L2 Probabilistic Reasoning

Articial Intelligence EECS 491
Probabilistic Reasoning
The process of probabilistic inference

1. dene model of problem 2. derive posterior distributions and estimators 3. estimate parameters from data 4. evaluate model accuracy
Axioms of probability
Axioms (Kolmogorov): 0 P(A) 1 P(true) = 1 P(false) = 0 P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) P(A and B)
Corollaries:
A single random variable must sum to 1:

n
P (D = di ) = 1
i=1
The joint probability of a set of variables must also sum to 1. If A and B are mutually exclusive: P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)
Rules of probability
conditional probability
P r(A and B ) , P r(A|B ) = P r(B )
P r(B ) > 0
corollary (Bayes rule)
P r(B |A)P r(A) P r(B |A)
= P r(A and B ) = P r(A|B )P r(B ) P r(A|B )P r(B ) = P r(A)
Discrete probability distributions
discrete probability distribution joint probability distribution marginal probability distribution Bayes rule independence
Basic concepts
Making rational decisions when faced with uncertainty:
Probability the precise representation of knowledge and uncertainty Probability theory how to optimally update your knowledge based on new information Decision theory: probability theory + utility theory how to use this information to achieve maximum expected utility
Basic probability theory random variables probability distributions (discrete) and probability densities (continuous) rules of probability expectation and the computation of 1st and 2nd moments joint and multivariate probability distributions and densities covariance and principal components
The Joint Distribution

Recipe for making a joint distribution of M variables: 1. Make a truth table listing all combinations of values of your variables (if there are M Boolean variables then the table will have 2M rows). 2. For each combination of values, say how probable it is. 3. If you subscribe to the axioms of probability, those numbers must sum to 1.
A
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
Example: Boolean variables A, B, C

B C
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
Prob
0.30 0.05 0.10 0.05 0.05 0.10 0.25 0.10
0.05 0.25
0.10 0.10 0.05 0.10
0.05
B 0.30 All the nice looking slides like this one from are from Andrew Moore, CMU
Copyright 2001, Andrew W. Moore Probabilistic Analytics: Slide 41

A
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1

B C
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
Prob
0.30 0.05 0.10 0.05 0.05 0.10 0.25 0.10
0.05 0.25
0.10 0.10 0.05 0.10
0.05
0.30
Copyright 2001, Andrew W. Moore
Probabilistic Analytics: Slide 41

A
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1

B C
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
Prob
0.30 0.05 0.10 0.05 0.05 0.10 0.25 0.10
0.05 0.25
0.10 0.10 0.05 0.10
0.05
0.30
Using the Joint
One you have the JD you can ask for the probability of any logical expression involving your attribute
P( E ) "
rows matching E
! P(row )
Using the Using the Joint Joint

OneP(Poor you have the JD can Male) =you 0.4654 ask for the probability of any logical expression involving your attribute
P( E ) "
rows matching E
P" (row ) ! P( E) ! P(row )

rows matching E
Using the Using the Joint Joint

One you have the JD can P(Poor) =you 0.7604 ask for the probability of any logical expression involving your attribute
P( E ) "
rows matching E
P( (row ) !P E) "
rows matching E
! P(ro
Inference Inference Inference with the with the Using the with Joint Joint Joint
PP ( row ) ! P () row ) ( row ! ! P ( E E ) # One you have the JD you can P ( E # (E ) " matching (row )E P ( E1 #1E2P )E rows ! matching E rows EP and E and 2) P ( E | E ) " " P (1E |2E )" P( E | 1E )2 " " " ask for the probability of any P( E ) P ( row ) ! P2() E2 ) P () row ) P (row logical expression involving P ( E ! ! your attribute
1 2 1 2 rows matching E1 and E2
1
1 2
rows matching E
rows matching E2 rows matching E2 rows matching E2
P(Male | Poor) = 0.4654 / 0.7604 = 0.612

Copyright 2001, Andrew W. Moore Copyright 2001, Andrew W. Moore Copyright 2001, Andrew W. Moore
Probabilistic Analytics: Slide 45 Probabilistic Analytics: Slide 42 Probabilistic Analytics: Slide 45
Continuous probability distributions
probability density function (pdf) joint probability density marginal probability calculating probabilities using the pdf Bayes rule
A PDF of American Ages in 2000
more of Andrews nice slides Copyright 2001, Andrew W. Moore
Probability Densities: Slide 5
A PDF of American Ages in 2000

Let X be a continuous random variable. If p(x) is a Probability Density Function for X then
P!a & X % b " $
x$a
# p( x)dx
50
P!30 & Age % 50 " $

= 0.36
age $ 30
# p(age)dage
b very close to 5.92.
What does p(x) mean?

