2 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT URBAN LANDFILL 2.

1 general concepts According to the Brazilian Standard ( NBR 10004 ) solids or semisolids are those that "result from the activity of the community of origin industrial , domestic , hospital , commercial, agricultural , service and sweeping . It is also considered from the solid residue systems oslodos water treatment , those generated in equipment and facilities pollution control, as well as certain liquids whose particularities make it impossible to launch the public sewage system or water bodies or required to do so, technical solutions and economically unviable in the face best available technology " ( ABNT 1987) . The waste can be classified according to their origin ( Table 2.1 ) , as stated in the first chapter of the fourth article of the state policy management integrated solid waste in the state of So Paulo , or considering ecological, health and economic and physical characteristics of residues ( Table 2.2 ) , according to the Brazilian standard NBR ( 10,004 ) . As for Origin Urban Waste Residential , commercial activities , street sweeping , tree pruning and the like. Special Waste Of the processes of transformation : Industrial , Agricultural , Radioactive , from the Services Health and Construction . Table 2.1 - Classification of Solid Waste according to their origin .

The urban waste are generated in urban areas , while Specials are generated during processing . These because of fact possess unique characteristics , require more care specific to the collection , packaging , transportation , handling and disposal . Management of Municipal Solid Waste - Landfill 29 waste Description class I ( hazardous materials ) Characteristics of toxicity , flammability , corrosivity , reactivity , radioactivity and pathogenicity that may present risks to public health or adverse effects to the environment. class II ( non-inert materials ) Materials that do not fit the classes I and III . The residues of this class may have the following properties : flammability , corrosivity , reactivity , or toxicity pathogenicity . class III ( inert ) Materials which do not solubilize or have not have any component dissolved in concentrations greater than the standards established ( NBR 10,006 - Solubilization of

residues) Table 2.2 - Classification of Solid Waste according to their physical characteristics . The characteristics of the waste may also vary according Zanta and Ferreira (2003 ) , due to factors that distinguish communities together , as social, economic , cultural , geographic and climatic aspects beyond Biological and chemical products. Knowledge of these features enables a most appropriate choice in the selection of treatment processes and techniques disposal to be used. The gravimetric composition of waste is another fact of great importance with regard to its management, and can include several categories as shown in Table 2.3 . It is also important to clarify the content This moisture due to the fact that the weight of the organic waste is determined in humid conditions , ( Zanta and Ferreira , 2003) . It is also necessary , in addition to the qualitative aspects of knowledge amount produced per day ( tonnes / day ; m 3 / day) and production per capita ( ton / inhab.day ) . Data to be used in the planning of GIRSU . Used in this practice , the quantities concerning waste collected, Zanta and Ferreira (2003 ) . Management of Municipal Solid Waste - Landfill 30 Category Examples matter organic putrescible Food debris , flowers , pruning trees . plastic

Bags , bags , packaging for soft drinks , water and milk , containers of cleaning products , beauty and food , sponges, Styrofoam , kitchen , latex , bags raffia . Paper and cardboard Boxes , magazines , newspapers , cards , paper , plates , books , books , folders . glass Glasses , beverage bottles , dishes , mirrors , packaging cleaning products , beauty and food . ferrous metal Steel wool , pins, needles , product packaging food . metal noferroso Beverage cans , scraps of lead and copper wiring electric . Madeira Boxes , boards , popsicle sticks and matches, caps , furniture, firewood. Cloths , rags , leather and rubber Clothes, cleaning rags , pieces of fabric , bags , backpacks , shoes, carpets , gloves , belts , balloons . contaminant chemical Batteries , medicines , lamps , insecticides , rodenticides ,

adhesives in general, cosmetic , glass enamels , packaging pressurized pens loaded carbon paper, film photographic . contaminant biological Toilet paper, cotton swabs , cotton , bandages , gauze and blood cloths , diapers, napkins, syringes , razors , hair , hair , packaging anesthetics , gloves . Stone, earth and ceramics Flower pots , plates , construction debris , earth, bricks , gravel , decorative stones . several Candle wax, soap and soap, charcoal chalk, cigarette butts , corks , credit cards , crayons , long-life packaging , packaging metallized bags vacuumed dust , abrasives and other hard materials identification. Table 2.3 - Basic examples of each category of solid waste . Source : Adapted from Pessin , et al . (2002 ) It is the responsibility of GIRSU gerenciadoras actions related to stages of generation , storage, collection and transport , recycling , treatment and disposal of solid waste , as follows: Waste Generation - which promotes the generation of waste and not changing consumption pattern of the society . Encouraging the consumption of products more environmentally appropriate , and segregation of waste

