Chapter 4

GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTS
The interaction of the four spheres the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the lithosphere and the biosphere results in many different global environments. The four spheres are constantly undergoing changes, some natural and some caused by the actions of people. This chapter briey describes the main types of global environments. Geographers study environments and how people adapt to and interact with specic environments. Many global environments have already been signicantly changed by humans.

A student: 4.1 identies and gathers geographical information 4.2 organises and interprets geographical information 4.3 uses a range of written, oral and graphic forms to communicate geographical information 4.4 uses a range of geographical tools 4.6 describes the geographical processes that form and transform environments 4.8 describes the interrelationships between people and environments 4.10 explains how geographical knowledge, understanding and skills combine with knowledge of civics to contribute to informed citizenship.

Using oblique aerial photographs (page 81) Analysing a newspaper article (page 85)

The worlds largest inland delta, the Okavango delta in Botswana, is a unique ecosystem. This large wetland is rich in wildlife, supporting large populations of mammals, birds and other animals.

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biodiversity: the rich variety of all life forms on Earth, including plants and animals blue-green algae: micro-organisms that grow in water high in nutrients, such as nitrates and phosphates community: an identiable group formed by people with something in common; usually based on shared space and social organisation culture: the body of beliefs, attitudes, skills and tools with which members of a community structure their lives and interact with their environment deforestation: the process of clearing forest, usually to make way for housing or agriculture developed countries: countries that have high economic productivity, relatively high standards of living and relatively democratic systems of government developing countries: term used to describe and group the worlds poorest countries in which most people have a low economic standard of living ecosystem: a system formed by the interactions of the living organisms (plants, animals and humans) and physical elements of an environment estuary: the tidal mouth of a river where the salt water of the tide meets the fresh water of the river current fossil fuels: fuels that come from the breakdown of organic matter, for example, coal, oil and natural gas. They have formed in the ground over millions of years. global warming: the warming of the atmosphere and the Earth which some scientists believe is caused by the burning of fossil fuels habitat: the natural environment of an animal or plant, the place where it is normally found hinterland: the area inuenced by any settlement indigenous: the descendants of the original inhabitants of an area isotherm: a line joining places of equal temperature nomadic: a way of life in which people move from one area to another to hunt or nd food permafrost: an area where the subsoil remains frozen throughout the year pollution: the build-up of impurities likely to be harmful to plants, animals and humans at certain concentrations precipitation: the condensation in the atmosphere that falls as rain, hail, snow or dew sedentary: staying in one place to grow crops slash-and-burn: a method of clearing land for agriculture. Trees and shrubs are cut down, and the remaining vegetation burned before crops are planted. tundra: barren lands located between isotherms 0 and 10 Celsius. The subsoil is permanently frozen, allowing only small vegetation growth. wetland: an area which is covered permanently, occasionally or periodically by fresh or salt water up to a depth of six metres

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4.1
LOCATING GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTS
Polar environments are broadly located inside the Arctic
and Antarctic circles. They are very cold lands with little or no vegetation. The harsh environment makes polar lands very difcult for settlement and they are sparsely populated. Polar environments are covered in chapter 8. Icefield in the St Elias National Park, Alaska

precipitation: the condensation in the atmosphere that falls ashighest rain, hail, snow or dew Mountain environments are the areas on Earth
and are found in all continents and latitudes. They are generally mild to cold, with steep to rugged land. Precipitation can vary greatly. Some are subject to natural hazards such as volcanoes, earthquakes and avalanches. The environment can be harsh and generally does not support large settlements and population. Mountain environments are covered in chapter 5. Village in the Himalayas

Tundra environments are located between isotherms 0

and 10 Celsius. They are cool to cold throughout the year. Vegetation is small and ground-hugging. Tree growth is impossible because of the permafrost. Some settlements in tundra environments are discussed in chapter 8. Tundra near Mount McKinley, Alaska

Rainforest environments need constantly wet

conditions. There are three main types of rainforest: tropical, mangrove and temperate. Rainforests are valuable sources of timber. In many areas the forest has been cleared for settlement and large populations. Rainforest environments are covered in chapter 7. Tropical rainforest on Camiguin Island, Philippines

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Wetland environments are covered permanently,

occasionally or periodically by fresh or salt water up to a depth of six metres. They are ecosystems whose formation is dominated by water. They are mostly found in coastal river estuaries but can also be located inland. Wetlands include areas such as swamps and marshes; they occupy around six per cent of the worlds land surface and are areas of great biodiversity. They are often important agricultural areas and valuable sources of timber. Many wetlands have been drained for agricultural or urban use. In river deltas they are often centres for settlements that support large populations.