It does not mean a probability! First of all, its not a value between 0 and 1. Its just a value, and an arbitrary one at that. The likelihood of p(a) can only bestomach compared relatively to other values p(b) Talking to your It Whats indicatesthe the gut-feel relative probability ofof the integrated density over a small delta: meaning p(x)?
If then
p(a) "! p (b) P ( a % h $ X $ a # h) lim "! h &0 P (b % h $ X $ b # h )
Expectations
E[X] = the expected value of random variable X = the average value wed see if we took a very large number of random samples of X
"
x $ #"
! x p( x) dx
Expectations
E[X] = the expected value of random variable X = the average value wed see if we took a very large number of random samples of X
"
$
E[age]=35.897
x $ #"
! x p( x) dx
= the first moment of the shape formed by the axes and the blue curve = the best value to choose if you must guess an unknown persons age and youll be fined the square of your error
Expectation of a function
!=E[f(X)] = the expected value of f(x) where x is drawn from Xs distribution. = the average value wed see if we took a very large number of random samples of f(X)
E[age 2 ] % 1786.64 ( E[age]) % 1288.62

2
!%
x % $#
" f ( x) p( x) dx
Note that in general:
E[ f ( x)] & f ( E[ X ])
Variance
'2 = Var[X] = the expected squared difference between x and E[X]
' %
2
x % $#
" (x $ ! )
p ( x) dx
Var[age] % 498.02
= amount youd expect to lose if you must guess an unknown persons age and youll be fined the square of your error, and assuming you play optimally
Standard Deviation
!2 = Var[X] = the expected squared difference between x and E[X]
! %
2
x % $#
" (x $ & )
p ( x) dx
Var[age] % 498.02
! % 22.32
= amount youd expect to lose if you must guess an unknown persons age and youll be fined the square of your error, and assuming you play optimally ! = Standard Deviation = typical deviation of X from its mean
! % Var[ X ]
Copyright 2001, Andrew W. Moore Probability Densities: Slide 21
Simple example: medical test results
Test report for rare disease is positive, 90% accurate Whats the probability that you have the disease? What if the test is repeated? This is the simplest example of reasoning by combining sources of information.
How do we model the problem?
Which is the correct description of Test is 90% accurate ?
P (T = true) P (T = true|D = true) P (D = true|T = true)
= 0.9 = 0.9 = 0.9
What do we want to know?
P (T = true) P (T = true|D = true) P (D = true|T = true)
More compact notation:
P (T = true|D = true) P (T = false|D = false)
P (T |D) |D ) P (T
Evaluating the posterior probability through Bayesian inference
We want P(D|T) = The probability of the having the disease given a positive test Use Bayes rule to relate it to what we know: P(T|D)
likelihood
prior
P (T |D)P (D) posterior P (D|T ) = P (T )

normalizing constant
Whats the prior P(D)? Disease is rare, so lets assume
P (D) = 0.001
What about P(T)? Whats the interpretation of that?
Evaluating the normalizing constant

likelihood prior
P (T |D)P (D) posterior P (D|T ) = P (T )

normalizing constant
P(T) is the marginal probability of P(T,D) = P(T|D) P(D) So, compute with summation
P (T ) =
all values of D
P (T |D)P (D)
For true or false propositions:
)P (D ) P (T ) = P (T |D)P (D) + P (T |D
What are these?
Rening our model of the test
We also have to consider the negative case to incorporate all information:
P (T |D) = ) = P (T |D
0.9 ?
What should it be?
)? What about P (D
Plugging in the numbers
Our complete expression is
P (D|T ) =
P (T |D)P (D) )P (D ) P (T |D)P (D) + P (T |D
Plugging in the numbers we get:
0.9 0.001 P (D|T ) = = 0.0089 0.9 0.001 + 0.1 0.999
Does this make intuitive sense?
Same problem different situation
Suppose we have a test to determine if you won the lottery. Its 90% accurate. What is P($ = true | T = true) then?
Playing around with the numbers

