substantially lower, 1 Mbps or lower. ADSL Lite will be available in Distributed Splitter technology, and even Splitter-less technology

VDS Digital subscriber lines make a trade-off between bandwidth and

distance : the shorter the line, the higher the throughput. As a result of this, a number of variants of DSL-techniques are being developed, from long distance - low bandwidth to short distance - high bandwidth. Another parameter is the division of Upstream/Downstream bandwidth. This can be :

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" " "

symmetrical : the same in each direction, asymmetrical, fixed asymmetrical, dynamic : the total bandwidth, upstream+downstream is fixed, but at any time this total can be assigned in a certain ratio to either direction.

New DSL variants using these new techniques are called Very High Speed Digital Subscriber Line (VDSL).
Bandwidth

15 Mbps

VDSL

6 Mbps 2 Mbps 500 m

ADSL HDSL

5.6 Km

10 Km Length of Access line

Figure 49

Different DSL techniques

ADSL Access Node

The ADSL system covers the physical layer. But on top of this, a protocol stack is needed, as the one described in Figure 32. The Alcatel solution transports the application information over the ADSL using ATM-cells. Because most (PC) applications connect to an IP protocol stack, there is IP on ATM.

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Applications

IP

ATM

Physical Layer: ADSL

Figure 50

IP on ATM over ADSL

Coupling this ADSL access to the core network is done at the ATM level. This ATM-network is then coupled to the Internet or other core networks. As long as communications stay on the ATM-based part of the core network, very-high speed and high quality is guaranteed. Through time this ATM-part can grow gradually.
ATM

ATM Core Network

Client ADSL Modem (NT) ADSL Modem (LT) Server Data Access Network Adapter (DANA)

Other Core Networks

Server

Figure 51

ADSL Access on ATM core Network

Alcatel Product & Lin

" " "

http://www.alcatel.com/products Search on ADLS The ADSL Forum : http://www.adsl.com/ http://www.xdsl.com/services/analyses/trox/

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Figure 52

ADSL Network Termination

4.7

Hybrid Fiber Coax (HFC)

'Hybrid Fiber Coax' uses a combination of Fiber and Coaxial cable. It can be installed as a new network, but is typically the result of the evolution of the Cable-TV network :
" "

Originally Cable-TV networks were all coax. Then operators optimized the network for quality and capacity by converting the Backbone to Fiber. The last branch (tail) of the network, is still coax running through the street to each of the homes. After the backbone became fiber, operators started interconnecting several regional networks, into bigger networks. Operators converted their uni-directional networks (TV distribution DownStream) to bi-directional networks. This required additional equipment in the fiber backbone, and upgrade of equipment in the remaining coaxial part

"

"

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Corner of the street

one 'T' per user

Figure 53

Hybrid Fiber Coax evolution : Full Coax Star Network

Coax Cell

Figure 54

Hybrid Fiber Coax evolution : Optical Backbone, Coax Tail

Typical HFC networks have :

" "

100 to 500 users per Coax-cell, Coax-cells range 250 to 400 m.

On the Hybrid Fiber Coax network, specific bands of bandwidth are reserved for the different services. Also there is only one coax, to be shared by a group of subscribers, so a device is needed to multiplex the access of several users. This is called a Cable Modem. Services provided on this HFC network are (typically) :
" " " "

Cable-TV new Digital TV channels, sometimes 'on demand' Analog or ISDN Telephony Internet Access

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Cable networks are usually organized in 6 MHz bands. One such band can carry a TV-channel, 30 Mbps of data, or a number of narrowband speech channels. Hybrid Fiber Coax networks provide an alternative to Twisted Pair for telephony : as most homes are already wired for Cable-TV, a second operator can have an access network deployed within a short time. Examples are the UK, and also Telenet in Belgium. http://www.telenet.be/index.english.htm
Set top Box return Data, eg. Internet Cable Telephony Downstream

Supervision

8 10 118

17

26 47 Data, eg. Internet Cable Telephony Digital Video Services Cable-TV FM Radio 450 480 500 862

Upstream

Figure 55

Typical spectrum allocation for Cable-Access

Alcatel Product & Lin

"

http://www.alcatel.com/products Search in HFC

4.8

Fiber in the Loop (FITL)

'Fiber in the Loop' indicates that there is Fiber used somewhere in the Access Network. Typically the following three cases are distinguished, depending on how close you come with the fiber to the subscriber :
"

Fiber to the Curb (FTTC) : this brings fiber to the 'corner of the street'. At this place, an access node collects enough users and bandwidth to justify the fiber. This is done through coax, radio, twisted pair, etc. Fiber to the Building (FTTB) : In a next step, fiber could be routed all the way to office buildings, skyscrapers, etc.

"

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f [MHz]

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"

Fiber to the Home (FTTH) : In the final step, fiber is routed to individual homes. This provides a simple solution with lots of bandwidth capacity, but is also the more expensive. a few tens of users, narrowband and broadband services, network to user distances typically 10 - 20 km, typical bit rates: 622 Mbps downstream, 155 Mbps upstream.
Curb Building Home

A typical FITL network provides :

" " " "

FTTC

FTTB FTTH

Figure 56

Fiber in the Loop

Passive Optical Passive Optical Networks (PON) are point-to-multipoint fiber Networ networks : the fiber is mechanically sliced at one end into a large
number of sub-fibers. Each user is connected to one sub-fiber. Passive Optical Networks provide a low cost solution for the splitting/multiplexing function. As a result, for the same cost they provide a further penetration of the optical part. Disadvantages of Passive Optical Networks are the higher complexity of the terminals, and lower security.

the term Passive refers to the fact that there are no electronic components at the splitting point. (in contrast to a multiplexer or concentrator)

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Table 10

Active/Passive Optical Networks Advantages Disadvantages Expensive optical compo nents in splitter More complex security : all information is Broad casted to all users Upstream access uses a shared medium : requires access mechanism

Active More flexible in Band Optical width management Network Passive Splitter is simple, passive Optical 'device' Network

Developments New

Passive optical networks serving up to 2000 connected users over a range up to 100 km are currently being studied. They are referred to as SUPERPONs. Strictly speaking, Hybrid Fiber-Coax is also a case of Fiber in the Loop.

Note

4.9

Microwave
In some areas, the cost of burying cable or fiber is very high. This due to environmental factors (mountains, rivers, ...) or legal (land is owned by competitors, etc.) In such case, wireless access can provide an economical alternative.

Point to Poin To bridge the distance between the backbone network and the

cluster of users, a point to point microwave link can be used. They could be PDH, or STM-1 SDH, or also sub-rate SDH. Sub-rate SDH is a new development for SDH standards with lower bitrates, but also at lower costs. They can provide economical solutions to the 'problem of the last mile'. Examples are STM-0 (1 VC3, 34 Mbps), sSTM-2n (1 or more VC2, 6 Mbps), sSTM1k (1 or more VC12/VC11, 2 Mbps).

LMDS Local Multipoint Distribution Services (LMDS) is a radio-based

access system : A fixed base-antenna (typically on a high building or tower) called Hub, services a number of users which are also fixed. (customer antenna on top of building). The access has a broadband capacity : it can be used for all kinds of telecom services :

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" "

POTS or ISDN telephony Data services such as LAN interconnect, ATM, IP networks, etc. Digital Video broadcasting Businesses Schools, Libraries, Health care providers Residential consumers

"

And potential customers are :

" " "

Each Hub is at the center of cell, a few kilometers in size, containing hundreds or thousands of users. Interconnections between hubs is typically done through fiber-optic core networks. The radio-frequencies used are in the range 28 GHz to 42 GHz. This requires 'line-of-sight ' between hub and end-user. The word Local in LMDS refers to the relative short distance, or small cell-size. The words Multipoint Distribution refers to the point to multipoint nature.

Hub Hub

Hub

Figure 57

Local Multipoint Distribution Services

Wired vs. Wireless Tai The last part of the access can be either wired or wireless . In

case users are sufficiently dense clustered, the Tail can be twisted pair, coax, ADSL, etc. In case of sparse user distribution, and/or problems to deploy wires, the tail can also be a radio technology, eg. GSM or DECT, or an older analog mobile standard. An example of 'Point to Point Microwave' with 'Wireless Tail' is the implementation for GSM base-stations along the French Autoroutes : due to the (mostly) deserted area, the base-stations

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are connected to the mobile network with microwave point to point links.

4.10
4.10.1

GSM
Introduction
Today's most popular standard for Mobile Access is Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) (during its development, however, the abbreviation GSM meant 'Groupe Speciale Mobile') A mobile network with public access is called the Public Lands Mobile Network (PLMN). This is in contrast to private mobile networks, used by Police, Transportation companies, etc.

Cellu GSM is a Cellular system : this means that the whole area to be
covered, is subdivided into a number of cells. Each cell has installed an antenna and services a certain (limited) number of users. The smaller the cells, the lower the power needed to transmit signals through the air. This is important for portable mbile communication. Also, the smaller the cell, the higher the user density, so typically cells in the city center are smaller than cells in a rural area. For GSM the cell size radius varies from 300m to 35 km.

The cells are typically represented as hexagonal, but this is only because hexagons are simple shapes that connect nice together to cover a certain area. In real life, the cell boundary is determined by the area where the antenna signal from the cell equals that of the adjacent cells. Due to the actual terrain conditions, cells may have quite irregular shapes.

Figure 58

Example of Frequency Planning : groups of 7 frequencies

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Users can walk around freely from one cell to another. Even when not communicating, the GSM set stays in contact with the Base-station, and constantly looks for the nearest (strongest signal) base-station. As such also the network knows where the user currently is.

Handov Users can walk around freely from one cell to another, during a

communication. This requires the system to Hand Over the call with all its resources from one cell to the other. This feature is called Handover. Handover is sometimes also called seamless handover, stressing the fact that calls will not be interrupted when moving from cell to cell. Today mobile networks do not allow International Handover : moving between cells from different networks cell owned by another provider, this is called Roaming. It is then necessary that these providers have a mutual Roaming Agreement. One of the aspects of the agreement is how the charging/billing between both providers will be settled.

Roamin When you move from a cell owned by one network provider to a

In the past, most roaming was International Roaming, ie. from a network in one country, to another network in another country. Recently however, also National Roaming has been deployed : roaming between networks in the same country. This can particularly useful for new operators : they can focus on providing network capacity in high density areas (cities, highways), and still offer full national coverage to their customers, through a roaming agreement with an existing operator.

Specific
"

Multiplex : combination of Frequency- and Time-multiplexing. Frequency band : 890 - 915 MHz Uplink, 935 - 960 MHz Downlink Carrier spacing : 200 kHz (a 'Carrier' the main radio-signal which is modulated. Here is refers to a part of the 25 MHz band.) Number of carriers : 124. uplink and downlink channel are in bands 45 MHz apart. Timeslots : 8 timeslots User speech is encoded as 13 kbps (rather than 64 kbps), using more advanced compression techniques. Using 13 kbps instead of 64 kbps, allows more simultaneous calls through the same frequency band.

"

"

"

" "

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"

When using GSM for data connections, the bitrate is 9.6 kbps or 12 kbps.

Frequency [MHz]
960

Downstream Band

935 915

Upstream Band

890

Frame Timeslots : 8 Time 124 sub-bands, each 200 KHz wide

Figure 59

GSM Frequency/TDM Structure

F requency Planning

If all cells would use all possible frequencies at the same time, this would lead to interference problems at the boundaries of the cells. In order to avoid this, it is not allowed to use the same frequency in adjacent cells. So when deploying a GSM network, some Frequency Planning must be done. This is sometimes also called Frequency Re-Use, a little misleading because it actually means frequencies cannot be re-used in adjacent cells. In cells far enough apart, frequencies can be the same, since the signal from the far away cell is sufficiently attenuated, not to cause interference problems. When network providers work in parallel in the same area, they must divide the available frequencies among each other. For example in Belgium, both mobile network providers Proximus and Mobistar each are assigned 60 of the 124 frequency sub-bands.

Note

It is a european law, that the 900 MHz GSM must be assigned to at least 2 independent operators.

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4.10.2

Network Elements
a GSM network consists of two parts :
"

the Base Station Subsystem (BSS) : This is actually the part which is relevant to Access. the Network Subsystem (NS) : this part is a typical Core Network, however with a few additions specific to mobility.

"

Base Station Subsystem (BSS) Mobile Station

The user equipment (the mobile phone set) is called a Mobile Station (MS). Each Mobile Station is identified by a unique International Mobile Station Equipment Identity (IMEI). Each user of the mobile network is identified by his Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) The smart-card holding the SIM is called the SIM-card. The Base Transceiver Station (BTS) contains the antenna's, transmitters and receivers. Its coverage area defines the cell. Base Station Controller (BSC)controls a group of Base Transceiver Stations for power control, handover, etc. the Base Station and then Network Subsystem : 13 kbps - 64 kbps for voice rate adaptation for data : 12 kbps - 64 kbps

Base Transce Stat Base Station Controller

T ransco The Transcoder (TC) building block adapts the bitrates between
" "

Network SubSystem (NSS) Mobile Switching The Mobile Switching Centre (MSC) is a real exchange, serving a Cent number of Base Station Controllers. The MSC is responsible for :
"

call control : setup, routing, control and termination of the calls management of inter-MSC handover supplementary services charging and accounting The MSC is connected to the location and equipment registers and to other MSCs in the same GSM network. An MSC can also act as gateway towards other GSM networks and towards other public networks (PSTN, ISDN and data networks).

" " " "

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Home Location Regis Visitors Location Regis

The Home Location Register (HLR) contains information about subscribers which 'home' is in this part of the network. The Visitors Location Register (VLR) holds information relating to subscribers visiting this part of the network. This way the subscribers profile information is stored in two parts : one part is always stored in the 'home' part of the network : the network where you are subscribed to a provider. The other part is stored moves along the network as you move around, and is stored in the Visitors Location Register of the visited network.

Center The Authentication Center (AUC) contains the individual subscriber Authenticatio
identification keys (also contained in the SIM), and provides subscriber data to the HLR and VLR for authentication.

Equipment Identity Regis

The Equipment Identity Register (EIR) stores information about mobile stations in use and can bar calls from a mobile station if it is stolen, not type-approved or has faults that can disturb the network.
to Transit Level Network Subsystem Authentication Centre Equipment Identity Register Home Location Register Visitor Location Register

Mobile Switching Centre

Transcoder Base Station Controller

Base Transceiver Station Base Station Subsystem

Figure 60

GSM Network Structure

Alcatel Products and Lin

" "

GSM Products : http://www.alcatel.com/products Search on GSM http://www.proximus.be

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" "

http://www.mobistar.be/nl/M/network.html http://www.gsmworld.com/gsminfo/gsminfo.htm

4.10.3

Mobile Data
Up to now, mobile networks really focused on Voice. Fax and Modem are possible, but the throughput is limited, eg. 9.6 Kbps for GSM, versus 56Kbps for PSTN-modems. However, as already explained in the introduction, there is a clear trend voice - data convergence". For mobile communications this convergence is happening in 4 steps :
" " " "

Short Message Service (SMS) Wireless Access Protocol (WAP) General Packet Radio System (GPRS) Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS)

The main difference between these four is that, step by step, they provide more bandwidth and more advanced services.