based on their characteristics , avoiding as much as possible , the mixture of waste that contaminate raw materials. Valuing waste and enabling greater efficiency in other stages of the process . Management of Municipal Solid Waste - Landfill 31 Packaging Waste - which guides the coherent packaging waste according to its characteristics , facilitating identification and safe handling during the later stages . Collection and Transportation - which guides the operations of removal and the waste to the local storage , processing or final destination . Can be performed selectively and collection of waste mixed. Reuse and treatment - which includes , at this stage , actions corrective aiming waste recovery and reduction of impacts environmental . Recycling, reuse , recovery or composting are forms reuse or waste treatment . Final destination - that forwards following the steps previously described , waste unused spaces reserved for the deposition final ( landfill ) with health guarantees , and properly prepared to collect the liquid and gaseous effluents . Public health problems and environmental problems arise from not appropriate treatment of the waste generated . Transmit diseases , like infected animals and insects , or the air or water polluted contaminated with toxic chemicals , can proliferate when the trash is deposited open in landfills . Respiratory , intestinal and others that are caused by polluted environments or through contact with animals contaminated can lead to death . The fact is that more and more throughout the world , generates a higher

amount of waste . Therefore , the need to develop technologies committed to preserving the environment and the preservation of quality of life increases in size proportionally . The average daily generation of municipal solid waste , the countries of first world corresponds , according to Rose et al . , to 1.77 kg per capita . this Indeed, the aggregate cost of treatment and waste management resulting from revisions to the health and environmental standards , was cause for investments , since the 80s, the waste recycling and selective collection waste generated . In Brazil , in big cities , according to Rose et al . , Household waste already produced is around 0.8 kg per capita . This indicates the growing need , in the country , programs that address the waste generated in a adequate , and that may , in addition to fighting pollution , generate wealth and jobs . Figure 2.1 explains the situation that is Brazil, in Management of Municipal Solid Waste - Landfill 32 aspect of the final disposal of waste , and reveals a good chance that the country have with respect to the recovery of waste generated . Disposal of Waste in Brazil 21% 36% 37% 6% dump landfill landfill other Figure 2.1 - Disposal of Waste in Brazil

Source : IBGE , 2000 Figure 2.2 shows a flowchart of the allocation of routes solid waste in view of its energy use . Figure 2.2 - Flowchart of the routes of disposal of solid waste . Source : Adapted from Oliveira (2000 ) . Management of Municipal Solid Waste - Landfill 33 The activities of reuse or treatment using waste as input , consuming less energy when compared to the input virgin . This reveals a conservation of energy that contributes to the growth economical, because it can generate cost savings and increase in productivity micro and macroeconomic frameworks . The reuse of solid waste through these activities , as well to improve the economic productivity of companies or countries , also contributes to minimizing the environmental impacts associated with the generation and energy use . The use of waste energy can occur through the use its calorific value through incineration , gasification , the utilization of the calorific biogas produced from waste , or the production of Solid fuel from food scraps . Incineration takes the calorific value existing in the trash through its direct combustion for the production of steam. The process according to Oliveira (2000 ) , has the advantage of the possibility of direct use of thermal energy , the need for a continuous supply , which requires large amount waste , low noise and odor , considering a small area installation. Its disadvantages the impossibility to waste down calorific value, of the need to maintain the auxiliary equipment combustion , ash , for example, may have concentrations of

toxic metals , high investment costs and operation and maintenance also the possibility of emission of carcinogenic pollutants . Gasification is a process that consists in breaking the chains The residue polymeric material through a heat supplied to the gassing composition simpler as methane , which are utilized in heating processes in internal combustion engines , or turbines. The utilization of gas from the landfill will be discussed in more detail in this section later in this chapter. It is of fundamental importance to study the composition of solid waste to a better decision in respect of its recovery and prevention, as possible , sending all materials to the landfill , because after his disposal the only advantage will be that of biogas. The average composition of municipal solid waste collected in Brazil according to research conducted in 1997 by IPT , is presented in Figure 2.3 . Management of Municipal Solid Waste - Landfill 34 Average Composition of waste in Brazil 3% 4 % 25 % 3% 65% Glass metals paper plastic organic Figure 2.3 - Percentage breakdown of average litter weight in Brazil .

