ARTICLE IN PRESS

Energy Policy 36 (2008) 2995 3000

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy Policy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enpol

Energy analysis and exergy utilization in the transportation sector of Jordan

J.O. Jaber a,, A. Al-Ghandoor b, S.A. Sawalha a
a b

Faculty of Engineering Technology, Al-Balqa Applied University, Amman, Jordan Department of Industrial Engineering, The Hashemite University, Zarqa, Jordan

a r t i c l e in fo
Article history: Received 24 February 2008 Accepted 7 April 2008 Available online 2 June 2008 Keywords: Transport sector Exergy analysis Efciency

abstract
The transport sector is responsible for about 37% of total nal energy demand in Jordan, and thus it is considered an important driver for determining future national energy needs. This paper presents energy analysis and exergy utilization in the transportation sector of Jordan by considering the sectoral energy and exergy ows for the last two decades. The transportation sector, in Jordan, is a two-mode system, namely, road, which covers almost all domestic passenger and freight transport and airways. The latter is mainly used for international ights. The average estimated overall energy and exergy efciencies were found as 23.2% and 22.8%, respectively. This simply indicates that there is large potential for improvement and efciency enhancement. It is believed that the present technique is practical and useful for analyzing sectoral energy and exergy utilization to determine how efciently energy and exergy are used in the transportation sector. It is also helpful to establish standards, based on exergy, to facilitate applications in different planning processes such as energy planning. A comparison with other countries showed that energy and exergy efciencies of the Jordanian transport sector are slightly lower than that of Turkey, and higher than those incurred in Malaysia, Saudi Arabia and Norway. Such difference is inevitable due to dissimilar structure of the transport sector in these countries. & 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction All researchers, experts and even politicians have considered that the worlds transportation system is not sustainable because automobile use and density have strongly increased during the last few decades (Steg and Gifford, 2005). As recently stated by Richardson (2005), transportation systems not only play a major role in the sustainability of the earth but also they, themselves, must be sustained in order to continue to afford to all people access to the economic and social opportunities necessary for life meaningful, i.e. high demand and security of supply as well as urban pollution issues. Thus, most of the recent studies (Liu and Golovitcher, 2003; Jaccard et al., 2004; Leonardi and Baumgaryner, 2004; Litman, 2005; Shrestha et al., 2005; Simoes and Schaeffer, 2005; Steg and Gifford, 2005; Tzeng et al., 2005) are concentrated on the area of increasing energy efciency by better management, operation, energy sources, transport technologies, etc. Jordan is a small country in the north-western corner of Asia, and lies in one of the most volatile areas in the world, i.e. the Middle East region. Unfortunately, unlike other Arab neighboring

Corresponding author. Fax: +962 6 4790350.

E-mail addresses: jojaber@yahoo.co.uk (J.O. Jaber), gandoor2002@yahoo.com, gandoor2002@hotmail.com (A. Al-Ghandoor). 0301-4215/$ - see front matter & 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2008.04.004

countries, it is a non-oil-producing country with limited natural resources and minerals. Its economy was based primarily on agriculture and farming; however, in recent decades the importance of the agricultural sector has declined both in terms of its contribution to the national income and as the main source of employment. The country has become more dependent on services and manufacturing sectors as well as tourism and transport activities. As other developing Asian countries, it has a rapid population growth of about 2.52% (DoS, 2006). The population and economic growth as well as development that Jordan experienced since its independence, in the mid-1950s, implied a gradual shift of the population from rural to urban areas. Thus, urban population has increased from about 70%, in 1990, to 82%, in 2005, of the total population, putting the kingdom among the most urbanized countries in Asia. If present policies remain unchanged, the urban population is expected to exceed 85% by the end of this decade. A major structural phenomenon of urbanization is the increasing shift of large proportions of the population to modern centers with relatively high incomes, requiring higher rates of energy consumption to sustain new life. The transport sector, in Jordan, is a two-mode system, relying principally on road and air transports; main indicators concerning the Jordanian transportation sector, during the period 19702005, are summarized in Table 1 (DoS, 19712006). The number of diesel vehicles grew faster during 19702005, i.e. about double