Short Message Service

This system allows to send small text-based messages between mobile telephones. It is possible to connect the system to ther networks, using a Gateway, for example to send messages from the Internet to mobile telephones. The service is explained in more detail in section 6.5. Figure 61 shows the additional network elements needed.
" "

Alcatel Products and Lin

GSM Products : http://www.alcatel.com/products Search on GSM some websites allow you to send SMS from the web-page to a mobile user : http://www.netbel.be/site/uk/sms/index.asp

Note

the Short Message Service - Centre often has also a connection to the Voice Mail System, so that a mobile user can be informed of a received voice mail, via an SMS message.

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to Transit Level Network Subsystem Mobile Switching Centre Voice Mail System IP Network Short Message System Centre (SMS-C) Base Station Subsystem

Figure 61

Network Elements for Short Message Service

Wireless Access Proto

The purpose of the Wireless Access Protocol is to provide access from mobile phones to data networks, mainly the Internet. WAP requires some additional network elements (see figure 62) as well as some extra software in the mobile phone, the so-called WAP protocol stack.
to Transit Level Network Subsystem Mobile Switching Centre Internet WAP Gateway WAP Service Base Station Subsystem other Internet Services

Figure 62

Network Elements for WireLess Access Protocol

General Pack Radio et Syst

General Packet Radio System. Once the Mobile user has a Gateway to the Internet, he can start using more and more services. This will soon reveal the bandwidth bottleneck that SMS and circuit switched connections have. A solution to this is General Packet Radio System : it adds to the Mobile network, a packet switched data-communication. A GPRS-aware mobile phone, allows to combine up to 8 timeslots (see figure 59) of each maximum 22.8 kbps to provide a maximum of approx. 160 kbps.

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This bandwidth must be shared by all users of that same frequency, both by the voice-users and data-users ! Note GPRS and WAP are Complementary technologies : GPRS gives a mobile user a 'high-speed' data-connection. WAP allows to use this data-connection for accessing the Internet. http://www.alcatel.com/products Search on GPRS http://www.gprsworld.com http://www.ericsson.se/gprs
to Transit Level Network Subsystem

Alcatel Product & Lin

" " "

Mobile Switching Centre Home Location Register

Transcoder

Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)

Internal Network
Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)

Internet

Base Station Controller

Base Transceiver Station Base Station Subsystem

Figure 63

GPRS Network Structure

Universal Mobile Finally the third generation mobile system will bring broadband T elecommunic mobile access, as well as a whole architecture focused on services. Syst More info on UMTS can be found in section 4.14, however, the
standards are not yet completely finalized, and different vendors

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have different ideas of what this next generation mobile system should be.

4.10.4

Other Mobile Evolutions

At the first standardization of GSM, the engineers choose to code a single voice signal, into a channel of 13 Kbps. This was the best compromise between capacity (number of users) and voice-quality. Note that 13 Kbps requires some compression because standard voice uses 64 Kbps. In the mean time, compression techniques have improved, and todays technology can do better :
"

Enhanced Full Rate

the same voice-quality can be compressed to 6.5 Kbps, and as a result, a double amount of users can be services for the given bandwidth. This technique is called Half Rate Channel. a Better voice quality can be provided for the same 13 Kbps. This is called Enhanced Full Rate (EFR).

"

Slow Frequen Slow Frequency Hopping (SFH) is also a technique to improve the Hoppin signal quality. Due to interferences (eg. reflections on buildings in

cities), there are places with poor reception for certain frequencies. Instead of using a single frequency band for the whole call, Slow Frequency Hopping continuously changes (rotates) the used frequency. In a certain location, some of these frequencies may be disturbed, but other will be good. The result is that the received voice quality is more equally spread over all locations. As some older GSM telephones do not yet support SFH, there are always some frequency-bands excluded from the rotation scheme.

4.11

GSM 1800 / GSM 1900

With the growing number of mobile users, and the growing number of mobile network providers, the capacity of the 900 MHz GSM band will eventually be exhausted. A solution to this is GSM 1800/ GSM 1900. It is the allocation of a second frequency band in the 1800 MHz range (1900 MHz for the American continent, where 1800 MHz was already allocated). Technical properties of GSM 900 and GSM 1800/1900 are very similar : the main differences are :
"

1800 or 1900 MHz frequencies are used, and typically smaller power (1W, 0.25W), resulting into smaller cells.

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"

the 1800/1900 MHz band is wider than the 900 MHz, allowing 3 times as much frequencies, so also 3 times as much users : 374 frequencies for GSM1800, 299 for GSM1900. cell sizes : 100 m to a few Km.

"

Note

In the early days of its design, the GSM1800/1900 system was also known as DCS 1800 / DCS 1900 : Digital Cellular System (DCS), and also as PCN 1900 If more than two Mobile Networks are provided in an area, usually the younger networks deploy GSM1800. For example in Belgium, the third network provider 'KPN Orange' uses GSM 1800. Also some first operators are using GSM 1800 (on top of GSM900) to increase their network capacity. As an example Proximus, the first mobile operator in Belgium is offering dual band (900 and 1800) operation.

Alcatel Product & Lin

" " " " " "

GSM Products : http://www.alcatel.com/products CDMA Products : http://www.alcatel.com/products http://www.be.orange.net/kpn.html http://www.uk.orange.net/index.html http://www.proximus.be http://www.mobistar.be

4.12

DECT
The Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunication (DECT) system specifies a wireless access system for local environments to access wide area network services, such as the PSTN, ISDN and mobile networks. It consists of a communication protocol and an air interface standard. Typical applications are:
" " " "

Private Exchanges with wireless handsets, Residential systems, Wireless Local Area Networks, wireless access to public telecom networks, also called Cordless Telephone Mobility (CTM)

Features of DECT systems are :

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" "

mobility up to 250 meters outdoors, 25 to 50 m indoors, Air interface is digital, resulting into speech quality equivalent to or better than that of a wired telephone. Cellular system, with very high user densities / Micro Cells : in a business environment, each floor/room of a building can be a cell. fast installation of communication infrastructure, due to wireless access. DECT Base station and small Private Branch Exchange (PABX) can be integrated for residential applications. possibilities to also use it as Wireless Local area Network : several voice channels can be combined into a single bearer. For data this up to 552 kbps. Multiplex : combination of Frequency- and Time-multiplexing. Frequency band : 1880 - 1900 MHz Carrier spacing : 1.728 MHz Number of carriers : 10 Timeslots : 24 timeslots, each timeslot unidirectional,

"

"

"

"

Specific
"

" " " "

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Frequency Base Station Transmits [MHz] Downstream Link

1900

Terminal Station Transmits Upstream Link

1880

Frame Time Timeslots : 2 * 12 Sub-band : 1.728 MHz wide

Figure 64 Note

DECT Frequency/TDM Structure

A DECT terminal continuously monitors the available carrier channels to select the one which provides the highest quality communication. The control part is not involved in the selection, which makes the system very flexible. This is also the reason why no frequency planning is required in micro-cellular DECT systems.

4.13

Bluetooth
Bluetooth is the codename for a technology specification for small form factor, low-cost, short range radio links between mobile PCs, mobile phones and other portable devices. The Bluetooth Special Interest Group is an industry group consisting of leaders in the telecommunications and computing industries that are driving development of the technology and bringing it to market.

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Figure 65

Positioning of Bluetooth in Bandwidth versus Distance

Bluetooth will enable users to connect a wide range of computing and telecommunications devices easily and simply, without the need to buy, carry, or connect cables. It delivers opportunities for rapid ad hoc connections, and the possibility of automatic, unconscious, connections between devices. It will virtually eliminate the need to purchase additional or proprietary cabling to connect individual devices. Because Bluetooth can be used for a variety of purposes, it will also potentially replace multiple cable connections via a single radio link.It creates the possibility of using mobile data in a different way, for different applications such as "Surfing in the sofa", "The instant postcard", "Three in one phone" and many others. It will allow them to think about what they are working on, rather than how to make their technology work. Note Bluetooth technology is intended for short range wireless communication, where usually transmitter and receiver are both 'owned' by the end-user. From this point of view you could also classify it as a technology used in Customer Premises Equipment. bluetooth home page : http://www.bluetooth.com Web-Based Training course on Bluetooth, by Ericsson : http://bluetooth.ericsson.se/support/online.asp

Lin

" "

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4.14

UMTS, Third Generation Mobile

The first generation mobile system was the Analog Cellular system. It was quite successful in the US (Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS)), unlike its very limited success in Europe. The second generation mobile systems are the ones based on digital techniques, GSM and the US counterparts Personal Communication System (PCS), Digital AMPS (D-AMPS). These systems are extremely successful in Europe, Asia and also in the US, albeit that the availability of a satisfactory analog system, and the non-adoption of the GSM standard results in a slightly slower deployment. One of the main limitations of the second generation systems is the limited bandwidth, especially for data-communications. Eg. via a GSM set, data-connections can only achieve up to 9.6 Kbps. This is where the next generation (the third generation) mobile systems wants to improve : providing the user with mobile access of typical 384 Kbps over 2 Mbps to even 10 Mbps in some proposals. The third generation mobile system is also called Universal Mobile Telephone System (UMTS).

4.15

Satellite
The main problem that remains with the above mobile networks, is the coverage : only at places with sufficient (potential) users it is economically worthwhile to place base stations. Unpopulated areas like desert, forests, at sea, etc. will not be covered. Using satellites, a network can be built that really covers the whole earth.

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Figure 66

Satellite Systems

4.15.1

Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO)

Geostationary satellites are rotating around the earth at an altitude of ca. 36000 km. This high altitude causes the satellite to rotate quite slowly : 1 rotation per 24 hours. Because the earth rotates around its axis as well, for a GEO-satellite above the equator, this means it appears to stand still when seen from the earth. The advantages of communication systems using GEO-satellites are :
"

high altitude allows to cover a large part of the earth. Typically only 3 satellites are needed for full coverage. antennas to the satellite can be fixed parabolic dish antennas. due to high altitude, more power is needed to send signals to the satellite, making it impractical for portable devices. due to long distance (high altitude), a long round-trip delay occurs when using these satellites (250 ms). This delay is impractical for voice communication or for fast computer communication.

"

Disadvantages are :
"

"

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Figure 67

Parabolic dish to GeoStationary Satellite

4.15.2

Low Earth Orbit (LEO)

Low-Earth orbit satellites are much closer to the earth, typically 600 to 800 km. As a result they rotate faster, typically once every 2 hours. The advantages of communication systems using LEO-satellites are :
"

due to 'low' altitude, less power is needed to send signals to the satellite, small round-trip delay (<30 ms), allowing fast data communication, responsive systems. low altitude covers only a small part of the earth. Typically 50 or more satellites are needed for full coverage. This large group of satellites, nicely distributed over the earths sky is called a Constellation. satellites rotate faster than the earth : antennas can not be fixed, and hand-over mechanism is needed such that your communication is always mapped on the closest satellite. satellites will also fly over low- or unpopulated areas.

"

Disadvantages are :
"

"

"

When having a large number of satellites close to the earth, another advantage is that per user, more bandwidth will be available.

4.15.3

Satellite Frequencies
Satellites can use different frequency bands, again with some pro and contra's for each band :

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Table 11 Band L

Satellite Frequency Bands, a comparison Frequency Pro [GHz] 1.53-2.7 radiowaves penetrate buildings Contra large parts of this band are already used. large parts of this band are already used. Example Globalstar Iridium SkyBridge

Ku

11.7-12.7 lots of band (down) width and good building 14-17.8 penetration (up) 18-31

Ka

lots of band requires pow width available erful transmit ters subject to rain fade

Teledesic Celestri Spaceway

4.15.4

Systems
Below four concrete systems are briefly described. The past years, many plans for global satellite systems have been proposed. However, the first of these 'satellite constellation' systems, Irirdium, has brought the telecom world back to reality due to its many startup problems :
" "

a number of technical problems with the voice quality, satellite telephony seems to be too expensive, Iridium is not realizing the forecasted number of subscribers the market for satellite telephony is becoming smaller due to the faster growth of Public Lands Mobile Networks : the areas not covered by GSM (and similar) systems is smaller than expected.

"

For two of these systems, Alcatel participates : SkyBridge and GlobalStar.

Figure 68

Globalstar logo

Globals Globalstar is a satellite-based, wireless telecommunications

system designed to provide voice, data, fax, messaging and other

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telecommunications services to users worldwide. Users of Globalstar will make or receive calls using hand-held or vehicle mounted terminals similar to today's cellular phones. Calls will be relayed through Globalstar's 48 satellite constellation, in a 1,414 kilometer (approximately 900 mile) orbit above the earth, to a groundstation and then through local terrestrial wireline and wireless systems to their end destinations. GlobalStar is in operation since begin 2000. http://www.globalstar.com

Figure 69

SkyBridge logo

SkyBri SkyBridge wants to bring High-speed local access to

multi-media broadband services, for business as well as residential users, all over the world. Typical applications will be Internet, Video-conference, Distance Learning and Entertainment. SkyBridge will use a constellation of 80 satellites in the Ku band, orbiting at an altitude of 913 miles (1,469 km). This low earth orbit allows the short signal propagation time - 30 milliseconds - needed for the provision of real-time interactive services. Approximately 200 gateway stations are planned for worldwide coverage. Each gateway will have a 234 miles radius (350 km) coverage. The total worldwide capacity of the system will be 215 Gbps (backbone) and each user can have n*20 Mbps downstream (satellite to user) and n*2 Mbps upstream (user to satellite). n is the number of channels used, the system allows to combine several of these together. SkyBridge does not use inter-satellite links, but rather 'reflects' all traffic to the earth and uses terrestrial fiber-optic networks. SkyBridge plans operation in the year 2002. http://www.skybridgesatellite.com

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Figure 70

Iridium logo

Iridi With 66 satellites forming a cross-linked grid above the Earth,

the Iridium system is the first low-Earth-orbiting system for wireless telephone service. Only 780 km (485 miles) high, these satellites work differently from those at a much higher orbit (36,000 km) in two major ways. First, they are close enough to receive the signals of a handheld device; and second, they act like cellular towers in the sky - where wireless signals can move overhead instead of through ground-based cells. The Iridium system will employ a combination of Frequency Division Multiple Access and Time Division Multiple Access (FDMA/TDMA) signals multiplexing to make the most efficient use of limited spectrum. The L-Band serves as the link between the satellite and Iridium subscriber equipment. The Ka-Band serves as the link between the satellite and the gateways and earth terminals. Iridium services provide telephony and paging coverage virtually anywhere in the world:
"

Iridium World Satellite Service provides a direct satellite link for both incoming and outgoing communications in remote areas, poorly covered regions, and locations outside terrestrial networks. Iridium World Roaming Service allows you to roam across multiple wireless protocols, allowing you to keep one telephone number and receive one telephone bill for calls made anywhere on earth. The Iridium World Page Service provides global alphanumeric messaging.