Source : IPT / CEMPRE 1997 In landfill , the waste is deposited on the ground isolated so ordinate , and is then covered with soil from the site itself, so that is isolated from the environment. Formed thereby species chambers in which gas produced and released manure, liquid substance formed by the dark partially biodegraded organic waste . The slurry accumulates in the bottom of these chambers and tends to seep in soil can get up to reach the water table , which makes evident the need for a ground perfectly sealed prior to deposition of garbage. the existing standards require collection and processing of gas (NBR 8419 and NBR 8849 ) , and slurry ( NBR 8419 ) . The cell of the landfill space for the disposal of waste should be perfectly sealed and the leachate collection system already installed , and the each layer , each chamber formed in the gas collection system should also be installed. The location of the landfill should be carefully chosen , should cover large and, because of their drawbacks operational ( smelly , garbage truck traffic , poor appearance , etc. . ) located away from urban concentrations . 2.2 Gas Generation in Landfills The mixture of waste in landfills , discharged continually provides a variety chemistry under the influence of natural agents suffer Management of Municipal Solid Waste - Landfill 35 physical, chemical and biological . The set of phenomena originates the vectors of pollution in landfills through biogas and leachate . See Figure 2.4 .

The waste gas is produced within the landfill due to changes biochemical occur there . The anaerobic biodegradation is achieved after depletion of oxygen in the chambers of landfills . Compacting Garbage made by machinery at the moment of deposition contributes to reduction of oxygen inside the chamber . This process occurs in several stages because the presence of bacteria that feed on organic matter turning it into compounds simpler . There are three main groups of microorganisms active in process , hydrolase - fermentative organisms , methanogens and acetgenos which are responsible for breaking the bonds of polymers and production of carbon dioxide, acetic acid production and methane respectively. Figure 2.4 Scheme of the main environmental impacts of the disposal of waste in landfills The generation of landfill gas is affected by several variables , among which can be mentioned: nature of the wastes , humidity present in residues physical state of the waste ( particle size ), pH , temperature, nutrients , buffering capacity and rate of oxygenation . These are factors that are responsible for the development of anaerobic digestion of organic substrates ( Castillos Jr. , 2003) . Landfills can generate approximately up to 125 cubic meters of methane gas per ton of garbage in a period of 10 to 40. According to the Company Generation of leachate Emission of Odors Gas Generation Groundwater Level atmosphere Management of Municipal Solid Waste - Landfill 36

Environmental Sanitation Technology , Cetesb (1999 ) , this generation in Brazil is 677 Gg / year, which may account for some 945 million cubic meters per year. Are presented in Table 2.4 the amount of waste and the rate of production of some landfills USA. Quantity of Waste Landfill Gas Production Rate Azusa 6.350 x 10 6 0.002 kg m 3 / kg.ano Mountain View 3628 x 10 6 0.008 kg m 3 / kg.ano Sheldon - Arletta 5.450 x 10 6 0.014 kg m 3 / kg.ano Palos Verdes 18,143 x 10 6 0001 kg m 3 / kg.ano Scholl Canyon 4500 x 10

6 0.006 kg m 3 / kg.ano Table 2.4 Amount of waste and production rate of landfill gas health Source : Adapted from Castillos , Jr.2003 2.3 Composition and Utilization of Landfill Gas produced in toilets The produced gas consists primarily of methane ( CH4 ) and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . Other chemical species present in the gas depend directly from the composition of the waste deposited there and the stage of the process decomposition, which indicates that it is necessary to know their concentrations an assessment of environmental impacts resulting within the rules environmental regulations. See Table 2.4 and Table 2.5 . composition Concentration Methane CH4 44.03 % Carbon dioxide 34.2 % Oxygen O2 % 0:52 Nitrogen N2 20.81 % Ammonia NH3 1.7 to 3.9 ppm Propane C3H8 7 ppm Butane C4H10 4 ppm 50 to 90 ppm Toluene 80 to 110 ppm benzene Table 2.5 Composition of gases from landfill Mountain View , California , USA .

Source : Adapted from Castillos , Jr.2003 The natural methane according to the IPCC (1996) corresponds to only 20 % of emissions leaving the remaining 80% resulting from activities Management of Municipal Solid Waste - Landfill 37 human . And according to Cetesb (2001 ) among the world's emissions methane, 8 % fall to landfills and dumps . See Figure 2.5 . Studies by Keller (1988) indicate that the landfill gas contain six classes of compounds: saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons , alcohols, organic acids and hydrocarbons , aromatic hydrocarbons , halogenated compounds , sulfur compounds and inorgnios . Other studies made by Allen et al. (1997) in landfills England, 140 identify volatile organic compounds ( VOCs) , of which 90 are Composition detected in all samples . They are: alkanes , aromatic compounds , cycle -alkanes , terpenes , alcohols and ketones and compounds halogenated . Figure 2.5 Global distribution of methane sources Source : Adapted from MCT 1997 Methane , as previously stated , is a flammable gas and contributes very strongly for increasing the greenhouse effect. The hydrogen sulfide and other trace components of biogas are toxic and have unpleasant odors . In contrast, due to the percentage of methane in its composition, biogas produced in landfills can be used as fuel, Sources of Methane 7% 7% 8% 11%