ARTICLE IN PRESS
2996 J.O. Jaber et al. / Energy Policy 36 (2008) 29953000

Table 1 Selected indicators concerning the transportation sector in Jordan Item Population (106) Urban population (%) Real GDP per capita (US$ yr1) Energy consumption per capita (ton of oil equivalent, toe) Gasoline vehicles (103) Diesel vehicles (103) Fuel consumption (103 tons) Gasoline consumption Diesel consumption Jet fuel consumption Length of paved roads (103 km) Air transport Freight (103) Passenger volume (103) Shipping activities No. of ships Exports (103 tons) Imports (103 tons) 1970 1.723 62.8 288 0.306 19.5 4.7 1975 1.810 63.0 492 0.501 49.8 11.0 1980 2.233 62.3 1259 0.819 112.7 22.6 1985 2.700 69.5 1665 1.044 160.4 61.5 1990 3.468 70.0 1085 0.953 178.5 76.2 1995 4.291 78.2 1550 1.025 179.9 99.6 2000 5.039 78.7 1677 1.022 254.0 118.6 2005 5.485 82.0 2345 1.281 475.6 197.5

92.3 41.0 3.18

134.0 80.0 56.0 3.60

269.0 135.0 209 4.23

359.0 308.2 246.0 5.40

360.6 443.8 223.5 6.00

488.0 450.3 241.0 7.13

604.0 518.5 173.0 7.20

697.0 674.7 314.0 7.60

1132 119.4

15,045 615.5

28,959 1111.5

43,095 1290.3

67,457 1814.2

78,176 1775.4

81,112 2350.4

99,549 3462.3

220 186 196

516 871 683

1466 3574 3024

2671 8177 6370

2222 8871 6164

2382 6679 5077

2505 7192 5359

2933 7998 12,431

the rate, than gasoline vehicles. This can be attributed to the large difference between unit prices of diesel and gasoline, which encouraged private and public sectors to buy diesel-powered vehicles, especially double-cabin pick-ups. For the same period, both gasoline and diesel-operated vehicles grew at higher rates than population, urbanization, real income and average energy consumption. The main driving factors behind such above-normal growth rates of vehicles ownership in Jordan are bad and limited services of public transportation modes and the increasing activities in all sectors of the economy as well as road transportation being the only used mode for domestic passenger and goods movements. Shipping activities are limited to those occurring in the Aqaba port, since it is the only access for Jordan on sea, and mainly used for exporting indigenous commodities such as phosphate, potash and importing various types of goods into Jordan and transit freight to Iraq. The length of national roads network was nearly 7600 km in 2005, of which over 3000 km are main roads, while the remaining are either secondary or rural roads (Ministry of Public Works and Housing, 2006). In 2005, there were 673,000 vehicles registered and operating in the country compared to only 24,000 in 1970 (DoS, 19712006). This translates to a vehicle ownership ratio of 122 vehicles/1000 persons. Although this ratio is much higher than the average ratio for the Middle East and North Africa region, it still gives much room for potential increase (Al-Hinti et al., 2007). In recent years, concern about energy consumption in Jordan has been growing, especially, in the transport sector, which was probably affected the most by the economic and technological changes that the country has witnessed during the past three decades. For example, the number of road vehicles in Jordan rose by almost 1000% during the last 30 years, while the number of air passengers increased approximately by 460% (DoS, 19712006). The enormous increase in the number of operating vehicles has contributed to a signicant increase in the local energy demand and an increasing amount of damage to the natural environment as a result of polluting emissions. This is ensuing principally in the AmmanZarqa region, in the middle of the kingdom, where about 60% of the national population and nearly 70% of the urban populations live (Jaber and Probert, 2001; Jaber et al., 2004). Transportation is the largest single consumer of energy in Jordan, in 2006, with a share of around 37% of the total nal energy consumption in the form of diesel, gasoline and jet fuel (MEMR,

2007). During the year 2005, nearly 65,000 new vehicles were registered and licensed for the rst time in Jordan. Approximately 80% of the licensed and operating eet is in the central region, i.e. AmmanZarqa, with a high percentage of vehicles being more than 10 years old, especially the freight transport category. Old vehicles usually have high rates of fuel consumption due to old engine technologies and deterioration in performance, consequently causing a high degree of pollution. Despite the fact that the transportation sector plays an important role in determining the countrys energy demand, in open literature, energy use in the Jordanian transportation has generally received little attention. This may be due to its complexity, large number of stakeholders and lack of awareness and resources to conduct detailed studies for various elements of this sector. The present study aims to examine energy use patterns for the two main categories of the Jordanian transportation sector, to apply the energy and exergy modelling techniques to the transportation sector of Jordan for a period of 19852006 in order to assess its performance, to study the variations of energy and exergy efciencies in the transportation sector over the years studied, and to compare the energy and exergy efciencies of transportation sector for several countries against Jordan. It is deemed that this study would bridge the existing gaps of information related to patterns of fuel consumption for different sub-sectors in Jordan.