"

"

Today the Iridium project is in trouble and will likely be ended shortly : due to the expensive handsets, and expensive talk-time (9$ per minute), it only gained a some 57000 subscribers worldwide, not enough to be profitable. The Iridium partners are now looking to reuse the satellites for a different purpose, but if that doesn't work out, the satellites will be terminated by burning them in the earth atmosphere. http://www.iridium.com

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T elede The Teledesic Network is a high-capacity broadband network that

combines the global coverage and low latency of a low-Earth-orbit (LEO) constellation of satellites, the flexibility and robustness of the Internet, and "fiber-like" Quality of Service (QOS). Essentially an "Internet-in-the-Sky," the Teledesic Network brings affordable access to interactive broadband communication to all areas of the Earth, including those areas that could not be served economically by any other means.

Most users will have two-way connections that provide up to 64 Mbps on the downlink and up to 2 Mbps on the uplink. Broadband terminals will offer 64 Mbps of two-way capacity. This represents access speeds up to 2,000 times faster than today's standard analog modems. The Teledesic Network will consist of 288 operational satellites, divided into 12 planes, each with 24 satellites. As the satellite planes orbit north-to-south and south-to-north, the Earth rotates underneath. http://www.teledesic.com

4.16

Satellite Data
Due to their broadcasting possibilities, satellites can also be used for data-broadcasting. One example is the Internet Access provided by Hughes : 1. PC sends browser request via 'traditional' modem to service provider,eg. 28800 bps) 2. Service provider retrieves information from Internet-server, using eg. T1/E1 connection, 1.5 - 2 Mbps 3. When retrieved, the data is sent from service provider to satellite (together with the information goes an identification of the requestor) 4. Satellite broadcasts the info, it is picked up by a PC with dish-antenna receiver. Typical speed is 400 kbps. http://www.direcpc.com

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Internet

PSTN

Figure 71

Internet Access via combination Modem / Satellite

4.17

Internet Access
A user can access the public voice network in many different ways, as was described in the previous section :
" " " " " " "

Analog Line ISDN GSM DECT Satellite Hybrid Fibre Coax etc..

As a matter of fact, almost all these types of access, also allow to access the Internet. However, for the Internet Access, there is some additional terminology which needs to be explained.

Dial-up orPermane

"

your computer or computer-network is full-time connected. This is the case for universities, medium to large companies, government organizations, etc.. This is also called Always-On".

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"

you connect to the Point of Presence (PoP) via a dial-up connection. Today, many residential users use email and occasionally World Wide Web (WWW)-browsers. For these applications, a permanent connection is not really necessary, and often too expensive. You can establish a temporary connection for the duration of your information transfer. This is traditionally called Dial-Up".

Network Structure

In general, the Internet Access network, consists of the following parts (see Figure 72) :
"

a public access network : this can be the PSTN, your Cable-TV, GSM, ADSL, LMDS, etc... This is provided by a Telecom provider, Cable-TV provider, etc. a Point of Presence (POP) : this is the other end of the connection over the public access network. For example, you call via the modem of your computer, over the PSTN to a modem in the Point of Presence. The part behind the POP is normally invisible to the end user. an access provider network. Usually there is no straight connection from the Point of Presence to the Internet Backbone : the provider will combine several POPs via a provider network, and connect them to the backbone via one or more internet Service providers. the provider offering the Point of Presence and the (intermediate) access provider network, is called an Internet Access Provider (IAP). The internet access provider network is connected to the internet backbone through an Internet Service Provider (ISP). This consists of 3 elements :
D D D

"

"

"

"

an (intermediate) internet service provider network, a number of servers providing Internet Services, such as email, newsgroups, web-pages, ... a gateway : a device coupling the internet service provider network to the Backbone. The gateway typically provides router functions, together with other functions, eg. a firewall.

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internet service provider (ISP)

internet access provider (IAP)

Internet Core Network

Service Provider Network

Access Provider Network

Public Access Network client

GateWay

Point of Presence (POP)

Internet Service Provider Services

Figure 72

Internet Access : Terminology

In some cases, each part of the network can be provided by a different provider. In other cases Internet Access provider (IAP) and Internet Service provider (ISP) are one and the same. Finally, the whole access can be offered by a single provider, playing all 3 roles. Some examples :
"

Using Belgacom Turboline ADSL (IAP) you still need to subscribe with (eg.) Skynet as ISP Using Telenet / Pandora, you subscribe with one operator for both IAP (Telenet) and ISP (Pandora)

"

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5 Customer Premises Equipment

5 Customer Premises Equipment

5.1
5.1.1

Phone
Analog Telephone
This is still the most widespread type of phone worldwide. Analog phones are inexpensive due to years of cost-improvement : it can be built around a single integrated circuit, like for example the Alcatel Maximum Integration Phone Set (MIPS). Todays analog phone has features like :
" " " " "

Calling Line Identity, analog Number Memories, Re-dial Handsfree use etc. Pulse mode : each digit is represented as a number of short interruptions on the line, eg digit '4' consists of 4 interruption pulses, each 100 ms.

Analog phones can signal the digits using one of two ways :
"

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5 Customer Premises Equipment

"

Tone mode : a system called Dual Tone Multiple Frequency (DTMF) : each digit is signalled using a combination of 2 frequencies out of a set of 4+4. This allows 16 combinations, 0..9, '*' , '#' and A,B,C,D. http://www.conservinc.com/HYPERTEXT/MT/dtmf.HTM

Note

Many services available to ISDN are brought to analog phones. However, since signalling capabilities of an analog phone are limited, using these analog phone services is slightly more complex.

Figure 73

Alcatel 21XX, Analog Telephone

5.1.2

ADSI/CLASS Telephone
Custom Local Area Signalling Services (CLASS), and Analog Display Services Interface (ADSI) are two types of analog phones that facilitate the use of supplementary services by adding a display providing interactive guidance. The CLASS telephone has the service codes for supplementary services hard-coded into the telephone. The ADSI phone acts as a terminal which keeps a connection with an ADSI-server. This server provides the text on the display, and interpretes the selections of the user. http://www.astadsi.com/

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5.1.3

ISDN Telephone
ISDN phones are similar to Analog ones, but almost always have a display to show messages to the user, a feature used by several ISDN services. The set usually also has a number of programmable keys, to provide shortcuts to the ISDN Supplementary Services. In the early days of ISDN, there were small differences in the implementation of the standard from country to country. As a result, ISDN-phones could not be used worldwide as easily as analog phones do.

Figure 74

Alcatel 2810, ISDN Telephone

5.1.4

Facsimile, Fax
A Fax-machine contains 3 parts :
"

an Image Scanner : it scans any image on paper into a set of pixels which are black or white. a Printer : it prints the image back on paper. a Modem (see chapter 5.4.1 ) : via the modem the scanned information is transmitted via the telephone network from one fax-machine to the other.

" "

A fax scans the image on the page you want to send. Then it makes a phonecall to the receiver machine, and negotiates a format to send the information. Then the image-information is sent, in a compressed way, stored on the receiver machine, and printed there. Several generations of fax-machines exist, differing in how they transfer information over the telephone network : the newer the fax, the more advanced the compression and modem techniques,

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5 Customer Premises Equipment

and the faster the pages can be sent. Following are common types :
"

Group III : speeds up to 9600 bits per second, resulting in 10 o 15 seconds per page throughput. Group IV : uses an ISDN B-channel : 64 kbps, and less than 5 seconds per page.

"

When you have the three building blocks for a fax (scanner, printer, modem) you are able to perform the functions of Printer, Scanner ,Copier, Modem and Fax. Recently such 5 in 1 office machines have been introduced on the market.

5.1.5

Mobile Phone
As explained in chapter 4.10 and later, several types of Mobile standards exist:
" " " "

Analog types Digital Enhanced Cordless Telephone GSM other standards in the USA, Japan, etc.

Even with these differences, the end-user features of the mobile handset are very similar :
"

Small display to guide supplementary services, display with messages, etc. a set of Navigation Keys to navigate through all the features, a telephone directory, with 100 numbers or more, different ringing melodies to indicate different calling parties, microphone and speaker extensions to use it in a handsfree way.

" " " "

Note

Using mobile phones while driving a car is dangerous, even when using a handsfree set : because the drivers concentration is not 100% dedicated to driving, studies show that the risk of accidents increases by a factor 4. In some countries, using mobile phones while driving a car is forbidden. As explained in chapter 4.10 and 4.11, GSM networks use different frequency bands : 900 MHz, 1800 MHz, and 1900 MHz. When travelling with your (eg.) 1800 MHz band GSM to a country that has only 900 MHz mobile networks, your phone will not work. This clearly limits your mobility. Therefore Dual Band or

Dual Band

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Multi Band phones are being developed, having the possibility to use more than one frequency band. This requires of course additional High Frequency (HF) electronics, so the phone will be a little bit more expensive.

Dual Mode

One step further than Dual Band is Dual Mode. This is a phone combining different technologies, for example DECT and GSM : when you are in your office, within the coverage of your DECT private mobile network, the phone uses the private network. when you are out of the office, (out of the coverage of the private network) the phone switches to GSM, using the public network. Another example is GSM / Satellite : when leaving the coverage of the GSM network, you can fall back on the worldwide coverage of a satellite network, being more expensive however. Dual Mode phones are even more complex than dual band, and will probably only be used for specific applications, not as a general consumer product.

Alcatel Produc

"

http://www.alcatel.com/consumer/mobilephone/index.htm

Figure 75

Mobile Phone (Alcatel One Touch Easy db-W@p

5.2

Pager
Pagers are small compact devices that can receive messages sent using radio-transmission. Originally pagers are simplex : only receiving information, but newer generations provide duplex

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communication. Pagers can be built as small is integrated into a wristwatch.

5.3

Private Exchange
Many companies have private telephone exchanges. Internal communications are free, and usually these exchanges provide additional business-oriented features that are not available (yet) in the public network. The numbers of subscribers serviced by a private exchange can range from as small as 10 to several thousands. Small private exchanges, typically less than 10 lines, are also deployed in homes. They allow to have phones in different rooms, a connection for fax and modem, etc. Residential DECT often also provides a private exchange functions, whereby one base-station can serve up to (eg.) six mobile phones. Free communications can be made between the sets. Note A public exchange can also emulate a private exchange. This is described in chapter 6.2 on Services. Small PABX : Alcatel 2740, Alcatel 2750 Large PABX for Business, Hotel, Hospital : Alcatel 4400

Alcatel Produc

" "

5.3.1

Virtual Private Network

Multi-site companies can interconnect their private exchanges, as well as their private data-networks, through the public network. Many cases this is still done with so-called leased lines.

5.4
5.4.1

Computer, Computer Network

Analog Modem
An analog modem uses a standard analog telephone line to communicate data. The advantage is that such a telephone line and these modems are (virtually) a world wide standard, so that a traveller can use them anywhere. The throughput of these modems is however limited :
"

Older modems had throughputs of 9600 bps, 14400 bps (the speed also used by many fax machines) and 28800 bps.

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"

Newer modems use compression and more complex modulation schemes to increase throughputs to 33600 bps and recently 56000 bps. The last modems of the so-called 56K Flex or V.90 standard, only have this high throughput in one direction : downloading. Also the throughput is not guaranteed, depending on the quality of the telephone line.

When making a connection with two modems, the maximum speed of the connection, is limited by the slowest of both modems. Fortunately most modems are backward compatible with lower speeds, and as such will still work together with older modems. The connection-bitrate will be determined by the slowest modem. In newer modems, the connection-bitrate can even be reduced by the modems in case of a poor quality telephone-line. (this is also used in Fax-machines). Modems come in many shapes : as an extension card for the PC, as a PCMCIA extension card for portable PC's or as a separate set-top device. Modems are being integrated into more and more devices, allowing such device to communicate over standard telephone lines. http://www.56k.com/

5.4.2

ISDN Modem
ISDN Modems have higher throughput, 64, 128 or 144 kbps, depending on the combination of the 2 B + D channels. Strictly spoken ISDN-Modems are not really modems, because the ISDN S-Bus provides a digital channel. However, in analogy with analog modems, the computer cards or boards that interface to this bus are called modems. ISDN Modems are not backward compatible with analog lines, and since ISDN is not yet available worldwide, ISDN Modems are less applicable for portable computers.

5.4.3

GSM Modem
Modems exist that can connect over mobile phones, for example GSM. Technically they are somewhere in-between analog modems and ISDN : they use digital transmission, but the speeds are nevertheless limited to eg. 9600 bps. This because a mobile network limits the bandwidth of a channel, to allow more users at the same time. Because of the limited throughput, these modems are used only in specific applications where the mobility is mandatory, eg. a travelling salesman who wants to reach the

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company network from his car. One of the features of the third generation mobile network is to improve data-communication, therefore it will provide much larger bandwidths, eg. 2 Mbps.

5.4.4

Local Area Network

Individual computers can be interconnected using Local Area Networks (LAN). These networks are usually completely private, the reason why they are described in this chapter. However, the main principles explained in the chapter on core networks also apply to these local area networks :
" " "

they are organized as ring, star, or other network structures, they consist of links interconnecting nodes, the nodes are packet-switches, either connection-oriented or connection-less.

In this chapter, the most popular standards for local area networks are described, as well as some additional concepts specific to these networks.

CSMA-CD On simple LANs, computers are all connected in parallel sharing

a common communication channel : it is said the they share the medium. As a result they must somehow agree how to share the channel, such that no two computers talk at the same time. These techniques are called Media Access Control (MAC). A simple mechanism to organize this is called Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA-CD) : every computer that wants to talk, listens until all other computers are quiet. Only then it starts talking. This still yields a chance that 2 computers start talking at the same time, resulting into a so-called Collision. To detect this, a computer keeps listening even when he is talking. When there is a collision, he will hear two computers, not just himself. As soon as this happens, the computers will suspend transmitting, at least for a random time. Because this random time is different for all machines, they will usually not start again at the same time. However when there is a large number of computers wanting to send, each collision may be followed by another, and as a result no one can get through anymore. This is called a jammed network. The popular Ethernet uses CSMA-CD as sharing mechanism. It is available in speeds of 10 Mbps (10BaseT), 100 Mbps and Gigabit Ethernet (1 Gbps). Experiments are done with 10 Gbps Ethernet.