P (D|T ) =
What if the test were 100% reliable?
1.0 0.001 P (D|T ) = = 1.0 1.0 0.001 + 0.0 0.999
What if the test was the same, but disease wasnt so rare?
0.9 0.1 P (D|T ) = = 0.5 0.9 0.1 + 0.1 0.9
Repeating the test
We can relax, P(D|T) = 0.0089, right? Just to be sure the doctor recommends repeating the test. How do we represent this?
P (D|T1 , T2 )
Again, we apply Bayes rule
P (T1 , T2 |D)P (D) P (D|T1 , T2 ) = P (T1 , T2 )
How do we model P(T1,T2|D)?
Modeling repeated tests

P (T1 , T2 |D)P (D) P (D|T1 , T2 ) = P (T1 , T2 )
Easiest is to assume the tests are independent.
P (T1 , T2 |D) = P (T 1|D)P (T2 |D)

This also implies:
P (T1 , T2 ) = P (T 1)P (T2 )

Plugging these in, we have
P (T1 |D)P (T2 |D)P (D) P (D|T1 , T2 ) = P (T1 )P (T2 )
Evaluating the normalizing constant again
Expanding as before we have
P (D|T1 , T2 ) =
P (T1 |D)P (T2 |D)P (D) D={t,f } P (T1 |D )P (T2 |D )P (D )
Plugging in the numbers gives us
0.9 0.9 0.001 P (D|T ) = = 0.075 0.9 0.9 0.001 + 0.1 0.1 0.999
Another way to think about this:
Whats the chance of 1 false positive from the test? Whats the chance of 2 false positives?
The chance of 2 false positives is still 10x more likely than the a prior probability of having the disease.
Simpler: Combining information the Bayesian way
Lets look at the equation again:
If we rearrange slightly:
Weve seen this before!
Its the posterior for the rst test, which we just computed
P (T1 |D)P (D) P (D|T1 ) = P (T1 )
The old posterior is the new prior
We can just plugin the value of the old posterior It plays exactly the same role as our old prior
P (T2 |D) 0.0089 P (D|T1 , T 2) = P (T2 )
Plugging in the numbers gives the same answer:
This is how Bayesian reasoning combines old information with new information to update our belief states.
P (D|T ) =
0.9 0.0089 P (D|T ) = = 0.075 0.9 0.0089 + 0.1 0.9911
reasoning in networks containing many variables, for which the graphical notations of chapter(2) will play a central role.
Example 1.2 (Hamburgers). Consider the following ctitious scientic information: Doctors nd that people with Kreuzfeld-Jacob disease (KJ) almost invariably ate hamburgers, thus p(Hamburger Eater|KJ ) = 0.9. The probability of an individual having KJ is currently rather low, about one in 100,000. 1. Assuming eating lots of hamburgers is rather widespread, say p(Hamburger Eater) = 0.5, what is the probability that a hamburger eater will have Kreuzfeld-Jacob disease? This may be computed as p(KJ |Hamburger Eater) = p(Hamburger Eater, KJ ) p(Hamburger Eater|KJ )p(KJ ) = p(Hamburger Eater) p(Hamburger Eater) (1.2.1) =
9 10
1 100000 1 2
= 1.8 10
(1.2.2)
2. If the fraction of people eating hamburgers was rather small, p(Hamburger Eater) = 0.001, what is the probability that a regular hamburger eater will have Kreuzfeld-Jacob disease? Repeating the above calculation, this is given by
9 10
1 100000 1 1000
1/100
(1.2.3)
This is much higher than in scenario (1) since here we can be more sure that eating hamburgers is related to the illness.
Example 1.3 (Inspector Clouseau). Inspector Clouseau arrives at the scene of a crime. The victim lies dead
related to the illness.
Example 1.3 (Inspector Clouseau). Inspector Clouseau arrives at the scene of a crime. The victim lies dead in the room alongside the possible murder weapon, a knife. The Butler (B ) and Maid (M ) are the inspectors main suspects and the inspector has a prior belief of 0.6 that the Butler is the murderer, and a prior belief of 0.2 that the Maid is the murderer. These beliefs are independent in the sense that p(B, M ) = p(B )p(M ). (It is possible that both the Butler and the Maid murdered the victim or neither). The inspectors prior criminal knowledge can be formulated mathematically as follows: dom(B ) = dom(M ) = {murderer, not murderer} , dom(K ) = {knife used, knife not used} (1.2.4)
p(B = murderer) = 0.6,
p(M = murderer) = 0.2
(1.2.5)
p(knife p(knife p(knife p(knife
used|B used|B used|B used|B
= not murderer, = not murderer, = murderer, = murderer,
M M M M
= not murderer) = murderer) = not murderer) = murderer)
= 0.3 = 0.2 = 0.6 = 0.1
(1.2.6)
In addition p(K, B, M ) = p(K |B, M )p(B )p(M ). Assuming that the knife is the murder weapon, what is the probability that the Butler is the murderer? (Remember that it might be that neither is the murderer). Using b for the two states of B and m for the two states of M , P X X p(B, m, K ) P p(K |B, m)p(B, m) p(B ) m p(K |B, m)p(m) P p( B | K ) = p(B, m|K ) = = Pm =P (1.2.7) p( K ) m,b p(K |b, m)p(b, m) b p( b) m p(K |b, m)p(m) m m DRAFT February 27, 2012 13
Probabilistic Reasoning
Example 1.5 (Aristotle : Resolution). We can represent the statement All apples are fruit by p(F = tr|A = tr) = 1. Similarly, All fruits grow on trees may be represented by p(T = tr|F = tr) = 1. Additionally we assume that whether or not something grows on a tree depends only on whether or not it is a fruit, p(T |A, F ) = P (T |F ). From this we can compute X X p(T = tr|A = tr) = p(T = tr|F, A = tr)p(F |A = tr) = p(T = tr|F )p(F |A = tr)
F F
In other words we have deduced that All apples grow on trees is a true statement, based on the information presented. (This kind of reasoning is called resolution and is a form of transitivity : from the statements A ) F and F ) T we can infer A ) T ).
= p(T = tr|F = fa) p(F = fa|A = tr) + p(T = tr|F = tr) p(F = tr|A = tr) = 1 | {z } | {z }| {z }
=0 =1 =1
(1.2.16)
Example 1.6 (Aristotle : Inverse Modus Ponens). According to Logic, from the statement : If A is true then B is true, one may deduce that if B is false then A is false. To see how this ts in with a probabilistic reasoning system we can rst express the statement : If A is true then B is true as p(B = tr|A = tr) = 1. Then we may infer
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Articial Intelligence EECS 491