2. Energy and exergy modelling The demand for primary energy in 2006 was about 7.187 million tons of oil equivalent (toe), compared with 2.4 million toe in 1982. The transport sector is the largest single consumer, followed by households and industrysee Fig. 1. In Fig. 1, others include commercial and services, government and agricultural sectors. The high sharing ratio of the transport sector in the national energy demand is mainly due to non-existence of waterways or modern rail networks, lack of efcient and modern mass transport systems, relative weakness of the industrial sector and the relatively moderate climatic conditions which result in a moderate energy demand in the residential sector. The current pattern of sectoral energy consumption is most likely to remain unchanged in the future if current polices and strategies are not

ARTICLE IN PRESS
J.O. Jaber et al. / Energy Policy 36 (2008) 29953000 2997

Others 17%

Table 2 Higher heating value, chemical exergy and exergy grade function for different fuels (at 25 1C and 1 atm) Fuel Hf (kJ kg1) 46,117 47,849 39,500 ef (kJ kg1) 45,897 47,394 42,265 gf (ef/Hf) 0.995 0.990 1.070

Transportation 37% Residential 22%

Jet fuel Gasoline Diesel oil

2.1. Exergy analysis By describing the use of energy resources in society in terms of exergy, important knowledge and understanding can be gained, and areas identied where large improvements could be obtained by applying efcient technology, in the sense of more efcient energy-resource conversions. In principle, the exergy of matter can be determined by bringing it to the dead state by means of reversible processes. The basic formulas used in exergy analysis modelling for this study are given below. 2.1.1. Exergy of fuel The specic exergy of the fuel at environmental conditions reduces to chemical exergy, which can be written as f gf Hf , (1)

Industrial 24%
Fig. 1. Percentage ratios of the nal energy sectoral distribution in 2006.

altered. It is expected that annual energy demand will increase at relatively high rates posing more pressure on the national economy. As regards the nal energy consumption by the transport sector, including road and air, it has increased by approximately 168% during the last 25 years, while total nal energy demand, for the same period, is inated by about 229%. However, the share of transport sector in the total demand dropped from nearly 45% in 1980 to about 37% in the last 4 years, i.e. 20032006. On the other hand, petroleum products consumption by road transportation increased remarkably: gasoline and diesel consumption in 2006 were 2.6 and 6.4 times the rates that occurred in 1980, respectively. In order to compare the quality levels of various energy carriers, e.g. fuels, it is necessary to determine the equivalents of each energy quantity at a particular grade level. This can be done by using the exergy concept, which overcomes the limitations of the rst law of thermodynamics and is based on both the rst and second laws of thermodynamics (Moran, 1982; Szargut et al., 1988). An exergy analysis can identify the locations of energy degradation and rank them in terms of their signicance (Moran and Shapiro, 2000); this knowledge is useful in directing the attention of process-design and research engineers to those components of the system being analyzed that offer the greatest opportunities for improvement. Furthermore, exergy analysis has been used to analyze energy utilization on the national level, and for various sectors of the economy, in order to better understand energy utilization efciency. This approach was rst used by Reistad (1975) who applied it to the overall US economy in 1970. Since then, it has been adopted by several researchers for other countries such as Japan (Wall, 1990), Canada (Rosen, 1992) and Brazil (Schaeffer and Wirtshafter, 1992). A summary of exergy analyses for different countries can be found in Ertesvag (2001). The concept has been also applied to cross-country analysis of some industrial segments (Ozdogan and Arikol, 1995; Dincer et al., 2003; Rasul et al, 2005; Oladiran and Meyer, 2007; Utlu and Hepbasli, 2007), residential sector (Saidur et al., 2007a; AlGhandoor et al., 2008), transportation sector (Dincer et al., 2004; Utlu and Hepbasli, 2006a; Ji and Chen, 2006; Ediger and Camdali, 2007; Saidur et al., 2007b) and agricultural sector (Dincer et al., 2005; Utlu and Hepbasli, 2006b). The purpose of this section is to discuss the main mathematical relations necessary to conduct energy and exergy analyses in the transportation sector.