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T ok en Ring

The Token Ring network was developed to overcome the problem of jammed networks. On the network, a token is circulating. Only the computer who currently holds the token is allowed to transmit, this way clearly avoiding any collision. A computer that doesn't want to transmit, passes the token to its neighbor. structures), but as a physical layout they have disadvantages : whenever a computer has to be added to the network, the bus or ring has to be opened, resulting in a temporary unavailability of the network. In computer network terms, the network would be down. A more practical way to operate a network is using a Hub. This device allows computers to be physically connected as a star network, while logically they are still a bus or ring.

Hub The concept of a Bus and a Ring are useful as topologies, (logical

Bus

Hub

Figure 76

Ethernet LAN without / with a Hub

Ring

Hub

Figure 77

Token Ring LAN without / with a Hub

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Repeat When the distance between the computers exceeds the

specifications of the LAN network type, a repeater can break the network up into two smaller networks, each again meeting the size-limit. The repeater is simply amplifying the signals, copying the data packets from one sub-network to the other, and vice versa. is needed that Bridges the technology-gap. It also copies packets from one network to the other, but adapts from one technology to the other as well. Some bridges only copy packets if the Destination address of the packet is on the other side. They can learn which address is on which network, by looking to the Source addresses. These bridges are called Self-learning bridges and are actually almost a router

Brid When interconnecting networks of different technologies, a device

Rout

A router differs from a bridge in two aspects :

" "

it can connect to more than two networks, it routes packets to their destination, by only copying to the network that holds the computer indicated by the packet destination address.

Lan Switch Thin Servers

The term LAN Switch refers to a router in which most functions are implemented in hardware. This term refers to devices which are mostly pre-configured, and ready-to-use from the box. Rapid installation time and simple configuration (low cost of ownership in general) are the main advantage of these devices. Many of these devices are self-learning, self-healing, etc. Typical functions are Web-servers, Routers, Firewalls, etc..

5.5

Personal Digital Assistant

aPersonal Digital Assistant (PDA) is a small, portable device, which can hold and organize your personal information such as :
" " " " "

phonenumbers addresses agenda with meetings, events, .. to-do list etc.

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Many of the newer generation devices have networking capabilities :

"

Modems, to connect via telephone networks dial-up to information servers. GSM (or similar) to connect via wireless networks, Infrared Data Association (IrDA) infrared ports, to connect to PCs, or Mobile phones, etc. In the future, these devices will also have Bluetooth wireless connectivity.

" "

"

Figure 78

3COM Palm V and Alcatel One Touch Com

5.6

Network Computer
A Network Computer looks like any computer, but does not have permanent storage, like a harddisk. Rather it always has a network connection, through which it can load applications and/or data. This connection can be a modem, ADSL-modem, Cable-modem or similar. The network computer needs a lot of bandwidth, because application and data must be downloaded. Advantages of the network computer are :
"

the user need not install software himself, need not worry about upgrading software : a complete up-to-date application is downloaded instantly when he needs it.

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"

the user doesn't need to buy (expensive) software which he will only use a few times : he can pay per use.

However, promoted by (mainly) Sun and Oracle, network computers are not yet very successful, due to the following disadvantages :
"

they are not significantly cheaper than standard personal computers, since they contain the same building blocks, except for a relatively cheap harddisk. they are not so mobile, they can only work when connected to the network. When connected they need lots of bandwidth, resulting in costs there as well. users still like to have control over their own Personal computer, rather than being dependent upon a network.

"

"

http://www.nc.com/

5.7

Screenphone
The screenphone is a mix between a telephone and a WEB-browser. This concept is somehow also an evolution of the ADSI or CLASS services. Marketing studies show that many people find a telephone very familiar, but are uncomfortable with a personal computer. The screenphone integrates a simple computer into a telephone. It can be used for normal phone-calls, but also has a modem, a (retractable) keyboard and a display, which allows it to connect to WEB-servers, and be used as a browser. This will facilitate on-line services such as :
" " " "

home-banking, booking for theater, film, etc. checking stocks etc.

The screenphone also has a smart-card reader, so it can be used for on-line shopping : after selecting an article you can pay by inserting your electronic money smartcard, and the article will be sent to you.

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Figure 79

Alcatel 'Web Touch'

5.8

Internet Phone
The Internet Phone uses Voice-over-IP technology, to offer voice service over the Internet. The phone makes a Local call to the nearest Internet Access Provider. (in some countries, this call is even for free, eg. USA) The long distance is covered by the Internet or by other IP carrier-networks. The voice is converted into IP packets in the telephone itself thus avoiding this conversion in the Access or Core network. It is estimated that in the future, internet phones can be manufactured for cost comparable to todays analog telephones, 10$. http://www.aplio.com/

5.9

Web-TV
Web-TV is a device that integrates an Internet Browser with a television. This way it combines the best of both :
" "

high downstream bandwidth of the TV : high quality pictures interactivity of the Internet

Web-TV places an additional box between your Cable-TV, Internet Access and TV. This box is (usually) set on top of your TV, and therefore called Set-Top Box.

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The TV-program contains additional information about 'hyperlinks' (carried in much the same way as the teletext system) and these are shown high-lighted on the screen. The user can then 'click' this link to additional information with his remote control (or a remote keyboard) and this way start to interact with the Web-TV program. Examples of interaction are :
" " " "

jump to the Web-site of a company showing a advertisement order a product demonstrated on TV televote look up more info on an athlete during a sports program, an actor during a movie, ... print the weather forecast after watching it on TV ...

" "

http://www.webtv.net/

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6 Network Services
This chapter describes what you can do with a network, rather than how it is structured. As a simple example, once you have the telephone network, you can make phone-calls, but you can also use the same infrastructure to implement a Wake-Up Call. All the things the network can do for you are called Services.

6.1
6.1.1

Supplementary Services
Introduction
The first type of services are called Supplementary Services. They are additional features on top of the Basic Call : a simple two-party duplex voice connection. Since the basic call for digital telephony is over 15 years old, it is very mature, and as such most competition (between manufacturers, as well as between network/service providers) is now in the area of supplementary services. As an example, Belgacom (Belgian incumbent operator) offers you the 'Comfort Services' package, a packet of 5 supplementary services at the cost of 85 BEF/month. Similarly Telenet (Belgian second operator) offers you the possibility to pick service by service. http://www.belgacom.be/catalog/en/services/additionalservices/thecomfortservic es/default.htm http://www.telenet.be/thuis/thuis6.htm (NL) Way over 100 supplementary services have been defined, and it is not the intention to describe the complete list here. However they

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can be grouped into categories, and some examples of each category will be given as a first introduction to them. Each of these services has also an abbreviation by which they are know in the standardization bodies. On the other hand, some network/service providers invent new names for existing services, to simplify them to their customers, or to distinguish themselves from competitors. In the area of supplementary services, 3 important terms are :
"

Activation / De-Activation : for example for Call Forwarding, before a meeting you activate your calls being forwarded to a secretary. After the meeting, you de-activate the forwarding, your calls will no longer be forwarded. Invocation : when someone calls you during the meeting, his call will effectively be forwarded, called the Invocation of the service. Interrogation : when you don't remember exactly whether a service is activated or not, you can interrogate (ask) the system about the current status.

"

"

An important factor of complexity for supplementary services are the Interactions between services : services have to behave differently when several of them are invoked at the same time :
"

'Calling Line Identity Presentation' and 'Calling Line Identity Restriction' cannot be executed at the same time... 'Hold' service will need to work differently when 'Three-Party Call' is already invoked.

"

6.1.2

Services Overview
This group of services is all about finding out who are the parties involved in calls :
" " " " " " "

Number Identification Services

Malicious Call Identification (MCI) Calling Line Identification Presentation (CLIP) Calling Line Identification Restriction (CLIR) Called Line Identification Presentation (CALIP) Called Line Identification Restriction (CALIR) Connected Line Identification Presentation (COLP) Connected Line Identification Restriction (COLR)

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Addressing Related Services

The purpose of these services is to simplify the addressing of parties : you don't have to remember or dial long strings of digits.
" " "

Abbreviated Address (AA) Fixed Destination Call (FDC) HotLine

Call Waiting and Call Completion Services

The purpose of these services is increase the number of successful calls (and as such the revenue of the provider). Many calls are unsuccessful because the called party is busy or not answering.
" "

Call Waiting (CW) Call Completion on Busy Subscriber (CCBS)

Call Forwarding, Call Redirection Services

These services allow some user-flexibility in the routing of the calls towards him. They can be unconditional, or depending on conditions such as 'on busy subscriber', 'on no answer', time of day, etc...
" " " " "

Call Forwarding Unconditional (CFU) Call Forwarding on Busy Subscriber (CFBS) Call Forwarding on No Reply (CFNR) Follow me Explicit Call Transfer (ECT)

Charging Services
Services to improve the visibility of the subscriber on the charges related to calls and/or services.
" " " "

Home meter Advice of Charge at Begin Advice of Charge During Call Advice of Charge at End (AOC-E)

Restriction Services
These services restrict users to certain telephony services.
" "

Incoming Calls Barred (ICB) Outgoing Calls Barred (OCB)

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"

Do Not Disturb

Multi-Party Services
These services permit telephone calls among three or more persons.
" " "

Three Party Call (3PTY) Conference Call (CONF) Meet-me Conference (MM-CONF)

6.1.3

Implementation
The supplementary services mentioned above only have the scope of the local exchange. (see also 6.3 to contrast this to Intelligent Network). As such the supplementary services realized in this way are also called Embedded supplementary services. They are completely implemented in each individual local exchange, and as such the implementation is not standardized, except for the signalling which is controlling the services.

6.2

Centrex
For small companies the investment in a private exchange is not always justified. In this case the public exchange can emulate a private exchange. A group of users of the public exchange are treated specially : they have (on top of their public number) a private numbering plan, with which they can make 'company internal' calls. It is possible to extend the Centrex function over several exchanges. This is called Wide-Area Centrex and is usually realized using the Intelligent Networks mechanism.

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Local Exchange

public :240 56 56

public :240 56 00

public :240 23 45 private :1

public :240 25 67 private :2

public :240 12 78 private :3

Figure 80

Centrex

6.3
6.3.1

Intelligent Networks
Introduction
The above Supplementary Services have a scope only for the Local Exchange of the involved subscriber : different exchanges in the network do not have to work together to realize these services. There is however another group of services for which the scope is the Whole Network : for these services, more, or all exchanges in the network need to cooperate to realize the services. These services are called Intelligent Network Services, and the networks that have them are called Intelligent Networks (IN). In the US they are called Advanced Intelligent Network (AIN) services. Services and switching functions have historically been integrated very closely together in the telephone exchange (see the above Supplementary Services). This situation changes with the introduction of Intelligent Networks where the intelligence, (the logic needed to implement a certain service) is completely separated from the switching.

6.3.2

Services Overview
"

Company Network oriented

Personal numbering plan.

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"

Virtual Private Network : multi-site companies can realize a company-wide private telephone network using the Virtual Private Network service. All the private exchanges, as well as some public lines are mapped to a private numbering plan. Wide area Centrex : a Centrex is a private exchange function realized on a public exchange. (see also chapter 6.2). When the users of the Centrex span multiple public exchanges, it is called a Wide Area Centrex. All the different local exchanges work together coordinated by the IN service. Closed user group.

"

"

Customer defined and Supplementary Services

" " " "

Personalized services Centralized database services Screening Customized presentation features

Virtual Card Services

" "

Validation services Credit card call : This service allows the service user to charge the call to a particular credit card account. Generally, the service user's password is checked before the call is set up. In an IN based network, the service can be activated from any type of telephone set, even if it is not equipped with a card reader. Credit card companies require access to the database to insert new credit card numbers or delete non-existing or temporarily suspended numbers. Calling card Account charged call Alternate billing

" " "

Mass Calling Services

Mass calling services manage the bursts of traffic on the public network that are generated by radio and television polls or contests.

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"

Opinion poll, Televoting : This service enables the caller to vote or give an opinion by telephone. These services are typically used during television or radio broadcasts. Calls are blocked on SSP level to prevent the SCP to go in overload. The blocked calls to each number that can be voted on, are counted. Via the statistics function on the SMP an operator can look at the value of the counters. Competition services

"

Number Translation & Routing

Number translation and routing services distribute dialled calls to a predefined destination. Routing is flexible and can depend on parameters such as time, day, origin of call, traffic load and caller input.
"

Advanced Freephone : Most telephone administrations support a freephone service. Calls to a Freephone number are not charged to the caller but to the freephone service subscriber, that is, the called party.The service offers a range of advanced features. For example, the destination of a Freephone call can vary depending on the time or on the date of the call. Similarly, the call destination can differ according to the geographical location of the calling party. The freephone subscriber can make changes in the service database to modify the routing information. Universal access number : This is a number that can be assigned to a particular subscriber. When someone calls this number, the call is routed to one of several predefined destinations, depending on the date and the time. Automatic call Distribution Split charging : The caller pays only for a local call, the rest of the call charge is paid by the called party. Number portability : A subscriber can move from one place to another without loosing his telephone number. Also moving between different operators is supported. Flexible rerouting

"

" "

"

"

Personal Mobility
Personal mobility services make it possible that calls are routed to any fixed or mobile point in the network, so that the subscriber can be reached by telephone at any time or place.

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"

Personal Number : A personal number enables a service subscriber to be assigned a private number which can be used to contact him wherever he is in the network. When the subscriber is out of the office (or away from home), he can register his current location with the IN. All calls are then routed automatically to the new location. The service subscriber can also preprogram a list of the destinations where he can be contacted during the day, including the times he will be at those locations. Universal personal telecommunication Personal communication services

" "

Personalized Services
"

Premium Rate (kiosk service): Caller pays for extra information (e.g. the weather forecast) that a certain company offers. The profits of the call are split between the operator and the company that offers this information. Centralised database services Screening Customised presentation features

" " "

Internet Services
" "

Browse and Talk Pay per Surf

Customer Defined Supplementary Services

"

Customer defined and supplementary services enable the customer to invent services that meet his specific needs by putting together several features.

6.3.3

Implementation
Because the exchanges (or Network Elements (NE)) in the network can be from different manufacturers, Intelligent Networks are structured according to ITU standards.

