1. Writing Basic Arguments An argument is a form of expression that is intended to prove something.

The statement th at is supposed to be proved is the conclusion, and the statements that accomplish the provin g are the premises. These topics are covered in the first chapter of A Concise Introduction to Logic, and we will use many of the principles developed there in writing arguments. The writing exercises that follow this section give practice in writing basic arguments. They c onsist of a brief description of a situation involving human interaction, a conclusion that your argument must support, and a set of facts that pertain to this situation. Only certain of these facts are relevant to the designated conclusion. In working the exercises, you should follow t his four-step procedure: 1. Read the exercise and the accompanying facts. 2. Eliminate the facts that are irrelevant to the designated conclusion. 3. Supplement the remaining facts with additional facts drawn from your own experience an d inferences that these facts imply. 4. Using these facts as premises, write an argument that supports the designated conclusion. In regard to step three, the facts that you add from your own experience must not contradict the given facts, but rather they should fill them out, thus allowing the construction of a coher ent argument. The inferences will serve as subordinate conclusions in support of the final, de signated conclusion. Here is a sample exercise: Your friend Tom owns a car that causes a great deal of pollution. While running, it emits hug e clouds of blue smoke. Concerned about the environment, you try to convince Tom to get th e car repaired; but first, you put your argument down on paper. Some facts are as follows: a. Exhaust smoke causes acid rain. b. There is a law requiring that cars be tested for emissions. c. Tom's car was tuned up only eight months ago. d. Exhaust smoke causes smog. e. You have ridden in Tom's car many times. f. Tom cheated on the emissions test.

g. Tom purchased his car through an ad in the classified section of the newspaper. h. Tom's fiance recently broke off their engagement. i. Smog weakens the immune system of all who breathe it. j. Tom's car was manufactured in Detroit. k. Tom recently failed his calculus course. We begin by eliminating the irrelevant facts. In doing so, however, we note two important p oints about relevance. The first point is that every fact is relevant to some conclusion or other, so before we eliminate anything we must have a clear idea of what our conclusion will be. Th e instructions for the exercise tell us that our argument should persuade Tom to have his car r epaired. Thus, we adopt as our conclusion, "Tom should get his car repaired immediately." The second point about relevance is that facts that may not appear relevant initially may bec ome relevant when additional, interconnecting facts are added to the list. For example, the fi rst fact on the list, that exhaust smoke causes acid rain, might not seem to be relevant if we k now nothing about the harm caused by acid rain. But if we recall that acid rain kills trees, and that trees produce life-sustaining oxygen, then this fact becomes clearly relevant. Keeping these points in mind, we can probably eliminate c, e, g, h, j, and k. The fact that To m's car was tuned up only eight months ago has little to do with the fact that his car is smoki ng now and should therefore be repaired. Also, the fact that you have ridden in his car, the d etails of its purchase, the place of its manufacture, Tom's plans for marriage, and the fact tha t Tom failed calculus are largely irrelevant to this conclusion. Some of these facts might be ma de relevant through the addition of certain inferences, but even then they would probably ad d little support to the conclusion. For example, the fact that Tom's fiance recently broke off t heir engagement might be made relevant through the inference that because his marriage pl ans are over, Tom may now have the needed time to make car repairs. But even with this infe rence, the fact about Tom's engagement is rather peripheral, and its inclusion may dilute the force of the other facts. Having eliminated facts c, e, g, h, j, k, we are left with the following: a. Exhaust smoke causes acid rain. b. There is a law requiring that cars be tested for emissions. d. Exhaust smoke causes smog. f. Tom cheated on the emissions test.