The process of probabilistic inference

A single random variable must sum to 1:

P r(A and B ) , P r(A|B ) = P r(B )

corollary (Bayes rule)

P r(B |A)P r(A) P r(B |A)

= P r(A and B ) = P r(A|B )P r(B ) P r(A|B )P r(B ) = P r(A)

Discrete probability distributions

The Joint Distribution

Example: Boolean variables A, B, C

0.10 0.10 0.05 0.10

The Joint Distribution

Example: Boolean variables A, B, C

0.10 0.10 0.05 0.10

Probabilistic Analytics: Slide 41

The Joint Distribution

Example: Boolean variables A, B, C

0.10 0.10 0.05 0.10

Probabilistic Analytics: Slide 41

Using the Joint

Copyright 2001, Andrew W. Moore

Probabilistic Analytics: Slide 42

Using the Using the Joint Joint

P" (row ) ! P( E) ! P(row )

Copyright 2001, Andrew W. Moore

Probabilistic Analytics: Slide 42

Using the Using the Joint Joint

Copyright 2001, Andrew W. Moore

Probabilistic Analytics: Slide 42

rows matching E2 rows matching E2 rows matching E2

P(Male | Poor) = 0.4654 / 0.7604 = 0.612

Copyright 2001, Andrew W. Moore

Probabilistic Analytics: Slide 45 Probabilistic Analytics: Slide 42 Probabilistic Analytics: Slide 45

Probabilistic Analytics: Slide 46

Continuous probability distributions

A PDF of American Ages in 2000

more of Andrews nice slides Copyright 2001, Andrew W. Moore

Probability Densities: Slide 5

A PDF of American Ages in 2000

P!a & X % b " $

P!30 & Age % 50 " $

Probability Densities: Slide 6

b very close to 5.92.

What does p(x) mean?

Probability Densities: Slide 13

p(a) "! p (b) P ( a % h $ X $ a # h) lim "! h &0 P (b % h $ X $ b # h )

Copyright 2001, Andrew W. Moore

Probability Densities: Slide 14

Copyright 2001, Andrew W. Moore

Probability Densities: Slide 17

Copyright 2001, Andrew W. Moore

Probability Densities: Slide 18

E[age 2 ] % 1786.64 ( E[age]) % 1288.62

Note that in general:

Copyright 2001, Andrew W. Moore

Probability Densities: Slide 19

Copyright 2001, Andrew W. Moore

Probability Densities: Slide 20

Simple example: medical test results

How do we model the problem?

Which is the correct description of Test is 90% accurate ?

P (T = true) P (T = true|D = true) P (D = true|T = true)

= 0.9 = 0.9 = 0.9

What do we want to know?