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Other Network

Intelligent Network

Service Management Point (SMP) Service Creation Environment (SCE) Service Control Point (SCP)

Service Switching Point (SSP)

Core Network

Service Switching Point (SSP)

Service Switching Point (SSP) Core Network to Users

Intelligent Peripheral (IP)

Figure 81

Intelligent Network Structure

Service Switching Poin The Service Switching Point (SSP) is an enhanced digital telephone
exchange. It contains the normal call handling and call control software like any other exchange, but it additionally also provides an interface with a central controller called the Service Control Point using a CCS #7 signalling link. The SSP is the access point in the telephone network for IN services. When a service call is initiated, the SSP recognizes it as such and activates the SCP . Inside the SSP we will find some extra code that enables us to interact with the Service Control Point, but this extra code will be service independent. The SSP is operated by the network operator of the telephone network.

Intelligent Periphe The Intelligent Peripheral (IP) is a device providing functions

" " "

complimentary to the switching of the Service Switching Point : announcement generation digit reception speech recognition

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"

speech synthesis

An Intelligent Peripheral can be implemented as a standalone unit or integrated within an Service Switching Point.

Service Control Poin The Service Control Point (SCP) is the network element where the
'service intelligence' is located :
" " " "

Service code, in the form of Service Logic Programs (SLP) Service Database Access Service related Data Service Management

Together with the switch (the SSP) it will be involved in the real-time handling of the call. When activated by the SSP , the Service Control Point takes over the Control functions : the SCP will be the master, the SSP the slave. The Service Control Point can have several supplementary services installed. A particular service is always controlled by a single SCP . For security reasons, however, services can be replicated over 2 or more SCP's. The SCP is implemented on a computer. This can be an Alcatel machine (A8300 series in release 1.X) or another vendor's machine. (Compaq DEC Alpha Server or SUN in release 2.X)

Service Management The Service Management Point (SMP) is the function from which Poin you Manage the network :
" "

gather alarms, statistics and call tickets monitor the network via specific Graphical User Interfaces (GUI) contain the reference database it is the machine from which you install new services on the different SCP's keep the data consistent in the different SCP's that have replicated services collecting charging to be sent to an external Billing Centre

" "

"

"

The user interface to the SMP typically uses a client-server approach : a Web Browser or a proprietary protocol. The SMP is not involved in the real-time call handling. You will have one SMP in your network and this will be a computer such as a Compaq DEC Alpha Server or SUN.

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Service Creation The Service Creation Environment (SCE) is a development Environm environment for the creation and customisation of IN services.

Services are designed off-line on this environment. When ready for deployment, they are forwarded to the Service Management Point. Finally they are then downloaded and installed to the Service Control Point. The SCE consists of 2 parts:
"

a graphical user interface, in which the services are designed using reusable building blocks (Service Independent Building Blocks) the compiler

"

SSP SCP - Interface

This interface carries all the messages between the SSP and the SCP during execution of a service call :
"

This interface is based on the No.7 Common Channel Signalling protocol using MTP , SCCP , TCAP and INAP . (see chapter 3.3.5) This interface is a standard to ensure that SSP's and SCP's from different vendors can interwork The messages on this interface control the real-time flow of the call

"

"

6.4

Internet Services
Intra The technology for the Internet established a number of de-facto
standards for computer communication : TCP/IP , HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) etc. Soon companies realized they could reduce the cost of their computer network, by reusing the Internet principles. However, they wanted to protect their private data, and so they made a private version of the Internet for internal communication. This network is called the Intranet.

Extra Still companies want also the be present on the World Wide Web

(so called Web-exposure) and provide a second site, this time on the public internet, where they provide their public information. Certain companies use the Internet extensively as customer communication channel, and on their Extranets you can buy online, or follow-up the processing of your service.
" "

http://www.dell.com http://www.amazon.com

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6.4.1

Internet Access Provider

In order to be connected to the Internet, there are two possibilities:
"

your computer or computer-network is full-time connected to the Core Network. This is the case for universities, medium to large companies, government organizations, etc. you connect to the Core Network via some Access Network. Depending on how intensive you use the Internet, this access can be a Full Time connection, or only a Temporarily connection.

"

Today, many residential users use email and occasionally World Wide Web (WWW)-browsers. For these applications, a permanent connection is not really necessary, and often too expensive. In that case the Telephone Network can provide the Access to the Internet :

Analog or ISDN

"

your computer uses a Modem to send its information over telephone lines, you make a telephone connection with your Internet Access Provider, usually this is a local call, if your Internet Access Provider has a Point of Presence (the place you make a phonecall to) in your area. at your Access Provider there is a second modem (often part of a so-called Modem Pool), connected to a Router which is permanently connected to the Internet.

"

"

This kind of Access is also called Dial-Up, because you make a phonecall to connect you to the Internet. Typically you have to pay a fixed monthly fee to the Internet Access Provider (for using his equipment : modems, routers, ...). Sometimes there is a fixed part, and a connection-time dependent part. On top of all this you still have to pay a phonecall to your Telephone Network Provider. He sees your Dial-Up connection just as any phonecall. In some countries, there are special telephone tariffs towards Internet Access Providers. In some countries local calls are for free or at fixed charge anyway.

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Internet

Router Modem

Computer

Analog Modem

Telephone Network (PSTN)

Local Exchange

ISDN NT Computer

Figure 82

Internet Access Provider, Analog or ISDN Dial-Up

Some problems with the Dial-Up Internet Access are :

"

Limited Bandwidth : 56 kbps with analog modems, 64 kbps or 128 kbps with ISDN, While Accessing the Internet, no telephone traffic is possible anymore. You are not connected permanently : you cannot really act as an information Server, whenever you need the Internet, you need to connect, which takes some time...

"

"

ADSL or Cable

As a possible solution to all these drawbacks, a user can access the internet with ADSL or Cable. The resulting bandwidths are Mbps instead of kbps. Also the Data-connection is in parallel with the telephone (and other) services, so there is no problem in being On-Line 24/24 - 7/7. ISDN provides partly a solution to these limitations : with a Basic Rate Interface there are 2 B-channels, so you could use one B-channel for Data, and the second for Voice. Also a new feature is Always On/Dynamic ISDN, providing a low-bandwith permanent connection.

Note

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Computer ADSL Modem (NT) ADSL Modem (LT) Router

Internet

Telephone

Local Exchange

Telephone Network (PSTN)

Figure 83
TV

Internet Access Provider, ADSL

Cable-TV Network
Computer Cable Modem Cable Modem Router

Internet

Telephone Local Exchange

Telephone Network (PSTN)

Figure 84 Note

Internet Access Provider, Cable

Access Networks that provide the user Mbps instead of kbps, do not make the whole Internet a hundred times faster: In the Download direction, there is a fast channel, but the Upload direction, and the Server Response Time are still the same.

6.4.2

FireWall
The fact that the Internet is not owned by a single organization is one of its succes factors. However, a disadvantage resulting from this is the difficulty to make it a secure network. Companies connecting their computer networks to the Internet are a target to hackers from all over the world.

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The most secure solution is to have mission-critical applications and confidential information on an isolated network. Another solution is the so-called FireWall, named after the walls that have to prevent a fire from spreading around to other parts of the building. A FireWall is a computer at the boundary between the Internet and Intranet. It runs a solid communications protocol stack, and restricts the kind of connections from Internet to Intranet and vice versa. For example, it can prohibit File Transfer Protocol (FTP) transactions from Internet to Intranet, while allowing them in the opposite direction.

Intranet
FireWall

Internet

Figure 85

FireWall

6.4.3

Proxy Server
A Proxy Server is also a computer in the network. Rather than the client accessing the server directly, he asks the Proxy Server. The Proxy Server can then check the request and do a number of actions :
" " " "

Log data like client address, server address, time and date, Validate access rights, Act as a cache for the server data, reroute request to other server,

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Proxy Server

Client

Intranet
FireWall

Internet

Client

Server

Server

Figure 86

Proxy Server

6.4.4

Internet Telephony
Internet Telephony was born out of the following discrepancy :
"

international or long-distance phonecalls are expensive. In general in telephony, the cost of the call is depending on the Duration and the Physical Distance between the parties. internet access is usually a flat monthly fee, no matter how long you use it, no matter at what physical distance the servers you are accessing, are located.

"

So it was investigated whether it was possible to make phonecalls over the Internet, which would result in calls which are (almost) for free, independent from the duration and distance. The technology is now know as Voice-over-IP (VoIP). Speech is compressed, packaged into IP packets and routed through the Internet or another IP network. However, due to the fact that these networks are Packet Switching networks, it is more difficult to get a satisfactory speech quality : there is a lot of delay, (so echo cancelling is needed) and lost packets result in lost speech fragments. Voice over IP networks could be built from all new network components, but also reuse the existing access infrastructure. In the latter case, Gateways are needed between the existing PSTN and the Voice-over-IP network.

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6 Network Services

MultiMedia Computer

MultiMedia Computer

Internet

Figure 87

Voice over IP , all functionality in the terminals

Internet

VoIP GateWay

VoIP GateWay

Telephone Network (PSTN)

Telephone

Figure 88

Voice over IP , functionality in Gateways

6.5

Mobile Telephony Services

Prepaid Cards
The prepaid SIM card plays an important role in the calling card services portfolio. You buy a card with a certain Calling Value, eg. $20 and insert it into the mobile handset. The telephone number is printed on the SIM-card. Calls can be made immediately. When your calling value is consumed, you can buy another card, or have the first one reloaded with new value, in which case you can also keep the telephone number. The prepaid SIM card is typically implemented using Intelligent Networks. Features for the operator / network provider :
" " "

guaranteed payment before using the service stimulated change-over to full subscription reduces service administration

Features for the end user :

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6 Network Services

"

no subscription needed : you can buy such a card in a foreign country and use it, avoiding to subscribe a long term contract, or expensive international calls via your home-contract. budget control

"

http://www.proximus.be/en/services/paygo.htm http://www.mobistar.be/nl/tariff/tempo.html The Short Message System (SMS) provides a mechanism for transmitting 'short' messages to and from wireless handsets. The service makes use of a Short Message Service Center (SMSC) which acts as a Store and Forward system for the messages. A few key properties of SMS are :
" " " "

Short Message System

up to 160 characters, or 140 bytes guaranteed delivery to the destination out-of-band transfer duplex

For the operator / network provider, the SMS has the following advantages :
" "

Increased call completion Easy mechanism for simplifying services such as Advice of Charge, Directory services, ... Possibility to provide value-added information such as notifications, stock-info, etc.. Notification services : notification upon receipt of voice mail, fax, email in your mailbox. Reminders for appointments and events. E-mail interworking : send and receive email from your mobile set. Information services : (see below)
D D D D D

"

Typical end-user applications are :

"

"

"

weather reports traffic information entertainment information financial information : stock quotes, exchange rates, banking, brokerage directory services

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Information Services

A mobile phone-user cannot take the yellow pages directory with him. As an answer to this, the Information Services have been set up : You dial a simple number, give the name of the product or service you want to find, and mention the region where you want it. Then a large database is queried searching for the information you need. Additional features :
"

the service may be for free, actually sponsored by the companies/services in the database. the information can be sent to you in a message to your Short Message System (SMS)

"

http://www.proximus.be/en/services/scoot.htm

6.6

Quality of Service (QOS)

In general the term Quality of Service (QoS) refers to the idea that for each service a subscriber pays, he wants to receive a certain minimum quality. This minimum quality is then specified for a number of properties, such as :
"

the Bit Error Ratio (BER) : how likely is it for the network to introduce errors into your information. the End-to-End delay on your information, and (when applicable) the variation on that delay. the probability that your connection will be 'lost' due to a fault from the network ...

"

"

"

Usually not all these parameters are specified individually for each use of the network. Rather a number of 'standard' combinations is made which cover frequently used services :
" " " "

speech connection : BER<10-6, Delay<25 ms, ... data connection : BER<10-9 video : BER 10-3, Delay variance < ??? ....

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7 Network Management

7 Network Management
7.1 Introduction
Building a network is one thing, but a network is a complex system, almost a 'living' system, and as such requires continuous management :
" " " " "

Extension Reconfiguration Performance Measurements Fault Isolation ...

This is the task of the Network Management (NM) System. Today there are 2 main standards for network management :
"

Telecom Management Network (TMN) : a set of standards developed in the traditional telecom business. (Voice communication). Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) : a set of standards developed in the data-communication business. (Data communication, Internet).

"

7.1.1

Telecom Network Management (TMN)

The basic concept behind the Telecom Management Network (TMN) is to provide an organized architecture to manage and operate a network. This network contains :
"

various types of Network Elements (NE) ,possibly from many different vendors. This is the equipment to be managed :

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7 Network Management

D D D D D

transmission systems, switching systems, multiplexers, signalling terminals, file servers

When managed, such equipment is generally referred to as Network Elements (NEs).

"

Operation System (OS) (not operating systems !) which are the Managing and controlling elements in the network.

The usage of standards has to ensure that all equipment from any manufacturer can be controlled by a network management system from any other manufacturer.

F uncti Following functions are provided by the Telecom Management

Network :
"

Fault Management : Detect, locate and correct running anomalies of the telecommunication network and of its environment. Configuration Management : Control and identify network elements (NE), collect data generated by these elements and provide them configuration data. Accounting Management : Measure the network service use, and determine the costs of this use. Performance Management : Evaluate and analyses the behavior of telecommunication equipment and the network or network element efficiency. Security Management : Assure the securisation procedures management.

"

"

"

"

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Operation System

Operation System

Telecom Management Network

Data Network

Network Elements

Transmission Exchange Exchange

Transmission

Transmission Exchange

Figure 89

Management Network

Architecture Layered

To deal with the complexity of the telecommunications management, the management functionality may be considered to be partitioned into logical layers.
"

Element Management Layer : Manages each network element on an individual or group basis and supports an abstraction of the functions provided by the Network Element Layer. It has one or more element OSF and/or MFs that are individual responsible for some subset of network element functions. Network Management Layer : has the responsibility of the management of a network as supported by the Element Management Layer
D D D D

"

The control and co-ordination of the network view of all network elements within its scope or domain, The provision, cessation or modification of network capabilities for the support of service to customers, The maintenance of network capabilities, Maintaining statistical, log and other data about the network and interact with the service manager layer on performance, usage, availability, etc.

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7 Network Management

"

Service Management Layer : is concerned with the contractual aspects of services that are being provided customers or available to potential new customers. Some of the main functions of this layer are service order handling, complaint handling and invoicing.
D D D D

Customer facing and interfacing with other administrations, Interaction with service providers, Maintaining statistical data (e.g. QoS), Interaction between services.

"

Business Management Layer : This layer has responsibility for the total enterprise.
D D D D

Supporting the decision-making process for the optimal investment and use of new telecommunications resources, Supporting the management of AO&M related budget, Supporting the supply and demand of OA&M related manpower, Maintaining aggregate data about the total enterprise.