where ef is the fuel-specic exergy, gf the exergy grade function and Hf the higher heating value of the fuel. Table 2 shows higher heating value, chemical exergy and fuel exergy grade function of different fuels considered in this study (Szargut et al., 1988; Reistad, 1975; Petchers, 2003; Utlu and Hepbasli, 2007). 2.1.2. Exergy of work From the denition of exergy, mechanical work, W, is identical to the physical work exergy, EW: EW W . 2.2. Energy and exergy efciencies The energy efciency (rst law efciency) is the ratio of the energy contained in the useful products of a process to the energy contained in all input streams, while exergy efciency (second law efciency) is the ratio of the exergy contained in the useful product to the exergy contained in all input streams. Energy efciency (Z) and exergy efciency (c) are dened as   energy in products 100%, (3) Z total energy input  c  exergy in products 100%, total exergy input (4) (2)

The energy, Zm, and exergy, cm, efciencies for the fossil fueldriven kinetic energy production process, which produces shaft work energy, W, from fuel, mf, can be expressed as follows: Zm W =mf Hf , cm EW =mf f W =mf gf Hf Zm =gf , (5) (6)

3. Results and discussions The energy consumption trend of Jordans transportation sector is increasing every year due to the increasing number of operating vehicles and activities in different sectors of the

ARTICLE IN PRESS
2998 J.O. Jaber et al. / Energy Policy 36 (2008) 29953000

economy, as shown in Fig. 2. It is obvious in this gure that diesel and gasoline consumption witnessed a continuous increase, while annual rate of jet fuel consumption was almost constant except last 3 years (20042006) in which a signicant increase occurred. The latter can be attributed to booming activities in tourism in Jordan. Table 3 illustrates the use of energy and the shares of the resources in this sector for the years 19852006. As vehicles and aircrafts are not generally operated at their rated loads, part load efciencies are taken as 22% and 28% for road and air modes, respectively (Dincer et al., 2004). The weighted mean energy efciency, Zw, of the transportation sector in a given year is calculated by multiplying the energy efciency of each sub-sector mode, Zi, by its share of energy, Fi, and then summing the weighted energy efciency of each transport mode: Zw X Zi F i =100,
i

Similarly, weighted mean exergy efciency, cw, was calculated by employing an identical approach: X X ci F i =100 Zi =gf F i =100, (8) cw
i i

Sample calculations of the transportation energy and exergy efciencies for the year 2006 are given below: Zw 22 46:5 22 35:4 28 18:1=100 23:09%, cw 22=0:990 46:5 22=1:070 35:4 28=0:995 18:1=100 22:70%. The overall mean energy and exergy efciencies for the transportation sector between 1985 and 2006 are shown in Fig. 3. The average overall energy and exergy efciencies were 23.16% and 22.77%, respectively. A clearly seen in Fig. 3, energy efciencies are higher than the corresponding exergy efciencies, due to the fact that exergy takes into account the losses due to irreversibilities, not energy. So, better energy utilization policies in the transportation sector are given by exergy, not energy since it does not consider the irreversibilities due to the rst law of thermodynamics which refers to the energy conservation law. A close look at obtained values of energy and exergy efciencies shows a deteriorating trend over years, i.e. a decreasing tendency with time, except for certain years. The simple explanation for such a slightly wavy pattern is the ignorance of the effect of improving technologies over the studied period and assuming that efciency of employed systems invariant in order to simplify calculations. However, there was a slight decrease in calculated efciencies during the early and late 1990s as well as the early years of the rst decade of the 21st century due to different factors. The most important factor was political instability represented by the Gulf wars and US invasion into Iraq, and economic recession in the region. The drop in 1990/1991 is due to the 2nd Gulf crisis, which damaged the Jordanian economy and led to the complete loss of (i) the Gulf countries export markets as well as their nancial aid, (ii) revenues from transit trades, i.e. goods imported via local ports or through

(7)

40,000 35,000 Energy Consumption (PJ) 30,000 25,000 20,000 15,000 10,000 5,000 0 1985
Gasoline Diesel Jet Fuel

1990

1995 Year

2000

2005

Fig. 2. Annual rate of fuel consumption of the transportation sector during 19852006.

