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Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
Margaret M. Calderon Nathaniel C. Bantayan Josefina T. Dizon Asa Jose U. Sajise Analyn L. Codilan Myranel G. Salvador
SOUTHEAST ASIAN REGIONAL CENTER FOR GRADUATE STUDY AND RESEARCH IN AGRICULTURE Science and education for agriculture and development
Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
Abstract
he study aimed to build the capacity of Hungduan farmers in preparation for a full-blown Payments for Environmental and Cultural Services (PECS) project, by engaging them in environmental and cultural resource assessment in a watershed context. Specifically, the study facilitated activities that enhanced Ifugao farmers knowledge in community-based resource and damage assessment and mapping, identified the environmental and cultural services of Hungduan, and formulated communitybased management plans for four sub-watersheds. The processes in implementing the study were also documented. The total areas of rice terraces in Clusters 1, 2, 3, and 4 were estimated to be 623 hectares (ha), 631 ha, 1,171 ha, and 637 ha, respectively. Damaged terraces ranged from 13 percent to a maximum of 20 percent, while abandoned terraces were found to be minimal. The farmers identified water, carbon sequestration, and soil conservation as the ecosystem services produced by the rice terraces; whereas organic farming, native customs, and the maintenance and restoration of stone walls, terraces, and woodlots were regarded as the cultural services. The farmers developed management plans that were similar in terms of objectives and strategies but different in implementation strategies, costs, and scheduling. Some farmers did not readily accept the use of the watershed as a management unit. In addition, their harvests from the terraces were barely enough for their subsistence; they had no surplus income that could be used for terrace repair.
Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
The study found, among other things, that complementing indigenous knowledge with classroom and research techniques is effective in generating reliable information needed for management planning, and the use of three-dimensional (3D) maps can facilitate management plan preparation. Farmers activities in rice terraces management and conservation should be supported or subsidized, possibly by the local government units and the countryside development fund of congressmen and senators (short-term), or through a sustainable financing mechanism such as PECS (long-term). Aside from tourism revenues, such a financing mechanism may also be supported by payments for other environmental services produced, such as water, biodiversity, and carbon sequestration.
Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
Introduction
he Ifugao Rice Terraces (IRT) of the Philippinesthe most famous among the rice terraces found in the Asia-Pacific regionattract a significant number of local and foreign tourists annually. Nine of the 11 municipalities of Ifugao province are home to rice terraces, and those in the municipalities of Kiangan, Hungduan, and Mayoyao, and the barangays of Batad and Bangaan in the municipality of Banaue have been inscribed in the UNESCO World Heritage List under the category of organically-evolved landscapes. Though the municipalities of Asipulo, Aguinaldo, Hingyon, Lagawe, and Tinoc are not mentioned, there are initiatives to include more rice terraces in the list. In a workshop conducted by the project proponents in March 2008, a number of stakeholders noted that conservation efforts have focused only on the heritage municipalities even as the same problems have been observed in the non-heritage ones. They expressed concern that this may result in the deterioration of the rice terraces in other areas. As with other heritage sites, the rice terraces were an offspring of necessity and were not made deliberately as heritage areas. Originally carved from the mountains more than 2,000 years ago, the terraces were created by the people of Ifugao for rice planting. The indigenous knowledge of the Ifugao allowed them to sculpt terraces on mountain slopes that both conserved soil and water, which made for sustainable rice production. The terraces have gained recognition throughout the world; the use of traditional skills and hydraulic works in the engineering and construction of the terraces has been marvelled at. However, the condition of the terraces has deteriorated over the years, owing to problems that include low rice productivity, outmigration, overcutting of woodlots, erosion and landslides,
Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