Standard Interfaces

Some standard interfaces are :

" " " "

The Q3 interface The Qx interface The F interface The X Interface

7.1.2

Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)

Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is a protocol suite consisting of three specifications :
" " "

RFC 1155: the Structure of Management Information (SMI) RFC 1213: the Management Information Base (MIB). RFC 1157: the SNMP protocol itself.

From the SNMP point of view the world consists out of three different entities:
"

The Network Management Station (NMS).

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7 Network Management

"

The Network Element (NE) : the devices to be managed. They include the SNMP agent. An SNMP agent will respond to the requests coming from the SNMP manager and will also send traps towards the SNMP manager. The SNMP protocol itself which is polling based.

"

Figure 90 shows the protocol stack used in case of SNMP . It uses the UDP/IP (a variant of TCP/IP). The routing function of the IP layer allows to place the Network Management anywhere in the IP network. Each Network Element includes a database which is called Management Information Base (MIB). Standards define the structure of this database, and many vendors publish the details of their equipments Management Information Base, such that Network Management Applications can know how to control the Network Elements. Using the SNMP protocol the SNMP manager can read and write in this database. The operations include:
" " " " "

GET GET-RESPONSE GET-NEXT SET TRAP

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7 Network Management

Network Management Centre

Network Element

SNMP Management Application GETRESPONSE

SNMP Managed Objects GETRESPONSE

GETNEXT

GETNEXT

TRAP

Figure 90

Some examples: if the operator issues a command to read the linkstatus of a NE, the NMC will sent an SNMP GET towards the NE. The status is retrieved from the MIB database and the result is sent towards the NMC using an SNMP GET RESPONSE. The operator can read the result in a graphical window. Similar the operator can change the configuration (name, location, ...) in which case the NMC will send an SNMP SET. A last example is when there is an alarm in the NE. In this case the NE will send this unsolicited event towards the NMC using a trap. For this to work, the NMC's IP address must be configured in advance in each NE.

GET

TRAP

GET

SNMP Manager UDP IP Link SNMP Protocol Stack

SET

SNMP Manager UDP IP Link

SET

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Abbreviations

Abbreviations
3PTY AA ADSI ADSL AIN AM AMPS AOC-E AOD ISDN APS ARCU ASSS ATM AUC B-ISDN B-ISUP B-ISUP BER BRA BRI BSC BSS BSSAP BTS CALIP CALIR CAS CATV CCBS CCS #7 CDM Three Party Call Abbreviated Address Analog Display Services Interface Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line Advanced Intelligent Network Amplitude Modulation Advanced Mobile Phone System Advice of Charge at End Always-On / Dynamic ISDN Automatic Protection Switching Alcatel Remote Concentrator Unit Analog Subscriber Signalling System Asynchronous Transfer Mode Authentication Center Broadband Integrated Services Digital Network B-ISDN User Part Broadband ISDN User Part Bit Error Ratio Basic Rate Access Basic Rate Interface Base Station Controller Base Station Subsystem Base Station Subsystem Application Part Base Transceiver Station Called Line Identification Presentation Called Line Identification Restriction Channel Associated Signalling Cable Television Network Call Completion on Busy Subscriber Common Channel Signalling System #7 Code Division Multiplexing

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Abbreviations

CFBS CFNR CFU CLASS CLIP CLIR CLR COLP COLR CONF CSMA-CD CTM CW D-AMPS DCS DECT DMT DSL DSS1 DSS2 DTMF DVD ECT EFR EIR FDC FDM FM FR FTP GPRS GSM GUI

Call Forwarding on Busy Subscriber Call Forwarding on No Reply Call Forwarding Unconditional Custom Local Area Signalling Services Calling Line Identification Presentation Calling Line Identification Restriction Cell Loss Ratio Connected Line Identification Presentation Connected Line Identification Restriction Conference Call Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection Cordless Telephone Mobility Call Waiting Digital AMPS Digital Cellular System Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunication Discrete Multi-Tone Digital Subscriber Line Digital Subscriber Signalling System 1 Digital Subscriber Signalling System 2 Dual Tone Multiple Frequency Digital Versatile Disc Explicit Call Transfer Enhanced Full Rate Equipment Identity Register Fixed Destination Call Frequency Division Multiplexing Frequency Modulation Frame Relay File Transfer Protocol General Packet Radio System Global System for Mobile Communications Graphical User Interfaces

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Abbreviations

HDSL HF HLR HTTP IAP ICB IETF IMEI IN INAP IP IP IrDA ISDN ISP ISUP ITU LAN LMDS MAC MAP MCI MIB MIPS MM-CONF MPEG MRVT MS MSC MTP NB NE NE

High Speed Digital Subscriber Line High Frequency Home Location Register HyperText Transfer Protocol Internet Access Provider Incoming Calls Barred Internet Engineering Task Force International Mobile Station Equipment Identity Intelligent Networks Intelligent Network Application Part Internet Protocol Intelligent Peripheral Infrared Data Association Integrated Digital Services Network Internet Service Provider ISDN User Part International Telecommunication Union Local Area Network Local Multipoint Distribution Services Media Access Control Mobile Application Part Malicious Call Identification Management Information Base Maximum Integration Phone Set Meet-me Conference Motion Picture Expert Group MTP Routing Verification Test Mobile Station Mobile Switching Centre Message Transfer Part Narrowband Network Elements Network Element

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Abbreviations

NM NMS NNI NS NT OCB OS PABX PCS PDA PDH PLMN PM POF PON POP POTS PRA PRI PSTN QAM QoS RFC RSVP RTSU SCCP SCE SCP SDH SFH SIM SLP SMI

Network Management Network Management Station Network to Network Interface Network Subsystem Network Termination Outgoing Calls Barred Operation System Private Branch Exchange Personal Communication System Personal Digital Assistant Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy Public Lands Mobile Network Phase Modulation Plastic Optical Fiber Passive Optical Networks Point of Presence Plain Old Telephony Service Primary Rate Access Primary Rate Interface Public Switched Telephone Network Quadrature Amplitude Modulation Quality of Service Request For Comment Resource Reservation Protocol Remote Terminal Subscriber Unit Signalling Connection Control Part Service Creation Environment Service Control Point Synchronous Digital Hierarchy Slow Frequency Hopping Subscriber Identity Module Service Logic Programs Structure of Management Information

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Abbreviations

SMP SMS SMS SMSC SMTP SNMP SRVT SSP STM STM STPs TA TC TCAP TDM TDM TMN TUP UMTS UMTS UNI UTP VC VCI VDSL VLR VOD VoIP VoIP VPI WAP WDM WWW

Service Management Point Short Message Service Short Message System Short Message Service Center Simple Mail Transfer Protocol Simple Network Management Protocol SCCP Routing Verification Test Service Switching Point Synchronous Transport Module Synchronous Transfer Mode Signalling Transfer Points Terminal Adapter Transcoder Transaction Capabilities Application Part Time Division Multiplexing Time Division Multiplex Telecom Management Network Telephone User Part Universal Mobile Telecommunication System Universal Mobile Telephone System User to Network Interface Unshielded Twisted Pair Virtual Container Virtual Channel Identifier Very High Speed Digital Subscriber Line Visitors Location Register Video-on-Demand Voice over IP Voice-over-IP Virtual Path Identifier Wireless Access Protocol Wavelength Division Multiplexing World Wide Web

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Abbreviations

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Glossary

Glossary
In case a term cannot be found here, you can consult good online Telecom Glossary and Abbreviations-lists at : http://www.its.bldrdoc.gov/fs-1037/ Wireless 3G Third-Generation Wireless system : The 3G Wireless is a broadband mobile communications system evolving from second-generation digital cellular wireless communication systems, to facilitate data and video applications. ATM Adaptation Layer : A layer above the ATM Layer, providing additional functions to the payload inside the ATM cell. four AALs are standardized : AAL1, AAL2, AAL3/4, AAL5. A piece of equipment, grouping a number of telecom users, and providing them access to one or more core networks. Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line : is a new method of transmitting digital data at high bit-rates (multi-mega-bit per second) over the existing installed twisted-pairs of the access network. Alternate Mark Inversion. A line-coding technique which represents '1'-bits by pulses ('marks') and '0'-bits by zero signal. Pulses can be positive or negative, and are alternated, such that there are an equal amount of positive and negative pulses. In order to signal special conditions, explicit violations of this alternating can be used. Advanced Mobile Phone Standard : AMPS is an analogue mobile system standard, which has a very large installed base in US. A type of signal that encodes data transmitted over wire or through the air, and is commonly represented as an oscillating wave. An analog signal can take any value in a range, and changes smoothly between values. An analog signal can transmit analog or digital data. For example, a radio station sends analog music data using analog systems, while a modem transmits digital data using analog signals. Asynchronous Transfer Mode : the technology used for broadband communication services and is now accepted by ITU as the technology for B-ISDN. ATM is also accepted as the technology to interconnect computers over ATM LANs. A standardization organization, formed by Computer and Communications companies to standardize ATM networks. Authentication Center : It provides authentication and encryption parameters that verify the user's identity and ensure the confidentiality of each call. The AUC protects network operators from different types of fraud found in today's cellular world.

AAL

Access Node ADSL

AMI

AMPS

Analogue signal

ATM

ATM Forum AUC

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Glossary

Backbone

Bandwidth

B-channel bit

BRA / BRI

Bridge Bridging Table

Broadband CAP

CDMA

CCITT CENTREX Circuit CODEC Compression

The part of the communications network intended to and designed to carry the bulk of traffic. Provides connectivity between subnetworks in an enterprise-wide network. The difference between the highest and lowest frequencies assigned to a communication channel or used on a transmission medium. The higher the bandwidth, the more the data throughput and thus the capacity. A B channel is a 56-kbps or 64-kbps channel that carries user data. Binary digit. The smallest unit of information a computer can process, representing one of the two possible values (usually indicated by "1" or "0"). Basic Rate Access / Basic Rate Interface : An ISDN subscriber line, consisting of two 64 kbit/s B channels, or "bearer" channels, and one 16 kbit/s D channel, used for both data and signalling purposes. A device that connects and passes data, between two network segments based on the destination field in the packet header. A bridging table identifies destination addresses known to exist in a network. It is built dynamically by a learning bridge as it passes data in a network. In digital environments this term refers to bandwidth above 2 Mbps. Carrierless Amplitude/Phase Modulation : the principle of CAP is similar to QAM. The main difference is the implementation. Where QAM uses a carrier frequency for the symbol generation, CAP uses a filter pair (Hilbert). Code Division Multiple Access : CDMA is a wireless communications technology that uses spread-spectrum communication. In a CDMA system, a narrowband message signal is multiplied by a spreading signal, which is a pseudo-noise code sequence that has a rate much greater than the data rate of the message. Consultative Committee on International Telegraphy and Telephony. A function of a public telephone exchange to behave as a private exchange. A connection between end points over a physical medium. COder / DECoder : a device used to convert analogue signals to digital and back. Compression is a technique that reduces the quantity of bandwidth or bits required to encode a block of information. Compression saves transmission time and capacity, and can free up storage space on in-demand data lines. Compressed data can be compromised in quality, but the advantages of bandwidth savings are frequently worth the trade-off.

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Glossary

CPE CTM

CTS

D-AMPS

DECT

Digital Data

Digital Signal

DMT

DSL

DTE

Ethernet

Customer Premises Equipment : Terminal equipment located on the customer premises. CTM is a public access over DECT. It allows a single handset to be used at home, in the office and in public areas where coverage is provided. Roaming using a single number is possible. Cordless Telephone System : CTS enable GSM users to make and receive calls over the fixed network via a CTS Fixed Part. The CTS-Fixed Part (CTS-FP) is connected directly to the fixed network. Digital Advanced Mobile Phone Standard : US digital cellular standard designed to coexist with analogue cellular AMPS system. D-AMPS also employs FDMA/TDMA technology like GSM, and is also known as IS-54/136. Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications : DECT provides wireless access to any type of telecommunication network. Data that can have only a limited number of separate values. The time of day represented by a digital clock, or the temperature represented by a digital thermometer are examples of digital data; the digital values do not change continuously, but remain at one discrete value and then change to another, discrete value. A type of signal that encodes data transmitted over a wire using a limited number of discrete values. The value of the data encoded in a digital signal depends upon the state of the signal during a particular time period. Discrete Multi-Tone : is a form of multicarrier modulation. DMT divides time into regular "symbol periods", each of which will carry a fixed number of bits. The bits are assigned in groups to signalling tones of different frequencies. For each symbol period QAM modulation is used. Depending upon the quality of the channel more or less bits are inserted (4QAM, 64QAM, ...). If there is ingress noise in one of the channels, the channel is closed and the bits are assigned to other channels to keep the bit rate constant. Digital Subscriber Line. An subscriber network access using advanced digital techniques in order to increase the bandwidth capacity of the line. Data Terminal Equipment : As defined in the RS-232 specification, equipment to which DCE (Data Communications Equipment ) is connected, such as personal computers or data terminals. DTE often refers to application equipment, such as a videoconference terminal or LAN bridge or router, while DCE refers to equipment such as network access equipment. A local area network that connects devices like computers, printers, and terminals.

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Glossary

FCC

FDM

FR

Gateway

GPRS

GSM

Handover

HDSL

HLR

HSCSD

Federal Communications Commission. An organization in the USA organizing the allocation of frequency-spectrum, and electrical compatibility and safety. Frequency Division Multiplexing : A technique in which the available bandwidth is divided into frequency channels. Each frequency channel carries information for a separate communication. Frame Relay : A form of packet switching, but using smaller packets and less error checking than traditional forms of packet switching (such as X.25). Now a new international standard for efficiently handling high-speed, bursty data over wide area networks. Gateways are points of entrance to and exit from a communications network. Viewed as a physical entity, a gateway is that node that translates between two otherwise incompatible networks or network segments. Gateways perform code and protocol conversion to facilitate traffic between data highways of differing architecture. In OSI terms, a gateway is a device that provides mapping at all seven layers of the OSI model. A gateway can be thought of as a function within a system that enables communications with the outside world. General Packet Radio Service : GPRS is a high capacity data service developed on GSM networks. Packet technology is used to provide efficient transmission inside one high-speed channel (speed up to 144 kbps). Global system for Mobile Communications : GSM is a European originated mobile communication standard. It is a second-generation digital cellular standard, based on FDM/TDMA and operates in the 900MHz, 1,800MHz and 1,900MHz frequency bands. During calls mobile users are continuing to move. As a result, they might get out of reach of the radio system currently serving him. In this way, the network makes a handover. The call is given to another radio system. This is done completely transparently for the end user. High-speed Digital Subscriber Line : is a technique which allows to transmit 2.048 Mbps over two or three UTPs. Distances vary from 2 to 5 km depending upon the copper-pair section and the number of pairs (two or three). Home Location Register : It is a large static database containing information about the subscribers who have subscribed with associated operator. High Speed Circuit Switched Data : HSCSD is a high capacity data service developed on GSM networks by setting up (circuit switched) a number of parallel channels as one circuit.