Table 3 Energy consumption for the transportation sector in Jordan Year Total energy (PJ) Road mode Gasoline consumption PJ 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 40,696 39,314 40,068 40,570 44,757 45,092 42,287 45,762 47,311 48,441 52,251 52,628 54,261 53,172 53,549 57,359 59,076 60,081 62,593 70,883 74,483 76,283 17,178 17,273 16,077 16,321 16,527 17,254 18,384 20,144 20,814 21,723 23,350 24,690 25,504 25,360 26,317 28,901 30,623 31,341 31,963 32,059 33,351 35,456 % 42.2 43.9 40.1 40.2 36.9 38.3 43.5 44.0 44.0 44.8 44.7 46.9 47.0 47.7 49.1 50.4 51.8 52.2 51.1 45.2 44.8 46.5 Diesel consumption PJ 12,173 12,863 15,032 15,464 17,129 17,530 16,418 15,979 16,259 16,342 17,787 17,147 18,381 19,235 19,346 20,480 20,382 20,531 20,714 28,309 26,652 26,992 % 29.9 32.7 37.5 38.1 38.3 38.9 38.8 34.9 34.4 33.7 34.0 32.6 33.9 36.2 36.1 35.7 34.5 34.2 33.1 39.9 35.8 35.4 Air mode Jet fuel consumption PJ 11,345 9177 8958 8785 11,100 10,307 7485 9638 10,238 10,376 11,114 10,791 10,376 8578 7886 7978 8070 8209 9915 10,515 14,481 13,835 % 27.9 23.3 22.4 21.7 24.8 22.9 17.7 21.1 21.6 21.4 21.3 20.5 19.1 16.1 14.7 13.9 13.7 13.7 15.8 14.8 19.4 18.1

ARTICLE IN PRESS
J.O. Jaber et al. / Energy Policy 36 (2008) 29953000 2999

24.0
Energy efficiency Exergy efficiency

23.5 Overall efficiency (%)

23.0

22.5

22.0

21.5

93

95

85

87

89

91

97

99

01

03

05 20 Av

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

20

20

Fig. 3. Overall energy and exergy efciencies of the transportation sector in Jordan.

the free-trade zone, and (iii) remittances from those working abroad. The population rose rapidly by about 10% as a result of migrant-workers returning, and the unemployment rate increased to a peak of about 25% in 1991. Despite these adversities, the sharp increase in the Governments received revenue together with the strict control imposed on public expenditure reduced the national decit and simultaneously the GDP gained some growth. In 1995, the Government issued a new regulation: this aimed at releasing nancial pressures on owners of public saloon cars, i.e. taxis, and encouraged the replacement of obsolete cars on the basis of scrapping each old car and licensing a new one. As a result, in 2007, about 22 103, i.e. 95%, of the working call and service taxis are relatively modern (Driving and Vehicle Licensing Department, 2008). Progressively, in late 1999, reduced import taxes and custom fees on private passenger cars as well as allowed import of used cars of more than 5 years old encouraged people to buy cars. However, traders took this opportunity and ooded the market with written-off cars from Germany, Japan and South Korea. The net result is doubling the operating eet with high percentage of old cars, leaving consumers exposed to all sorts of obsolete and inefcient vehicles. Here is can be said that the more use of small private cars will result in higher rates of fuel consumption, lower net efciency and more gaseous pollutants emitted to the environment. Minor increases of energy and exergy efciencies between years 1991 and 1994 and between years 2004 and 2006 can be attributed to waves of returnees and immigrants after the 2nd and 3rd Gulf crises, when the local economy witnessed high growth ratios. Equally important is the increasing number of tourists from neighboring Arab and foreign countries. A comparison of the overall energy and exergy efciencies of Jordans transportation sector with Malaysian, Turkish, Saudi Arabian and Norwegian transportation sectors is presented, in Fig. 4, for the year 2000 only due to availability of published sectoral data (Saidur et al., 2007b; Utlu and Hepbasli, 2006a; Dincer et al., 2004; Ertesvag, 2005). It is observed that the energy and exergy efciencies of the Jordanian transportation sector are higher than that of Malaysian, Saudi Arabian, and Norwegian, but lower than those incurred in Turkey. Such difference is inevitable due to dissimilar structure of transport sector in these countries. Although these countries differ signicantly from Jordan, the main purpose is to draw the attention of readers, researchers and planners to such gures.