problematic irrigation system, and the presence of pests such as golden snails and giant earthworms. These problems have resulted in the abandonment of many terraces that, if allowed to continue, could compromise their very existence. The research team completed a two-phase project funded by the Economy and Environment Program for Southeast Asia (EEPSEA) that aimed to develop a sustainable financing mechanism for the conservation of the IRT. Phase 1 was undertaken to explain the socio-cultural factors that influence the Ifugao farmers practices in relation to the terraces; analyze the water allocation system in Ifugao and how this affects the availability of water for irrigation; and assess the availability of labor to undertake rehabilitation and protection of the terraces. On the other hand, Phase 2 aimed to evaluate alternative approaches to capture tourists willingness to pay (WTP) to partly finance conservation efforts, estimate the extent and occurrence of abandonment of and damage to the rice terraces in the four heritage municipalities in Ifugao, and lay the groundwork for institutionalizing a sustainable financing mechanism. Among the significant findings of the project are (1) the Ifugao farmers need for financial support to rehabilitate the irrigation system and terrace walls, and other livelihood activities to augment farm incomes; and (2) a strong demand for the cultural and environmental services that the terraces provide, which if captured, would possibly become a significant source of funds to support the farmers. In a meeting on 19 January 2009, Ifugao Governor Teodoro B. Baguilat, Jr. mentioned that the efforts of the University of the Philippines Los Baos (UPLB)-EEPSEA research team will help the province meet the benchmarks set by UNESCO to remove the IRT from the World Heritage in Danger list. One of these benchmarks is the development of a sustainable financing mechanism for the terraces, which when in place, will help finance the restoration of damaged walls and support the initiatives under the Globally-
Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
Important Agricultural Heritage Systems, such as reforestation, livelihood, ecotourism, and community-based land use and zoning. The research teams earlier work has demonstrated that the farmers need support to continue farming the rice terraces and sustain the provision of the cultural and environmental services that they, in the process of farming, provide. In addition, there is a demand for these services and the potential to raise revenues from the demand side (e.g., local and foreign tourists and other possible donors) is high. To complete the picture, the problem of securing the continuous provision of these services, which may be compromised if the current problems are not addressed, has to be tackled. That is, how revenues, if generated, will be used effectively and efficiently to secure the cultural and environmental services of the IRT. This study focused on capacity building for the farmers of Hungduan in preparation for a full-blown Payments for Environmental and Cultural Services (PECS) project. It aimed to engage farmers in environmental and cultural resource assessment in a watershed context with particular focus on the Ifugao indigenous knowledge system. Specifically, the project facilitated activities that enhanced Ifugao farmers knowledge of community-based resource and damage assessment and mapping, identified the environmental and cultural services of Hungduan, and prepared community-based management plans for four sub-watersheds. Payment for Environmental Services An increased global awareness of the need to conserve environmental resources has led to the development of a number of natural resource management policies. There has been a recent shift from rigid top-down decision making towards more flexible and voluntary approaches. This shift is part of a wider governance reform designed to increase the effectiveness of conservation efforts and the flow of more benefits to the communities.
Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
Environmental degradation is occurring at an alarming rate, prompting immediate action and more direct and innovative solutions for environmental conservation (Leimona and Lee 2008). Among these innovations is the payments for ecosystem services or payments for environmental services (PES). PES as a recent policy innovation has attracted attention in both developed and developing countries. PES programs aim to harness market forces to obtain more efficient environmental outcomes (Zilberman 2007). It seeks to support positive environmental externalities through the transfer of financial resources from beneficiaries of certain environmental services to those who provide these services or are fiduciaries of environmental resources. Over the last decade, the use of PES schemes for watersheds, biodiversity, carbon sequestration, and landscape beauty dominated (Wunder 2006; Leimona and Lee 2008). Authors provide various definitions of PES. According to Raben (2007), PES is an environmental management instrument that uses economic incentives to promote the conservation of the environment and the environmental services it provides. It aims to establish benefit streams, whether in cash or kind, flowing from beneficiaries of improved environmental services to the providers of the services. The concept behind PES is to provide incentives and benefits to the people who now utilize environmentally-valuable ecosystems in return for their agreeing to utilize these services to protect or enhance their local benefits (Noordwijk et al. 2007; Pagiola and Platais 2002). PES is voluntary and involves conditioned transactions of welldefined environmental services between at least one service provider and beneficiary. It is also designed to generate its own financing as beneficiaries are to make ongoing payments from their own funds. These payments are to be conditional on the actual delivery of the environmental service, which demands real environmental results (Leimona and Lee 2008; Wunder 2005).
Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
The PES Market Environmental services may be non-material and/or nonextractive benefits from natural resources, such as watershed protection and carbon sequestration. Payments and rewards may consist of a range of positive incentives that may also include benefits, such as decision-making power, and capacity-building (Lee et al. 2007). Compensation and incentives can be economic, social, and moral while economic incentives can be in terms of direct payments, financial incentives, or in kind (Lasco 2008). The service providers in PES programs are characterized as being rural or peri-urban. In PES programs in Asia, most service providers are small-scale farmers practicing subsistence or market farming, or horticulture in a mixed landscape that includes farms and forests. They are also users of natural resources, such as forests, based on formal or informal rights to the resource. They have a diverse range of livelihood activities undertaken for survival and subsistence. Furthermore, the service providers usually have limited information and may be unaware of the effects of their activities. They lack clear land tenures, have little political voice and even lesser power to negotiate agreements (Lee et al. 2007). On the other hand, beneficiaries of PES programs can be local (e.g., water users in the lower watershed), national (e.g., state, nongovernment organizations [NGOs] or business associations), or international (e.g., international organizations or NGOs). They can also be multi-nationals or international, or a mix of local, national, and international beneficiaries. The nature, number, and origin of beneficiaries directly relate to the nature of environmental services generated under the PES scheme. Transaction costs are reduced if beneficiaries are few and well-organized (Mayrand and Paquin 2004).
Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
Requirements for PES Before PES schemes are designed and implemented, it is recommended that a set of requirements be addressed to ensure success and effectiveness. Leimona and Lee (2008) identified the following as requirements for PES: (1) an effective supply and demand for PES mechanism, (2) a supportive national and international condition, and (3) support by credible intermediary organizations. There should be a clear demand by buyers for a mechanism to ensure contractual agreement between environmental service providers as sellers and beneficiaries as buyers. There should also be adequate spatial and temporal scales for delivering environmental services. PES projects should cover a significant area and should consider the time lag between conservation activities and their outcomes. In most cases, the countries that had embraced security of property rights, market exchange, and environmental conservation are most likely to implement PES programs effectively. Finally, assistance by an intermediary organization in the research, monitoring, and evaluation activities is important to justify the establishment, implementation, and continued operation of public PES schemes. Lee et al. (2007) suggest that a realistic PES program should consider both the environmental and economic factors that are necessary and feasible to effectively improve or maintain the provision of an environmental service. In terms of the environmental factors, a realistic PES requires a clear relationship to have been established between the land use modification that forms the basis for the payment scheme, and the proposed environmental service outcomes. This means that management practices by ES providers could actually maintain or improve the ES provision. In addition, a viable PES program should be realistic in terms of the timing, adequacy, and quality of implemented practices, allowing enough time for desired environmental outcomes to emerge. For the economic factors, it is important that the scheme be based on an understanding of the economic costs and benefits accruing to various
Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
stakeholders. Since there are different types of costs involved in a PES scheme, a realistic scheme recognizes the need to match the ES beneficiaries willingness to pay and the providers willingness to accept the offered payment or reward as the basis for negotiation of benefit-sharing. In terms of the PES scheme design, the following important elements should be included and clearly defined: (1) the environmental service to be provided, (2) who is paid and the amount of payments, (3) actions or results necessary to earn payment, and (4) payment administration (Noordwijk et al. 2007; Francisco 2003; Batie and Horan 2001; Mayrand and Paquin 2004). Leimona et al. (2008) add that PES schemes will succeed if the community involved appreciates its opportunity, role, and impact as ES sellers. The communities should be involved in the scheme voluntarily and understand their bargaining positions based on optimal threat and cooperation with other stakeholders. Communities should have a well-functioning structure to support an operational PES mechanism effectively. PES initiatives in Asia and the Philippines In 2002, a collaboration between the International Center for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF), now the World Agroforestry Center, and the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) resulted in the birth of Rewarding the Upland Poor for Environmental Services They Provide (RUPES). Under RUPES, a range of methods that would allow the beneficiaries of environmental services to pay upland communities for their environmental services were tried (Hargrove and Chandler 2004). Initially, six research sites were established in the Philippines, Nepal, Indonesia, and China. The two RUPES sites in the Philippines were the Manupali Watershed in the province of Bukidnon and the municipality of Bakun in the province of Benguet.