Temperate grasslands are dominated by grasses with few trees and shrubs. They are found in the mid-latitudes in parts of South Africa, Europe, Asia, Australia, North and South America. Temperate grasslands have a greater range of seasonal temperature than savannas and less variation in precipitation. Temperate grasslands are usually fertile and are valuable farming environments. The Russian steppes are part of the vast temperate grasslands of Eurasia and extend from central Europe eastwards to Siberia. These level plains are generally treeless.

Agricultural land encroaching on the Everglades National Park, Florida

Desert environments are areas where there is a shortage

of moisture because of low precipitation. There are two main types of deserts: hot and cold. Hot deserts are located in or near the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, generally on the western side of continents. Cold deserts are located in the mid-latitudes in the interior of Asia, North America, South America and all of Antarctica. The desert environment is harsh and generally does not support large settlements and population. Desert environments are covered in chapter 6.

Grassland environments are dominated by grasses

rather than large shrubs or trees. There are two main types: Savanna is grassland with scattered trees. Savannas are located in and around the tropics in Africa, Australia, South America and India. The climate is warm to hot, with a wet season followed by a dry season. These can be harsh lands for settlement and savannas, except for India, generally do not have large numbers of people. Zebras crossing savanna grasslands in Kenya

Sand dunes engulng Palm Gardens, an oasis in the Sahara Desert

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4.2
FROM THE MOUNTAINS TO THE SEA
The force of rushing water on a steep slope cuts a V-shaped valley. When the river meets resistant rock a waterfall can occur. The line of mountains that mark the start of rivers is known as a watershed. Erosion occurs on the outside of a meander. Sediment is deposited on the inside of a meander.

Billabongs or oxbow lakes occur when a meander is cut off. On atter land the river meanders. Deltas can occur when sediment deposited near the mouth splits the river into smaller distributaries.

Rivers
Rivers often ow through different environments on their journey to the sea. Rivers are part of a system that begins with rain falling or ice melting in mountains or hills. The force of the water rushing down the steep slope erodes the mountain vertically into steep-sided V-shaped valleys. As the river reaches atter land, the eroded stones, sand and soil begin to wear away both the oor and sides of the valley. On the ood plain the river slows and begins to meander. Silt deposited during ooding enriches the soil and provides fertile farmland. Deposits of silt near the mouth of the river can cause the river to split into many smaller branches and form a delta. Settlements occur along rivers because rivers provide fresh water and transport routes, and the surrounding land is often suitable for farming.

Rivers often ow through different environments, such as mountains, rainforests, grasslands and wetlands before they reach the coast.

Coasts
The coastal environment includes the coastal hinterland, nearby islands, beaches and estuaries. This environment is located around the world, on the edges of continents and islands. Although it is generally at land, its climate and other physical features vary greatly. This environment has a wide range of communities and includes many of the great cities of the world.

The Amazon River in South America ows through the worlds largest remaining rainforest.

The tropical Pacic coast of southern Mexico is noted for its hilly peninsulas, bays and beaches.

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Coral reefs
Coral reefs are wave-resistant underwater mounds, made up of a variety of species including corals, algae and sponges. Coral sands and limestone also play an important role in the build-up of a coral reef. As one the worlds most diverse environments they support a wonderful variety of corals, sh and other organisms. Coral reefs are located in tropical waters along the western coasts of ocean basins (or the eastern side of continents) and around oceanic islands. They are located within 30 north and south of the Equator. Many islands and their coral reefs are popular tourist destinations.

These colourful coral and sh are part of the extensive coral reef found off the coast of Belize in the Caribbean Sea.

Moorea in French Polynesia is a volcanic island with a fringing coral reef.

TOOLBOX
Using oblique aerial photographs
Oblique aerial photographs are taken at an angle to the ground. Oblique aerial photographs give us a good idea of the height and shape of the features below. Unlike vertical aerial photographs, which are taken directly above the centre of an area, the scale in an oblique aerial photograph varies from one part of the photograph to another. Observe the aerial photograph of Moorea and its fringing coral reef. 1. Explain why this is an oblique aerial photograph. 2. Describe the main landform feature in the photograph. 3. Locate the main areas of coral. How can you identify where the coral ends and the ocean begins? 4. Describe the pattern of vegetation. What is the main type of vegetation? 5. In what areas are the main cultural features located? 6. List the features that could make this location an attractive tourist destination. 7. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using oblique aerial photographs? 1. List three natural hazards found in mountain areas. 2. What is the main feature of a wetland? 3. Why do you think wetlands are often centres for settlement and large populations? 4. Describe the location of: (a) hot deserts (c) polar lands (b) cold deserts (d) tundra. 5. What are the main differences between savanna and temperate grasslands? 6. Why are temperate grasslands more favourable for settlement than savanna grasslands? 7. List the three main types of rainforests. 8. Identify two global environments, apart from rivers, that are not located in a particular latitudinal area. 9. List ve important cities that are located in a coastal environment. 10. Describe the main features of coral reefs. Worksheets 4.1 World crossword 4.2 Locating global environments

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4.3
ENVIRONMENTS AND COMMUNITIES
People with something in common live in groups called communities. Members of a community often share the same space and have similar beliefs or interests. Geographers study how people adapt to specic environments. Physical environments have had a strong inuence on the activities of traditional, indigenous communities.