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Glossary

IMT-2000

IN

IP

ISDN

LAN

Leased Lines

MAC Modem

MPEG

International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 : The IMT2000 third generation wireless standard(s), will provide universal coverage and will enable seamless roaming across multiple networks. The third generation systems will be developed to provide not only voice services, but also high-speed data services to provide new applications, such as wireless Internet access. Intelligent Networks : Powerful environment supporting the creation of tailor-made services for any network. The service(s) are tailor-made, not a service from a catalogue but service defined by customer at time of contract signature. These services are available on top of any network. Intelligent Networks provides the glue between different networks. Internet Protocol. A format of exchanging information using packets. These packets are variable size and connection-less in nature. Integrated Services Digital Network : Integrated Services Digital Network. A system that provides simultaneous voice and high-speed data transmission through a single channel to the user's premises. ISDN is an international standard for end-to-end digital transmission of voice, data, and signaling. Local Area Network : A network that interconnects devices over a geographically small area, typically in one building or a part of a building. The most popular LAN type is Ethernet. A dedicated and non-switched circuit, typically supplied by a telecom operator, that permanently connects two or more user locations. Media Access Control : A system of rules used to move data from one physical medium to another. MOdulator/DEModulator : A DCE (Data Circuit-Terminating Equipment) installed between a DTE (Data Terminal Equipment) and an analog transmission channel, such as a telephone line. A DTE refers to a device that an operator uses, such as a computer or a terminal. The DCE connects the DTE to a communications channel, such as a telephone line. A modem takes digital data from a DTE, translates (or modulates) the 1s an 0s into analog form, and sends the data over the channel. The receiving demodulates the analog signal into digital data and sends it to the DTE to which it is attached. Motion Pictures Expert Group. An organization defining standards on formats for storage, compression and transmission of audio-visual information.

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Glossary

OSI

PACS PBX PDC

PHS POTS PLMN

Protocol PCM

Router

Open Systems Interconnection : A reference model used to describe layers of a network and the types of functions expected at each layer. The OSI model is used as a standard, letting developers of networks and communication systems rely on the presence of certain functions at certain places in a standard system.Top to bottom, the seven layers are:applicationpresentationsessiontransportnetworkdata linkphysicalThe physical and data link layers have to do with hardware, wires, signals on wires, and basic addressing functions, such as media access control (MAC). In the network layers, information from different networking protocols is distinguished (example: internet protocol (IP)). In the transport layer, data is packaged for transport in a size and organization appropriate for its intended environment (example: control protocol (TCP) works. The session, presentation, and application layers keep information streaming in and convert it to a usable format. Personal Access Communications System : PACS is a US based cordless communication system. Private Branch Exchange : A private exchange, used in business environments. Personal Digital Communication : It is a strictly Japanese national mobile system standard. This second generation mobile system uses the access FDMA/TDMA method. Personal Handy System : PHS is a Japanese based cordless communication system. Plain Old Telephone Service : is another name for the well known analogue telephone service on a twisted pair. Public Land Mobile Network : The PLMN network established and operated by an Administration or its licensed operator(s), for the specific purpose of providing land mobile communication services to the public. It provides communication possibilities for mobile users. For communication between mobile and fixed users interworking with a fixed network is necessary. A set of rules governing message exchange over a network or internetwork. Pulse Code Modulation : PCM is a method of taking an analog voice signal and encoding it into a digital bit stream. First, the amplitude of the voice conversation is sampled. An interconnection device that can connect individual LANs. Unlike bridges, which logically connect at OSI layer 2, routers provide logical paths at OSI layer 3. Like bridges, remote sites can be connected using routers over dedicated or switched lines to create WANs.

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Glossary

QAM

QoS

SMDS SNMP

Soliton

SONET

Switched Circuit

T CP/IP

Thick Ethernet

Ethernet Thin TDM

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation : this is a two-dimensional modulation technique. By changing the amplitude and the phase of a carrier frequency, it is possible to transmit multiple bits in one symbol. In other words, each amplitude and phase (one symbol) corresponds to a certain bit-sequence. In this way up to ten bits (1024QAM) and more can be inserted in one symbol. Quality of Service. A set of parameters, describing the quality a user can expect from the service he is using. Typical parameters are 'bit error ratio', 'cell loss ratio', etc. Switched Multimegabit Data Service. A packet-based network service allowing the creation of high-sped data networks . Simple Network Management Protocol : A standard way for computers to share networking information. In SNMP , two types of communicating devices exist: agents and managers. An agent provides networking information to a manager application running on another computer. The agents and managers share a database of information, called the Management Information Base (MIB). An optical pulse having a shape, spectral content, and power level designed to take advantage of nonlinear effects in an optical fiber waveguide, for the purpose of essentially negating dispersion over long distances. Synchronous Optical Network. A standard for multiplexing information and transmitting it over large distances at high speed. Sonet is the US version of SDH. A temporary connection between end points, established for the duration of a call, over which two parties exchange data. The circuit is disconnected when the call ends. Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol :A family of protocols that defines the format of data packets sent across a network, and is the communications standard for data transmission between different platforms. A local area network that connects devices like computers, printers, and terminals. Ethernet operates over twisted-pair or coaxial cable at speeds at 10 or 100 Mbps.A term that describes a type of Ethernet cable. Thick Ethernet, or thicknet, is .4" diameter coaxial cable for Ethernet networks. A term that describes a type of Ethernet cable. Thin Ethernet, or thinnet, is .2" diameter coaxial cable for Ethernet networks Time Division Multiplex : A technique for transmitting a number of separate and independent data, voice and/or video signals varying in speeds simultaneously over one communications medium by quickly interleaving a piece of each signal one after another.

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Glossary

UMTS

UTP

VLR

W AN X.21

Universal Mobile Telecommunication Service : UMTS are the third-generation mobile communications standards, proposed by the European Telecommunications Standard Institute (ETSI), to enable high-speed data and multimedia services over wireless platform. Unshielded Twisted Pair : Two copper wires, each encased in its own color-coded insulation, are twisted together to form a twisted pair. Multiple twisted pairs are packaged in an outer sheath, or jacket, to form twisted-pair cable. By varying the length of the twists in nearby pairs, the possibility of interference between pairs in the same cable sheath can be minimized. Visitor Location Register : The VLR is a dynamic database closely associated with the MSC. It contains information on all subscribers currently roaming in the network covered by the MSC. Wide Area Network : WANs are large networks in which connections between different cities or nations are made. A set of CCITT specifications for an interface between DTE and DCE for synchronous operation on public data networks. Includes connector, electrical, and dialing specifications.

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Appendix A

Analog versus Digital

Appendix A
"

Analog versus Digital

The main difference between analog and digital information is : for analog signals an infinite numbers of signal values are allowed for digital signals, only a finite number of signals are allowed.

"

Signals... Smok e

Let's clarify this with a first example : imagine you want to transport information using shapes (a little like the smoke signals that the Indians used). When you do this in an analog way, any possible shape you can imagine (infinite number) is allowed. When you do this in a digital way, only a limited number (finite) is allowed, eg. circles, triangles and squares. When you transmit your information (= your shape) it will be distorted by its environment. Just like the wind distorts the smoke signals made by the Indians. Now the problem of the receiver. In an analog system, the receiver cannot distinguish which part of the shape belongs to the original sent shape, and which part is due to distortion. This is because any shape was allowed. In the digital system, you know that only a select set of shapes is allowed, so even if the received shape is a little distorted, you can select the shape with the best match. This way you can remove the distortion, and reconstruct a perfect signal. Conclusion : Digital Transmission can correct errors.

Note

The digital receiver can only reconstruct the perfect signal, if the distortion is not too much : it has to match received distorted signals with the originals, and only if the distortion is limited, the matching will be correct. The more the distortion, the more the receiver will 'guess' the wrong original shape, resulting in an error as well. Digital electronics are so successful, because they transmit information, with only two possible signal values :
" "

Electronics Digital

On : represented by (eg.) 5 V voltage Off : represented by (eg.) 0 V voltage

Even if the signal is distorted, eg. the 5V is attenuated to 4V, the receiver can easily guess whether it was On or Off, by choosing the closest matching value.

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Appendix A

Analog versus Digital

Table 12 Information Analog Information

Analogue versus Digital Analogue Representation Pure Analogue, Baseband Digital Representation Sampling Pure Digital

Representation

Digital Information Modulation

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Appendix B

Analog to Digital

Appendix B
Sampling Quantization ,

Analog to Digital
When converting an Analog signal to a digital signal, the analog signal is first Sampled : it is measured at fixed interval times. Then this measurement is converted to a number, with a certain precision (eg 8 bits = 256 levels), this is called Quantization. When converting the infinite possibilities of the analog signal, to one of the finite digital values, there is always a small error made : the digital value is an approximation of the analog signal. This error is called the quantization error. When sampling and converting to digital, it is sometimes more efficient to indicate only the changes from step to step, rather than the whole signal value.

Delta Modulation

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Appendix C

Multiplexing - Concentration

Appendix C

Multiplexing - Concentration
signals onto a single higher speed signal.

Multiple xin Multiplexing is a technique to combine a number of lower speed

It is like a road with four lanes at 30 km/h being converted onto a single lane at 120 km/h. The complementary mirror function of multiplexing is de-multiplexing : decomposing the single higher-speed signal back to its component lower-speed signals. An important aspect of a multiplexer is the fact that the throughput (or bandwidth capacity) is the same before and after the multiplexing : for each composing signal, there is some space in the multiplexed signal. A typical example is to multiplex 32 voice channels of 64 kbps into a single 2.048 Mbps signal. When the composing signals of a multiplex are signals which are not full-time used, some of the capacity is waisted, also in the multiplexed signal. For example, ordinary telephone lines are only used at most 15% of the time. 85% of the time, the telephone is not used, and the channel is said to be Idle. In the above example, 5 of the 32 channels would carry voice, 27 would be idle. This is clearly not optimal. The solution is Concentration.

Concentra Concentration is a technique to convert a large number of

channels which are 'lightly' used, (eg. only 15% of the time) into a smaller number of more intensively used channels. As a typical example 200 telephone channels, used at 15%, can be concentrated into 32 channels used at 93.75% (200*0.15/32).

Concentration requires more functionality, as it needs to map channels not just one to one in a fixed way, but more dynamically, depending on their idle/busy status : only the Busy channels are switched. When concentrating, it is always possible that a blocking occurs : when in the group of (eg.) 200 channels, 50 users want to make a call at the same time, only the first 32 will be served, leaving 18 unserved. Many times, concentration and multiplexing are combined : first concentration to increase the average usage of the channels, then these channels are multiplexed together. This guarantees a high-usage of the multiplex and efficient use of the bandwidth.

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Appendix D

Time - Frequency - Code

Appendix D

Time - Frequency - Code

When multiplexing, there are three basic techniques which can be applied :
"

Sending individual information one after the other which is called Time Division Multiplex (TDM) Sending individual information modulated at different carrier frequencies, called Frequency Multiplexing (FDM) Sending individual information at the same time, using the same frequency band, but Scrambled with different encryption codes. This last technique is called Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

"

"

Furthermore, combinations are possible, eg. GSM uses a FDM-TDM combination.

TDM Time Division Multiplexing combines multiple signals, by

transporting them one after the other. Because voice and other sources, generate a continuous stream, all those streams must be chopped in fragments (called channels or timeslots), and then one fragment of all sources is combined into something called a Frame. Since most voice is based on 8 KHz sampling (= 125s) most frames have also this 125 s timing. An analogy for TDM is a group of people in a room, talking one after the other.

FDM Frequency Multiplexing uses different carrier frequencies to shift its

component baseband signals into different bands. A simple example of Frequency Multiplexing is radio-broadcasting, where a number of stations are using the same common air-medium but using different carrier frequencies. Another example of FDM is Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) : Frequency (f) and Wavelength () are related as f=c/, with c the propagation speed in the medium. Because the frequencies of visible light are so high, it is more practical to refer to them with wavelengths. Eg. 800 nm equals 3.75E14 Hz. Multiplexing different colors (= wavelengths) of light, is essentially FDM, albeit in a very high frequency range. An analogy for FDM is two women talking to each other, and two men, also talking to each other at the same time. Since the women's voice has a higher pitch than a men's voice, each listener can filter the conversation he wants to hear.

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Appendix D

Time - Frequency - Code

CDMA CDMA allows to transmit different signals at the same time, in the

same frequency band. Each information stream is encoded with a key, called chip-sequence. This encoding converts each single bit, into a group of bits, eg. 64 or 128 bits. At the receiver side, the information is decoded using a matching key. all keys are chosen such that when decoding with the matching key, results in the original signal, but when decoding with the wrong key results into a zero signal. When all users send their information, encoded with their own keys, these signals are added. When decoding this sum of signals, al the components encoded with other keys yield zero, and only the component with the matching key comes out. An analogy for CDMA is a group of people in a room, talking at the same time in a different language. Again by filtering (and understanding !) a particular language, you can listen to a certain conversation.

Combinat

These different multiplexing techniques can be combined, to further increase the number of simultaneous communications :
" " " "

SDH (= TDM) + WDM (=FDM) GSM : TDM + FDM DECT : TDM + FDM ...

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Appendix E

Modulation & Coding

Appendix E

Modulation & Coding

When sending a signal over a medium, (twisted pair, coax, fiber, radio) the digital signal could be directly controlling the transmitter in a simple way :
" "

sending a '1' : switch 5V on the wires sending a '0' : switch 0V on the wires

This method is called non-Return to Zero coding, and is simple, straightforward, but not the most efficient :
"

it sends a DC component on the wires, which is sometimes harmful or even impossible it is not using the available bandwidth of the medium in the most optimal way. it doesn't allow the clock to be recovered : if you would transmit a large amount of zeroes, the signal would be all the time 0V, not allowing to count the pulses and recognize the bits. with some noise, bits can easily get wrong : some interference could turn 0 Volt into something closer to 5 Volt, leading to one or more Bit Errors. Line Coding allows to balance the DC, to prevent bit errors, and to recover the bits, even if they are all zero, or all one.... Modulation allows to use in a more precise way the amount of available bandwidth.