17 % 22% 28 % Animal waste Wastewater treatment landfills Biomass burning paddies enteric fermentation Coal , natural gas and ind . petrochemicals Management of Municipal Solid Waste - Landfill 38 the generation of thermal or electric power , or cogeneration systems . The calorific value of the gas is between 14.9 and 20.5 MJ/m3 or 5,800 kcal/m3 . The use of waste gas is held in various countries ( Europe, America , Asia) and can be considered as the simplest use of waste energy Urban solid . This use of garbage shows as advantages : the reduction of greenhouse greenhouse due to methane consumption , low cost for the disposal of waste and use as fuel for power generation or gas produced. The disadvantages : poor gas recovery in recovery of about 50 % impossibility of use of the gas in locations remote high cost to "upgrade " of plants , longshots autoignition or explosion . Comparing the advantages and disadvantages , the first have much larger impacts ( Oliveira , 2000) . Figure 2.6 is a schematic of how small the gas is captured in the region the landfill and used to generate electricity . The capture system involves a network of pipes drilled uniformly which run through the biogas, which is conveyed to a collector

page. According to Rose et al. (2003 ), two system configurations collection are used : vertical wells and horizontal trenches . The capture system should be designed to enable monitoring and adjustments flows biogas , facilitating its operation . Liquid wastes that are collected through gutters located in base of the landfill , can be redirected into the landfill , allowing Decomposition greater and greater gas production . Figure 2.6 Schematic capture and electricity generation from waste gas . Source : Adapted from CADDET 393 2000 biogas waste Capture of biogas thermoelectric Management of Municipal Solid Waste - Landfill 39 Before use , the process of energy conversion , biogas passes through a phase of treatment. In this phase particulates are removed , impurities present in the condensate and gas. This treatment depends on the end use of biogas . The treated gas is directed to systems for steam generation ( boilers , furnaces ) or electric energy generation systems ( engines stationary ) and can also be harnessed to heat rejected heating water. Its use as fuel for electricity generation is the most common. A cogeneration system can be an alternative , and obtain high efficiencies can be used for various purposes to ensure more revenue for the project . In Brazil , in 2003 , there were initiatives to leverage

biogas generated in landfills or dumps old . Examples of these initiatives are, for example , found in the cities of So Paulo and Salvador . 2.3.1 Bandeirantes Landfill Municipal The Bandeirantes Landfill , in So Paulo , is considered one of the largest world , receives about 7,000 tons of waste per day , 50 % of total produced in the city . Its use began almost 30 years ago and is being completed in 2006 , it is expected that this year is storing more than 30 million tons of garbage . The gases produced were simply burned in vertical drains , releasing pollutants into the atmosphere . (Site Logos Engineering ) . On January 23, 2004 , was inaugurated Thermoelectric Gas Bandeirantes Landfill Municipal already uses the biogas produced in landfill to generate electricity . Management of Municipal Solid Waste - Landfill 40 Bandeirantes Landfill Figure 2.7 - Aerial Photo Source : Website ARCADIS Logos Engineering The correct use of gas provides a significant reduction in gas methane, obeying in practice , which is given in Protocol Kyoto on reducing emissions of greenhouse gases . The capture of biogas is through pipes connected to drains vertical strategically placed in the landfill , along with equipment suction drying and burning the gas surplus . The collected gas is routed to motor- generators , located in the plant the filling, with a minimum concentration of 50% by volume , at a flow rate of to 12.000m3 / h . This amount can generate electricity to power a city of about 300,000 people .