25 Energy/Exergy Efficiency (%)

Energy Exergy

20 15

10 5 0 Jordan Malaysia Trurkey Saudi Arabia Norway

Fig. 4. Energy and exergy efciencies of the transportation sector of some countries including Jordan in 2000.

The most attractive energy conservation measures, in this sector, include appropriate vehicle selection, drivers training, operation and maintenance optimization, vehicle-engine tune-up, using radial instead of conventional tires, better trafc and public transport management and enhancing public awareness. The advantages of such schemes include reducing the burden on the economy through raising the efciency, decreasing emissions to the environment and less capital investment being needed for future energy projects. Bearing in mind that most recommended energy efciency measures require little investment and hence short pay-back-period, the Government should pay serious attention to energy efciency and management issues. This could be accomplished by adopting targeted programs for energy thrift in specic areas. Thus, energy conservation in the transport sector should be advocated at all levels and given deserved priority in the national programs.

4. Conclusion In this study, energy and exergy efciencies of the Jordanian transportation sector were determined for period spanning from 1985 to 2006. The average overall energy and exergy efciencies are found to be 23.2% and 22.8%, respectively. The calculated efciencies over the studied period can be an important tool for policy makers and energy planners to gain insight into the performance of this sector. Furthermore, such results could

er

ag

ARTICLE IN PRESS
3000 J.O. Jaber et al. / Energy Policy 36 (2008) 29953000

provide important guidelines for future research work since large energy and exergy losses, which are reported in this analysis, should be taken as a challenge by the society and concerned governmental institutions to achieve sustainability goals. The obtained efciency values were comparable to those reported for Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, Norway and Turkey. The energy and exergy efciencies of the Jordanian transportation sector appear to be higher than that of Malaysian, Saudi Arabian and Norwegian but less than that of Turkish. This paper is intended to be the rst step in analyzing the energy situation of the transportation sector in Jordan from an exergy point of view. More work should follow for modeling and implementation of energy management programs in this sector taking this analysis as general guidelines. References
Al-Ghandoor, A., Al-Hinti, I., Akash, B., Abu-Nada, E., 2008. Analysis of energy and exergy use in the Jordanian urban residential sector. International Journal of Exergy (in press). Al-Hinti, I., Al-Ghandoor, A., Akash, B., Abu-Nada, E., 2007. Energy saving and CO2 mitigation through restructuring Jordans transportation sector: the diesel passenger cars scenario. Energy Policy 35, 50035011. Department of Statistics (DoS), 19712006. Statistical Yearbook 19702005. Amman, Jordan. Department of Statistics (DoS), 2006. Statistical Yearbook 2005. Amman, Jordan. Dincer, I., Hussain, M., Al-Zaharnah, I., 2003. Energy and exergy use in the industrial sector of Saudi Arabia. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part A: Journal of Power and Energy 217, 481492. Dincer, I., Hussain, M.M., Al-Zaharnah, I., 2004. Energy and exergy utilization in transportation sector of Saudi Arabia. Applied Thermal Engineering 24, 525538. Dincer, I., Hussain, M., Zaharnah, I., 2005. Energy and exergy utilization in agricultural sector of Saudi Arabia. Energy Policy 33, 14611467. Driving and Vehicle Licensing Department, 2008. Annual Data Base 2007. Amman, Jordan. Ediger, V., Camdali, U., 2007. Energy and exergy efciencies in Turkish transportation sector, 19882004. Energy Policy 35, 12381244. Ertesvag, I., 2001. Society exergy analysis: a comparison of different societies. Energy 26, 253270. Ertesvag, I., 2005. Energy, exergy, and extended-exergy analysis of the Norwegian society 2000. Energy 30, 645679. Jaber, J.O., Probert, S.D., 2001. Energy demand, poverty and the urban environment in Jordan. Applied Energy 68, 119134. Jaber, J.O., Badran, O.O., Abu-Shikhah, N., 2004. Sustainable energy and environmental impact: role of renewables as clean and secure source of energy for the 21st century in Jordan. Clean Technologies and Environment Policy 6, 174186. Jaccard, M., Murphy, R., Rivers, N., 2004. Energyenvironment policy modeling of endogenous technological change with personnel vehicles: combining topdown and bottom-up methods. Ecological Economics 51, 3146. Ji, X., Chen, G.Q., 2006. Exergy analysis of energy utilization in the transportation sector in China. Energy Policy 34, 17091719.