i. Smog weakens the immune system of all who breathe it. Turning now to step three, we will supplement these facts with additional facts and inferenc es drawn from our own experience. In doing this, we fulfill a dual objective. First, we supply t he intermediate facts and inferences that make the given facts relevant to the conclusion, an d second, we add any facts we may be aware of that reinforce the given facts. In connection with the fact that exhaust smoke causes acid rain, we have already noted that acid rain kills tr ees, and trees produce life-sustaining oxygen. In connection with the fact that exhaust smoke causes smog, we might add the fact that smog may pose a life-threatening condition to peop le with emphysema and certain other diseases. Because of this fact, Tom might be jeopardizin g the lives of hundreds of people Putting facts b and f together, we can draw the inference that Tom has broken the law, and i f the police discover what he has done, they may impose a hefty fine or even arrest him. In co nnection with the fact that smog weakens the immune system of people who breathe it, we might draw the inference that smog therefore makes people vulnerable to disease and allergi es. Finally, we might be aware of the fact that blue smoke means that a car is burning oil, an d from this we might draw the inference that if Tom would get his car repaired, he would avo id the expense of having to buy extra motor oil. Adding these facts and inferences to the given facts, we can now write the following argum ent: Tom should get his car repaired immediately, and he should do so for the following reasons. T om's car emits a lot of smoke, and this smoke contributes to acid rain and smog. Acid rain kill s trees, which produce life-sustaining oxygen, and smog weakens the immune system of ever yone who breathes it, making them more vulnerable to disease and allergies. Furthermore, s mog can create a life threatening condition for people with emphysema and certain other dis eases. Without realizing it, Tom may be jeopardizing the lives of hundreds of people. In additi on, because the smoke coming from Tom's car is blue, we know that the car is burning oil, an d oil costs money. Tom could avoid this expense if he would have his car repaired. Lastly, the smoke coming from Tom's car is surely a red flag for the police, and if they should pull him ov er and discover that he cheated on the legally mandated emissions test, they will impose a he fty fine, or possibly even arrest him. Surely Tom wants to avoid that. This argument is 173 words in length, and it was produced fairly effortlessly by following the method described. As you read it, note that it consists of a number of small arguments all of whose conclusions support the main conclusion, which is stated first. In constructing arguments of this kind, there is one final point to keep in mind. This is the re quirement that premises and conclusions be phrased as statements. The main conclusion, "To m should get his car repaired immediately" is a statement, and so it conforms to this require

ment. If it were phrased, "Tom, why don't you get your car repaired?" it would be phrased as a question, and questions are not statements. Analogously, if the conclusion were phrase d, "Tom, I suggest that you get your car repaired immediately," it would be phrased as a prop osal, and proposals are not statements. Similar remarks apply to the premises and conclusion s of the component arguments.

1. You go to the beach with your friend, and after applying a generous dose of sun block, yo u offer some to her. She declines. In response, you formulate an argument proving that peopl e on the beach should normally use sun block. Some facts are as follows: a. The sun's rays are generated deep inside the sun by thermonuclear reactions. b. Melanoma, a form of skin cancer, is often incurable. c. Sand and water reflect the sun's rays. d. The ozone layer is becoming depleted. e. The sun's rays age skin, causing premature wrinkles. f. Water often washes off sun block and sun screen. g. Some rays bounce around inside the sun for as long as 3000 years before reaching the surf ace. h. Ozone blocks ultraviolet rays. i The sun rotates once every 24 days. j. There is no such thing as a healthy suntan. k. The sun's rays cause skin cancer. l. The sun sustains all life on this planet. 2. You visit a restaurant and ask to be seated in the nonsmoking section. While there, you are bothered by smoke that has drifted over from the smoking section. You decide to write a lett er to the restaurant manager arguing that the no smoking section should be more free of sm oke. Some facts are as follows: a. The Surgeon General has issued a warning about the dangers of second-hand smoke.

b. The restaurant's owner was born in France. c. The restaurant is located in the northwest section of town. d. Children are especially vulnerable to second-hand smoke. e. The restaurant seats 150 patrons, two-thirds of whom are in the nonsmoking section f. The restaurant specializes in fresh fish. g. The restaurant plays light classical music over its sound system. h. The restaurant was constructed in 1978. i. A scientific study has indicated that 3000 people in this country die each year from secondhand smoke. j. The restaurant's patrons are mainly middle class families. k. Fish contains oils that are vital for human health. l. Los Angeles has outlawed smoking in all restaurants. 3. You buy a pair of fashion jeans on sale at the local Pants-R-Us store. After returning home, you find that the zipper in the front is broken, and you cannot wear the jeans (without undue exposure). You take them back to the store and tell the clerk that he should allow you to swit ch them for a different pair. You support this claim with an argument. Some facts are as follo ws: a. You have returned sale items on other occasions. b. All of the jeans you purchased there in the past had good zippers. c. All your friends wear Pants-R-Us jeans. d. There is a sign at the checkout stand that reads "No Returns on Sale Items." e. The jeans you purchased were manufactured in the U.S.A. f. The zipper on the jeans you bought is made of brass. g. The store was mobbed with people during the sale. h. The jeans you bought have a design stitched on the back pockets.

i. The clerk who rang up your purchase spoke with an Austrian accent. j. Unhappy customers rarely return to make new purchases. k. The Pants-R-Us store is located in a large shopping center. l. The Pants-R-Us store carries several different brands of jeans.