SOUTH AMERICA: LAKE TITICACA

Lake Titicaca, the worlds highest navigable lake, is located in South America on the border of Peru and Bolivia in a mountain environment. On this lake there are oating islands composed of layers of totora reeds, which rot from the bottom and are replaced by new growth at the top. About 600 Uro Indians inhabit these mats of reeds, living a traditional lifestyle. They depend on the reeds for shelter and transport, using them to build cone-shaped huts and boats. A well-constructed boat lasts for six months. The Uro have a sedentary way of life. They eat potatoes and sh from the lake and rarely leave their islands except for religious or medical purposes. These traditional communities are undergoing change. Tourists regularly visit the oating islands and the money they spend there is an important source of income for the Uro Indians. Unfortunately, Lake Titicaca suffers environmental problems, such as blue-green algae. This algae has been caused by sewage and fertilisers washed down from the expanding tourist and agricultural developments in the area surrounding the lake. Blue-green algae is toxic to a wide range of aquatic and terrestrial animals and provides a real threat to the fresh water supply of the Uro Indians.
Among the many fascinating goods sold at the Witchs market in La Paz, the capital of Bolivia, are llama foetuses. The Indians of Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Chile and Argentina keep herds of llamas, which they use as pack animals and for meat, wool, hides and tallow for candles. Dried llama dung is used as fuel. Some of these Indian communities have unique customs, such as the belief that owning a llama foetus will ensure good fortune throughout life.

Above: A Uro Indian girl cooking beside her hut of reeds Left: Boats made from reeds are the Uro Indians means of transport.

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NORTH-EAST AFRICA: SOMALIA

Traditional social organisations usually have strong family ties or clan links. For example, the four Somali clans that live in north-east Africa can trace their family back to a common ancestor. Husbands may have four wives. Each clan has their own place or homeland, but during dry periods, every three or four years, they move into other homelands in search of water and pasture. Somalis regard pasture and rain as gifts of God to be shared. These nomadic pastoralists keep camels, galla goats and black head Persian sheep. Men look after the camels and women look after the sheep and goats. The animals provide them with milk, meat and skins, transport, income, marriage gifts and compensation if someone is killed. Women do most of the slaughtering of animals. The Somali nomads carry all of their household possessions on camels. A Somali dwelling is called an aqal. It is perfectly suited to life on the move as it is light to transport and easily assembled. Unfortunately, these communities suffer from a poorer quality of life than most Australians have. Life expectancy is only 47 years and the infant mortality rate (deaths in the rst year of life) is high at 150 per 1000 (Australias IMR is ve per 1000). Traditional indigenous communities are currently undergoing social and economic changes. In many countries, these people have been forced to move from their original source of livelihood.

Somalis loading an aqal onto a camel before moving south to seek grazing for their livestock

Governments want to make them conform to modern, sedentary ways of living and to use their land for other purposes. Many indigenous communities are trying to seek self-rule and feel that they are the legitimate owners of the land.

1. How has the Uro community adapted to a mountain-lake environment? 2. What are the uses of the totora reed? 3. What are the causes of blue-green algae? 4. How have the Somalis adapted to their physical environment? 5. Describe the different gender roles in a Somali community. 6. Outline the differences between the nomadic Somali herders and the sedentary Uro Indians.

The Somali dwelling called an aqal can be carried from place to place on a camel. Aqals are made from a framework of saplings bound with bark and twine and covered with animal skins.

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4.4
ENVIRONMENTS AND CHANGE
Many global environments have already been signicantly changed by humans. Throughout history, human environments have taken over more and more of the natural environment. Such changes affect environments and communities and can often lead to conict within or between communities. In 1989 the Kayapo Indians faced another threat. The Brazilian Government wanted to build a series of dams that would have ooded thousands of square kilometres of Kayapo rainforest. A huge protest organised by the local Indians gained international support and the dams were stopped. In 1991, the Kayapo began trading with The Body Shop. The Body Shop uses Brazil nut oil to make hair conditioner. The Brazil nut tree is a tall tree more than 40 metres high. About ve nuts grow within an ourico which is like a coconut shell. Brazil nuts are collected between January and March and the trees are not cut down or damaged during harvesting. The oil is extracted by a hand-operated press. The machines are cheap, easy to use and do not harm the environment. However, the future remains uncertain for the Kayapo. Many indigenous rainforest communities have had to cope with such changes changes which often threaten their environment, unique cultures and traditional livelihoods.