Management of Municipal Solid Waste - Landfill 41 Figure 2.8 Bandeirantes Landfill - Moto - generators Source : Website ARCADIS Logos Energy The plant is connected to four alimentadoresde energy Eletropaulo that delivers to parts of the city . 2.3.2 Social Environmental Park Canabrava In the period between 1974 and 1997 the former landfill received waste Canabrava generated by the city of Salvador . It was the scene of a reality of degradation significant social . About 1000 scavengers working in cooperatives and survived by scavenging garbage . In partnership with the Government of Canada , the city of Salvador undertook the construction project of Social and Environmental Park of Canabrava . This project involved studies and actions for sealing the territory of the landfill to the planning for recycling and composting of waste , and the produzidosno utilization of gases inside the old dump . Management of Municipal Solid Waste - Landfill 42 Figure 2.9 Socio Environmental Canabrava Park - Units Composting Screening Recycled and Leisure Areas . The Social Environmental Park is now an urbanized area and houses a large space for leisure community in the region . also integrating this space is Canabrava Child Project , which performs actions related to education of children of former scavengers , Park officials today . the Composting plants for the production of fertilizer and screening material recyclable ( plastic, glass , cardboard ) and a thermal power plant for the pilot electric power generation . The gas produced is channeled through vertical drains . after studies

made chose three such drains , according to the level of concentration of methane to power the motor- generator. See Figure 2.9 . The biogas captured is filtered and dehumidified before being directed to the generator , providing a greater concentration of methane in the combustor . The remaining gases follow for burning in a flare . Today , there is only a pilot plant with a capacity of 75kWh , which feeds all the equipment and part of the complex of residences residents. In the graph shown in Figure 2.1 , one can still identify a high percentage of the presence of garbage dumps in Brazil . In this sense , means Management of Municipal Solid Waste - Landfill 43 that initiatives such as this , held in Salvador , may set in excellent opportunities for other cities in Brazil . Figure 2.10 - Social Environmental Park Canabrava - Ducted Gas Inlet , Valves and Input Generator . The biogas composition , are known volume concentrations methane , carbon dioxide and oxygen in each well of power generator . The average composition of September 2003 and February 2004 are presented in Table 2.6. Biogas composition ( vol ) September 2003 Biogas composition ( vol ) February 2004 CH4 39.6 % 24.6 % CO2 32.8 % 27% O2 0.2 % 0.4 % Blend 27.4 % 48 %

Table 2.6 Composition of the gases generated in the Park Partner Environmental Canabrava Salvador , Bahia , Brazil 2.3.3 Center of Waste Disposal - Montreal (1988 ) The Centre for Waste Disposal , in Montreal , in 1988 , received about 30,000 tons of solid waste since 1968 . From the Management of Municipal Solid Waste - Landfill 44 motivation to improve the quality of life of people living near the landfill , the city hall , along with companies particular , built a plant for generating electricity , and as fuel gas produced in landfills . The project was also contained treatment of this gas to prevent environmental problems . CADDET (Result 393 - 2000) . The gas produced in landfills is channeled into a filter , which removes and particles existing in the condensed gas. Condensate is , in turn , piped to a place of treatment. Umcompressor raises the gas pressure 35kpa to ( g). The compressed gas is burnt in a combustor having the capability of produce 100.000kg / h of steam . The temperature inside the combustor is between 1650 and 1700 the C. The steam is in turn channeled to a turbine coupled to a generator. In the design conditions have to supply a plant for generating electricity with installed capacity of 25MW . The gas produced after combustion is composed mainly of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor with traces of nitrogen oxides (NOx) , carbon monoxide (CO) , sulfur dioxide (SO2 ) , hydrocarbons, and

unburnt compounds . In Table 2.7 we can find the composition of the gas produced in and landfill gas composition delivered after combustion . compounds concentration ( by vol) emissions concentration ( by vol) CH435 CO266 % , 7% N220 % H2O 15.6 % N217 O2 5 % 7% CO 40% CO2 24 ppmv 232 ppmv ppmv H2S NOX21 VOC 's 743 ppmv ppmv SO233 HC 2 ppmv Table 2.7 Composition of gas produced in the landfill in Montreal and its emissions after combustion process. The concentration values obtained in the landfill in question , comply with regulatory laws on air quality in force in Canada . According to the mass balance conducted using air as the oxidant with 78 % nitrogen, 21 % oxygen and 1 % argon , emissions nitrogen and carbon dioxide would be reversed. We present in Table 2.8 , probable values for concentrations of emissions in landfill montreal . Management of Municipal Solid Waste - Landfill 45 emissions concentration ( by vol)

CO217 , 7% H2O 15.6 % N266 , 7% 24 ppmv CO NOX21 ppmv SO233 ppmv HC 2 ppmv Table 2.8 emissions after combustion process of the gas produced in the landfill Montreal , according to a mass balance conducted in this study. From the values presented for the landfill in Montreal began a study of a model for the simulation of a process Combustion in which it was possible to investigate the concentration of pollutants formed from biogas produced in landfills .