"

"

"

To improve this situation, two techniques are used :

"

"

Codin Coding techniques can encode the signal you want to send, the

so-called Baseband Signal by using more complicated pulses, such that the DC component is zero, and that clock can always be recovered. A more modern way to do coding is Scrambling : bits are 'mixed up' by a scrambler into a seemingly chaotic sequence, and then de-scrambled at the receiver. signal at the rate of the baseband signal'. Things that can usually be modified are :
" " "

Modulat Modulation means 'controlling a specific property of a carrier

the Amplitude of a signal : Amplitude Modulation (AM) the Frequency of a signal : Frequency Modulation (FM) the Phase of a signal : Phase Modulation (PM)

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Appendix E

Modulation & Coding

"

a combination of these, eg. Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM), a combination of PM and AM.

When modulating a Carrier frequency with a baseband signal, the frequency spectrum of the baseband, is shifted to center around the carrier frequency. 90
10111 10011 00110 00010

10010

10101

10001 00100

00101

00111

10110

10100

10000 00000

00001

0001 1

180
11011 11001 11000 01000 01100 0111 0 01010

11111

11101

11100 01001

01101

11010

11110 01011

01111

270 Figure 91 32 QAM : Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

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Appendix F

Asynchronous, Plesiochronous, Synchronous

Appendix F

Asynchronous, Plesiochronous, Synchronous

To be completed

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Appendix G

Real Life Networks and their Features

Appendix G
G.1 G.2 G.3 G.4 Internet

Real Life Networks and their Features

Public Switched Telephone Network, PSTN

Cable-TV, CATV Broadband ISDN, B-ISDN

To be completed

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Appendix H

Connection-Oriented vs. Connectionless

Appendix H

Connection-Oriented vs. Connectionless

When working in Connection oriented mode, before sending the first user information, a connection between both users is set up. This set up includes agreements about which kind of information transfer, and which route it will follow. After the actual transfer of information, the connection must also be released, all the resources associated to it must be freed again. Working Connectionless means that there is no connection setup phase : the user information is sent immediately to the network. Because the network is not 'prepared' to this, more work needs to be done for each piece of information to be sent. also, different pieces cannot be correlated together, and as such may be handled in different ways : they could for example follow a different route.

Analo Imagine that a trip is made from here to the beach. The army

would do this the connection-oriented way : they first send a Jeep with explorers, finding a route to the beach, and setting up driving instructions (special arrows) on each cross-road (= the switches). Then the bulk of the army drives to the beach, not thinking about which route, just following the arrows set up by the explorers. As a result they all follow the same route (as a convoy) and also arrive in sequence. when a group of families want to do the same trip, they could go there the connection-less way : they agree upon a destination address (and deadline for arrival) and then each drive individually to the beach. Each of them makes driving decisions on their own, they may follow different routes and they may also arrive out of sequence. some may arrive too late, because they are stuck in a traffic jam.

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Appendix H

Connection-Oriented vs. Connectionless

Table 13

Connection Oriented versus Connection-Less Connectionless Packets need not follow the same path : multi-path No sequence-integrity : pack ets can arrive out of sequence

Connection-Oriented All packets follow the same path Sequence of packets is pre served

Setup and Release of a connec no setup or release : all routing tion required before resp. after possibilities defined at system the actual information transfer configuration or system startup. Intermediate nodes are not concerned about final destina tion, only execute their small part of the connection. Faster, simpler routing Each node Interprets full des tination address.

More complex routing

In some cases the different layers of a communication protocol stack can be a different connection-type :
"

Connection-Oriented protocol over Connection-less. This means that two communicating devices on the network are involved in a continuous communicating. They set up this 'connection' to each other, and maintain it for some time, even if at the lower level, the information is carried over packets which are all routed Connection-less. Examples :
D D

TCP on IP SCCP on MTP

"

Connection-Less over Connection Oriented. This means that end-to-end, terminals are communicating by just sending messages, without first setting up a connection between each other. The messages however are routed from node to node onto dedicated connection between these nodes. Usually these connection are semi-permanent. Examples :
D D

IP on ATM IP on SDH

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Appendix I

Standards

Appendix I

Standards
Telecom systems reach worldwide, and good compatibility between different systems is an economical must. This compatibility is organized through Standardization : certain organizations who define and publish standards according to which all systems must comply. Several organizations, called standardization bodies, exist. The most important ones will be briefly introduced in this appendix. Alcatel has a WEB-site collecting the on-line access to most standards :

Figure 92

ITU logo

1. ITU-T : International Telecommunication Union, section Telecommunication. This organization was called CCITT, but renamed to ITU. ITU publishes so-called recommendations, that recommend what behavior a compatible system should have. Most telecom customers however, regard the ITU recommendations as minimum requirements : it is hard to sell systems that do not comply with ITU standards. ITU publishes its results in books, every 4 years typically, and every edition the back of the book has a different color. This way, people refer to the blue book, the red book. ITU standards are numbered according to a scheme with one letter, a dot and a number. Examples :
D D

G.703 : 2 Mbps PCM Physical Layer Q.1200 : Intelligent Networks

Figure 93

ETSI logo

2. ETSI : European Telecommunication Standards Institute. ETSI continues the standards set by ITU but focuses on the European context.

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Appendix I

Standards

Figure 94

Bellcore logo

3. BellCore. BellCore is the American counterpart for ETSI. BellCore defines a number of telecom standards applicable to the (North-) American continent. Having several incompatible standards is as bad as having no standards, and therefor ETSI and BellCore usually adopt all ITU recommendations, and then standardize specific further details, applicable to the local continent. ETSI and BellCore do not always align, and sometimes this makes telecom manufacturers life hard.

Figure 95

ATM Forum logo

4. ATM Forum : In the early days of Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), a number of Computer (not Telecom) companies, complained that the standardization-process of the ITU was too slow, and they decided to organize themselves in a new smaller and faster organization : the ATM forum. Being founded by the main Computer-industry players, today also all Telecom companies contribute to it, and the ATM forum has become a quite large standardization body itself as well.

Figure 96

ISO logo

5. ISO : the International Standards Organization, is probably the world's largest standardization body. It is however not dedicated to telecom only. However for a number of electrical, security, environmental, and other matters its standards do apply to telecom systems.

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Appendix I

Standards

6. IETF : the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) governs the standardization of the Internet : the protocols, addressing structure, etc.. Standards are proposed in so-called Request For Comment (RFC) documents, available to the public on the Internet.

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Appendix J

The Race for Bandwidth

Appendix J

The Race for Bandwidth

The past 100 years, telecom was primarily oriented towards voice. During this time most growth, sales and profit was originating from installing the well-known voice telecom systems. The last years however, there is a significant growth for data communications. Large companies are interconnecting their computer networks, and the whole world starts using the World Wide Web more and more. Analysts studying the telecom market, predict a growth :
" "

for Voice : 10% / year for Data : between 30% and 50% / year

This means that data-traffic is growing much faster than voice, and that some moment in time, data traffic will outgrow voice-traffic. There is some uncertainty about when this has happened, but there is an agreement that it is somewhere around the year 2000.

Figure 97

Bandwidth growth predictions

This evolution will mean a revolution to the telecom business : a change from voice-dominance to data-dominance will take place in only a few years time. Eventually in future, voice will be a relatively small fraction of all traffic, maybe as small as 1%.

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Appendix K

a Protocol Stack

Appendix K

a Protocol Stack
Many telecom systems use a so-called Protocol Stack. The purpose is to split up a complicated task into a chain of simpler tasks. Let's take an analogy : a doctor wants to send a medical report to a colleague, located in another country. Although the doctor could take care of all details himself (translation, booking for transportation, delivery of the report, etc.) he would probably 'sub-contract' part of the job, himself only taking care of the medical writing.
Doctor Source Translator Parcel Delivery 1. 2. 3. Transport 6. 5. 4. Doctor Destination Translator Parcel Delivery

Figure 98

Protocol Stack

The following steps describe a layered approach for this task : 1. When the doctor has his report ready, it needs some translation, possibly to a common language, eg. English. This job is done by the Translation layer : it receives the report from the doctor, and outputs a translated report. 2. This output then goes to a parcel delivery service, eg. Federal Express. They take any package, and can deliver this guaranteed worldwide. 3. FedEx again subcontracts the transportation of the parcel to other companies : they rent cargo-space from an airplanes company, a truck transportation company, a railway company. 4. The transportation company delivers the parcel to FedEx somewhere close to the destination. 5. FedEx delivers the package to a local translator, who translates the report back to the language of the receiver. 6. The translator delivers the translated report to the receiving doctor. What are now the advantages of this approach ?

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Appendix K

a Protocol Stack

"

Each Layer is specialized for a single particular task, and can be optimized for this. Each layer needs only to know what are its interfaces to the above and below layer : the doctor only interfaces with the translator, and does not need to know what is happening below that. The transportation companies only deal with the parcel-delivery companies, and do not know any details what is above that. Each layer could be replaced with another layer, given they have the same interfaces. Example, if FedEx is on strike, they could be replaced with DHL, the doctors not even knowing this.

"

"

There are of course also some drawbacks to this approach. You can imagine that getting this report sent, requires quite some paperwork, each of the independent companies doing it different, etc.. So if you just want to deliver some report to your colleague next door, it would probably be cheaper, and faster to just hand it to him. Note Two very popular (and therefor) important protocol stacks are the OSI-stack, and the TCP/IP-stack. The details of these lead too far for this introductory text. You can refer to Computer Networks, Tanenbaum, for more details.

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Appendix L

A Call Scenario

Appendix L

A Call Scenario
This picture shows the flow of events in a typical call scenario. On the left is the Calling Party, on the right the Called Party and in the middle the Network. Time flows from top to bottom. The call starts with a 'Setup' request from the calling party to the network, asking to set up a call. The network then answers this with a Acknowldege'....

SETUP Calling Party INFORMATION CALL PROCEEDING SETUP SETUP ACKNOWLEDGE Network

Set-up
Called Party

CALL PROCEEDING ALERTING ALERTING CONNECT CONNECT ACKNOWLEDGE CONNECT ACKNOWLEDGE CONNECT

DISCONNECT RELEASE RELEASE COMPLETE RELEASE COMPLETE DISCONNECT

Release
RELEASE

Figure 99

ISDN Local Call Scenario An example of a call scenario for ATM UNI v3.1 can be played at http://www.ultranet.com/~dhudek/junidemo1.shtml (JAVA enabled browser needed).

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Appendix M

the Frequency Spectrum

Appendix M

the Frequency Spectrum

A lot of communication techniques use electromagnetic waves. To prevent interference, disturbance from one communication to the other, all these applications got assigned a certain frequency band. Below are some of the most important frequencies and frequency-bands listed :
" " " " " " "

20 .. 20000 Hz : Audio frequencies, 20 KHz .. 100 KHz UltraSone 87.5 .. 108 MHz : FM Radio BroadCasting 512 KHz .. 1600 KHz : AM Radio Broadcasting 300 .. 3400 Hz : analog telephone 50 MHz .. 500 MHz Television Broadcasting 900 MHz : GSM Mobile Telephony. 890 .. 915 MHz Uplink, 935 .. 960 MHz Downlink. GSM 1800 : 1710 .. 1785 MHz Uplink, 1805 .. 1880 MHz Downlink. DECT : 1880 .. 1900 MHz 1GHZ .. 10 GHz : MicroWave frequencies (5 * 10^11 Hz) Infra Red : 5*10^11 - 3 * 10^14 Hz Light : 900 nm .. 800 nm Ultra Violet : 10^15 - 5*10^17 Hz X-Rays / rongten : 5 * 10^17 - 5*10^19 Hz Gamma Rays : 5*10^18 Hz - up
FM Radio InfraRed light GSM GSM1800 DECT MicroWave UltraViolet

"

" " " " " " " audio ultrasonic

TV AM Radio

10

100 1K

10K 100K 1M

10M 100M 1G

10G 100G 1T

10T

100T

Frequency [Hz]

Figure 100

Frequency Chart

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Appendix N

MultiMedia

Appendix N

MultiMedia
MultiMedia is a buzzword, and because it is being used in so many contexts, it gets a vague or fuzzy meaning. One very limited definition of MultiMedia, is : Information consisting of different media, such as text, graphics, audio, video. In this appendix we want to give a view on what is MultiMedia from a Telecom Business perspective. Some 20 years ago there were clearly distinct businesses for :
"

Telecom : telephone networks. Important companies were (not exhaustive) Siemens, Bell ITT, Lucent, ... Consumer : TVs, Household appliances, etc.... Important companies were Philips, Sony, NEC, ... Computer : Mainframe computers. Important companies were IBM, DEC, HP , ...

"

"

In the last 20 years, each of these business areas has expanded, developing new technologies and products :
" " "

Telecom : ISDN, Mobile, Internet... Consumer : Walkman, CD, video, Camcorder, ... Computer : Personal Computers, Local Area Networks, HardDisks, ...

As a result, these businesses start to overlap, and the overlap area itself is a new business area with an interesting combination of Telecom, Computer and Consumer features. Some examples are : Computers with built in (voice) modems, Computers able to do video-conferencing, Network Computers, Mobile Phone Organizers (One Touch Com, Nokia Communicator) Email

T elecom & Computer

" " " "

"

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Appendix N

MultiMedia

Figure 101

One Touch Com

Computer & Consumer T elecom Consumer & T elecom, Compute & Consum

" " " " " " " "

CD-ROM, -Recordable, -Rewritable Digital Versatile Disc (DVD) Prepaid Card for Mobile Phone, sold in supermarket DECT Private Exchange Web Touch Worldwide databases, such as CDDB Web-TV MP3 player : a device playing Motion Picture Expert Group (MPEG) layer 3 (mp3) encoded audio. Music in this format can be downloaded from providers on the Internet.

In this view, MultiMedia is : A new business area, combining technologies from Telecom, Computer and Consumer industries. The challenge will be to survive as a player in this new area, amid a competition which is not only Telecom, but also Computer and Consumer companies.

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Appendix N

MultiMedia

Figure 102

Overlapping Businesses, MultiMedia

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Appendix O

Links to Further Information

Appendix O
T elecomR esearch

Links to Further Information

This site focuses on Wireless and Access, on which there are many articles and tutorials. The site has also a number of Resource Links, pointing to :
" "

Manufacturers Tutorials

http://www.telecomresearch.com/

T otal Telecom. This site focuses on Telecom Business aspects : announces new
products, new contracts, company reorganizations, etc... A mailing can keep you up to date. http://www.totaltelecom.com/

T eleChoice This site provides a set of reports on different telecom

technologies. http://www.telechoice.com/content/reports.asp

Othe The list of resources on the Web is endless, but lots of interesting
material is grouped at : http://www.data.com/tutorials/ http://www.gbmarks.com/ref.htm http://china.si.umich.edu/telecom/telecom-info.html

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Appendix O

Links to Further Information

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