Introduction Signals For the purposes of communication systems analysis, we define a signal as a single-valued function of time that conveys

information. For every, instant of time (the independent variable) there is a unique value of a function. This value can be either a real number, in which case we have a real-valued signal, or it may be a complex number, in which case we have a complex-valued signal. Systems A system is a mapping (transformation) of the function x(t) (input signal) into the function y(t) (output signal). y(t) = F[x(t)] In other words, a system is any (physical) device that produces :m output signal in response to a input signal. A typical system includes numerous components (electrical circuits, processors etc.), but we are nor interested in these implementation details of system. Instead, we only consider a system as a black box described by the input-output relations.

Model of a Communication System

Information Source

Transmitter

Communication Channel

Receiver

Information Destination

Noise distortion and interference

Communication System
Signal and System Tutorial_1 by Dr. Haroon Rasheed 10 December 2012

A communication system consists of three major parts: transmitter, which modifies the input signal into a form suitable for transmission over the channel communication channel, which is the medium that bridges the distance from source to destination (pair of wires, coaxial cable, optical fiber, radio wave etc.) receiver, which regenerates the original information signal from the degraded version of the transmitted signal after propagation through the channel Every communication channel introduces attenuation, so that the signal power decreases with the increasing distance. Besides that communication channels alter the waveform of the signals. The sources of alterations in the signal waveform in a communications channel can be divided into three classes: distortion is waveform perturbation caused by the imperfect response of the communication system to the desired signal itself; unlike noise and interference, distortion disappears when the signal is turned off interference is contamination by other signals from man-made sources (other transmitters, power lines and machinery, switching circuits etc.) noise refers to random signals produced by natural processes both internal and external to the system.

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I.1 Classifications and Representation of Signals

I.1.1 Periodic and Nonperiodic Signals Periodic signals satisfy the condition - < t < . v(t) = v(t+T0), The smallest value of constant T0, that satisfies this condition, is called the period of v(t). A periodic signal is fully described by specifying its behavior over one period. Any signal, for which there is no value of T0 to satisfy the previous condition, is called a nonperiodic (or aperiodic) signal. I.1.2. Deterministic and Random Signals The values of a deterministic signal are completely defined for any time instant. Accordingly, deterministic signals can be modeled as completely specified functions of time (e.g. sinusoidal functions). On the other hand, a random signal is a signal about which there is some degree of uncertainty before it actually occurs. Such a signal can be viewed as belonging to a collection or ensemble of signals, with each signal in the ensemble being different. I.1.3. Energy Signals and Power Signals The instantaneous power of voltage v(t) over resistor R, producing a current i(t) is v(t ) 2 p( t ) = = R i(t ) 2 R

If we normalize the power by assuming that R = 1, we can calculate the instantaneous power associated with a signal v(t) as p( t ) = v ( t ) 2 regardless of whether it represents a voltage or a current.

The total energy of a signal v(t) can be found by integrating the instantaneous power over all time instants

E = v (t ) 2 dt ,

and the average power can be found as time average of the instantaneous power
P= v(t )
2

1 = lim T
T

T /2 T / 2

v(t ) dt .

For periodic signals with a period T0 the definition of the average power reduces to 1 P= T0
t1 + T0

v(t ) dt =

t1

1 T0

v(t )
T0

dt .

We say that the signal v(t) is an energy signal if and only if the total energy is positive and finite, i.e. 0 < E < . Correspondingly, we say that the signal v(t) is a power signal if and only if the average power is positive and finite, i.e. 0 < P < . These classes of signals are mutually exclusive. An energy signal has zero average power, whereas a power signal has infinite energy. Usually, periodic signals and random signals are power signals, and deterministic nonperiodic signals are energy signals.
I.1.4. Discrete-Time Signals and Continuous-Time Signals

For the purposes of this course, we define a signal as a single-valued function of time. The time variable of a signal can be either continuous or discrete. In the first case we say the signal is continuous-time; in the second discrete-time. A continuous-time signal is defined at every instant of time, whereas a discretetime signal is defined only at the set of discrete time instants. A discrete-time signal is not defined at all at instants between two successive time instants (between two successive samples).

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I.1.5. Signal Representation

Consider a sinusoidal signal v(t) v(t) = A cos(0t+), where A is the peak value or amplitude 0 is the radian frequency is the phase angle, which represents the fact that the peak has been shifted from t=0 to t=-/0. The signal v(t) is a periodic signal with period frequency f0 1 f0 = = 0 . T0 2 T0 and with the cyclical

The signal v(t) can be written in a form v ( t ) = A cos( 0 t + ) = Re{Ae j ( 0 t + ) }, which suggests a phasor representation for a sinusoidal signal, where a signal is represented by a rotating vector or phasor, which: has length A rotates counterclockwise at rate f0 revolutions per second makes an angle with respect to the positive real axis at time t=0.

Imag f0 A 0t + Real

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We have seen that three parameters amplitude phase frequency completely define a phasor or the corresponding sinusoidal signal. Thus, to describe a sinusoidal signal in frequency domain, we must associate the amplitude and phase with the particular frequency f0. Thus, a sinusoidal signal is represented by a following one-sided line spectrum.
Amplitude A

0 Phase

f0

f0

We have found a spectral representation for signal by associating amplitude and phase with sinusoidal term cos(0t) at particular frequency f0. We can find another spectral representation by using complex exponentials ej0t as base functions. The sinusoidal signal v(t) can be written in an alternative form A A v ( t ) = A cos( 0 t + ) = e j ( 0 t + ) + e j ( 0 t + ) , 2 2 which suggests a different phasor representation for a sinusoidal signal, consisting of a pair of conjugate phasors, which: have length A/2 rotate in opposite directions at rate f0 revolutions per second make opposite angles with respect to the positive real axis at time t=0.

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Imag f0 A/2 0t + 0t + Real

A/2 f0

Because we now in addition to the phasor rotating counterclockwise (in positive direction of rotation) have also the phasor rotating clockwise (in negative direction of rotation), we have introduced the concept of negative frequency, and the corresponding line spectrum is a two-sided spectrum.
Amplitude A/2

- f0

0 Phase

f0

- f0 0 f0 f

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The negative frequencies we have introduced have no physical meaning. The presence of negative frequencies is simply a result of using complex-valued base functions ej0t, which have no physical meaning either (in contrast to realvalued cosine functions). However, as we shall see in context of Fourier series an Fourier transform, the use of complex exponentials provides a compact mathematical description of frequency contents of signals.

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