Leonardi, J., Baumgaryner, M., 2004. CO2 efciency in road freight transportation: status quo, measures and potential. Transportation Research Part D 9, 451464. Litman, T., 2005. Efcient vehicles versus efcient transportation: comparison transportation energy conservation strategies. Transport Policy 12, 121129. Liu, R.R., Golovitcher, I.m., 2003. Energy-efeicnt operation of rail vehicles. Transportation Research Part A 37, 917932. Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources (MEMR), 2007. Annual Report 2006. Amman. Ministry of Public Works and Housing, 2006. Annual Report 2005. Amman. Moran, M., 1982. Availability Analysis: A Guide to Efcient Energy Use. PrenticeHall, Inc., New Jersey. Moran, M., Shapiro, H., 2000. Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics. Wiley, New York. Oladiran, M., Meyer, J.P., 2007. Energy and exergy analyses of energy consumptions in the industrial sector in South Africa. Applied Energy 84, 10561067. Ozdogan, S., Arikol, M., 1995. Energy and exergy analyses of selected Turkish industries. Energy 20, 7380. Petchers, N., 2003. Combined Heating, Cooling and Power Handbook: Technologies and Application. The Fairmont Press, Inc., Lilburn, GA. Rasul, M.G., Widianto, W., Mohanty, B., 2005. Assessment of the thermal performance and energy conservation opportunities of a cement industry in Indonesia. Applied Thermal Engineering 25, 29502965. Reistad, G., 1975. Available energy conversion and utilization in the United States. Journal of Energy Power 97, 429434. Richardson, B.C., 2005. Sustainable transport: analysis frameworks. Journal of Transport Geography 13, 2939. Rosen, M., 1992. Evaluation of energy utilization efciency in Canada using energy and exergy analysis. Energy 17, 339350. Saidur, R., Masjuki, H., Jamaluddin, M., 2007a. An application of energy and exergy analysis in residential sector of Malaysia. Energy Policy 35, 10501063. Saidur, R., Sattar, M.A., Masjuki, H.H., Ahmed, S., Hashim, U., 2007b. An estimation of the energy and exergy efciencies for the energy resources consumption in the transportation sector in Malaysia. Energy Policy 35, 40184026. Schaeffer, R., Wirtshafter, R., 1992. An exergy analysis of the Brazilian economy: from energy production to nal energy use. Energy 17, 841855. Shrestha, R.M., Anandarajah, G., Adhikari, S., Jiang, K., Songli, Z., 2005. Energy and environmental implications of NOx emission reduction from the transport sector of Beijing: a least-cost planning analysis. Transportation Research Part D 10, 111. Simoes, A.F., Schaeffer, R., 2005. The Brazilian air transportation sector in the context of global climate change: CO2 emissions and mitigation alternatives. Energy and Conversion Management 46, 501513. Steg, L., Gifford, R., 2005. Sustainable transportation and quality of life. Journal of Transport Geography 13, 5969. Szargut, J., Morris, D., Steward, R., 1988. Exergy Analysis of Thermal, Chemical, and Metallurgical Processes. Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, New York. Tzeng, G.-H., Lin, C.-W., Opricovic, S., 2005. Multi-criterion analysis of alternative fuel buses for public transportation. Energy Policy 33, 13731383. Utlu, Z., Hepbasli, A., 2006a. Assessment of the energy utilization efciency in the Turkish transportation sector between 2000 and 2020 using energy and exergy analysis method. Energy Policy 34, 16111618. Utlu, Z., Hepbasli, A., 2006b. Assessment of the energy and exergy utilization efciencies in the Turkish agricultural sector. International Journal of Energy Research 30, 659670. Utlu, Z., Hepbasli, A., 2007. A review and assessment of the energy utilization efciency in the Turkish industrial sector using energy and exergy analysis method. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 11, 14381459. Wall, G., 1990. Exergy conversion in the Japanese society. Energy 15, 435444.