CHANGING RAINFOREST COMMUNITIES

Many of the worlds rainforests have been cut down for timber and paper production or have been cleared to make room for farms and mines, towns and cities, dams and transport systems. Today, timbers such as teak, mahogany and ebony are still being exported from rainforests in developing countries to rich developed countries. Indigenous communities living in these environments are under threat. Communities that were once isolated and had developed their own unique culture may not survive if their traditional lands are taken from them or if their environment will no longer support their way of life.

THE KAYAPO INDIANS

The Kayapo Indians in the Amazon rainforest adapted to the hot, wet rainforest environment by using slash-and-burn agriculture. They had little contact with the rest of the world until the 1950s. During the last 50 years, the Kayapos territory has been invaded by loggers and miners in search of valuable rainforest timbers and gold. The activities of the loggers and miners caused deforestation and pollution of the natural environment. The Brazilian Government set aside land reserves for the Kayapo. However, their traditional way of life remained under threat due to illegal mining and logging, and conict between community members about these issues. Conict occurred within the Kayapo community because some members wanted to enter into contracts with mining and logging companies for shortterm prots while others saw this as a threat to their culture, their traditional way of life and their rainforest home.

Kayapo Indians participating in an organised protest in the late 1980s against the Brazilian Governments plans to build dams that would have ooded thousands of square kilometres of Amazon rainforest.

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CLIMATE CHANGE
During the twentieth century, the atmosphere warmed up by 0.5C, a trend that is expected to continue. There is growing evidence that human activities, such as burning fossil fuels and cutting down trees, has contributed to global warming. Climate change (see chapter 12) could cause changes to global environments in the following ways: melting of the polar icecaps and the retreat of glaciers in mountain lands rising sea levels and massive ooding of lowlying areas higher tides and more violent storms disruption to agriculture and changes to natural habitats.

King tides give islanders a sinking feeling

Funafuti: Freak tides yesterday covered swathes of the tiny South Pacic nation of Tuvalu, a worrying reminder that the low-lying atoll country could one day slip beneath the waves of the rising ocean. The unusually high king tides began on Thursday, peaking just before sunset yesterday and producing the bizarre effect of sea water welling up inland, creating lakes. The tides ooded homes, ofces and even sections of the airport. The worst ooding occurred several hundred metres inland as far as it is possible to get from the sea around homes and in long-established compost pits where generations have been growing root crops. I am very worried about the sea levels, said Losi Tuaga, 18, as she stood outside her home, ankle-deep in sea water bubbling from the soil. Residents of the atolls are fearful of the rising sea; at island meetings for years they have heard about global warming and the Kyoto Protocol on cutting emissions of gases blamed for driving climate change. Tuvalus Prime Minister, Saufatu Sopoaga, this week urged carbon-gas emitting industrial nations to become partners with Tuvalu in ending global warming, which is producing dangerous rises in ocean levels. I feel angry, but at the same time I do understand the motives behind the drive of industrial nation activities, he said. It was not done purposely there were other motives, and they were looking to better the lives of their own countries. Tuvalu, he said, will always exist as a sovereign nation even if most of its land sinks beneath the ocean. The government is already making provision to move residents to New Zealand and the nearby island of Niue. As long as Tuvalu is above sea water there will be people staying here. We will not move. About 11 000 people live on land spread over nine atolls, none more than ve metres above sea level. Sydney Morning Herald, 2122 February 2004

The clean-up on Funafuti after king tides in February 2004

TOOLBOX
Analysing a newspaper article
Newspapers often provide valuable information about geographical issues. Daily newspapers are usually up-to-date and accurate (although there can be some bias at times). Read the newspaper article King tides give islanders a sinking feeling and answer these questions: 1. Outline the future that could lie ahead for Tuvalu. 2. Describe the bizarre effect of the king tides. 3. List the other areas which were affected by the king tides. Explain why these areas were affected. 4. What could lead to ooding in the future? 5. Describe the mixed feelings of the Prime Minister, Saufatu Sopoaga. 6. Outline the reason the Prime Minister believes Tuvalu will always exist as a sovereign nation. 7. What problems could the people of Tuvalu face in another country if their land is covered by sea water? 8. Can you detect any bias in the newspaper article?

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