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Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
The whole municipality of Lantapan is located in the Manupali Watershed. About 13 percent of farm households have adopted soil and water conservation technologies in 2001, covering an area of about 1,230 ha. The large-scale adoption of conservation technologies can potentially stabilize farming systems and generate environmental benefits such as soil conservation, maintenance of water quality and quantity, and biodiversity conservation (World Agroforestry Center 2010a). In 2007, the stakeholders from Manupali, Lantapan began developing a PES scheme but required technical assistance. The municipality has also enacted an incentive-based policy in 2009, which provided support to farmers and farmer organizations that have adopted and invested in sustainable farming systems, and ensured the continuous provision of environmental services. The case of Manupali, Lantapan illustrates how a local government-led PES scheme can be a substitute for or complement PES efforts at the national level (Catacutan et al. 2010). Furthermore, it was noted that a locally-designed PES scheme can actually provide legitimacy at the individual and community levels, enhancing its potential to help the poor. The municipality of Bakun in Benguet has an area of about 30,000 ha of rugged terrain (World Agroforestry Center 2010b). It has the distinction of having been awarded the first Certificate of Ancestral Domain Title in the Philippines. The Bakun Watershed, with a drainage area of 29,300 ha, has four major rivers. Two of these, Bakun and Gambang, support the hydroelectric power operations of two mini-hydro companies. The companies provide benefits to the municipality in terms of taxes; they also provide other benefits to the local government unit (LGU). The LGU has Memoranda of Agreement with HEDCOR Inc., signed in 1991, and with Luzon Hydropower Corporation, signed in 1997.
Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
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The RUPES project in Bakun tested the existing reward/payment mechanism with the hydroelectric companies, and assisted the community in the formulation of the Bakun Integrated Watershed Development and Management Plan. The plan was jointly implemented by the Bakun Indigenous Tribes Organization and the Bakun LGU. For their conservation efforts, the community received incentives from the hydroelectric companies. Concepcion et al. (2005) conducted a study on the multifunctionality of the IRT. The authors clarify that the practical application of multi-functionality refers to the non-marketable, collateral functions of agriculture in the forms of food security, environmental services, enhancing landscape aesthetics, and in satisfying social, cultural, and religious needs of various ethnic and local communities. Among other things, they identified the multifunctional roles that the terraces perform to include food (rice) production; soil and water conservation, especially in supplying clean water to Magat Dam; environmental enhancement; reduction of natural hazards (e.g., flooding, drought, and landslides); and the creation of beautiful touristic landscapes. These uses have economic and social values not only to the rural and urban communities but to the global community as well. Description of the Project Area Ifugao is a landlocked province in the Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR) and bounded by the provinces of Mountain Province to the north, Isabela to the east, Nueva Vizcaya to the south, and Benguet to the west. It has 11 municipalities (Figure 1); Asipulo, Tinoc, Kiangan, Lagawe, Hingyon, Banaue, Hungduan, Mayoyao, and Aguinaldo have rice terraces while Lamut and Alfonso Lista do not. The municipalities included in the UNESCO World Heritage List are Banaue, Kiangan, Mayoyao, and Hungduan.
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Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
Aguinaldo
Alfonso Lista
Kiangan Tinoc
Lamut Asipulo
Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
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The project site is Hungduan, one of the four heritage municipalities of Ifugao. It is bounded by Banaue to the east; Kiangan to the south; Tinoc to the southwest; Sabangan, Mountain Province to the northwest; and Bontoc, Mountain Province to the north. Geographically located at 1650N and 12100E, the municipality is 25 kilometers (km) from Banaue and 45 km from the provincial capital of Lagawe. The total land area of Hungduan is 22,911 ha, which represents about 9 percent of Ifugaos total land area of 251,778 ha. The municipality has nine barangays, of which Lubo-ong is the biggest and Hapao is the smallest, with land areas of 4,550 ha and 1,407 ha, respectively. The other barangays are Abatan, Baang, Bangbang, Bokiawan, Maggok, Nungulunan, and Poblacion. The barangays covered by the project are Hapao, Baang, Nungulunan, and Poblacion (Figure 2). The elevation of Hungduan ranges from 700 to 2,700 meters above sea level (masl), with the lowest elevations observed in the river valleys in Brgy. Bangbang and Brgy. Maggok, and the highest elevations in the peaks of Mt. Napulawan (2,642 masl) and Mt. Calawitan (2,714 masl). As with other areas of CAR, the terrain of Hungduan is generally mountainous. The four major rivers of Sumigar-Lubo-ong, Hapao, Dakkitan, and Galung, drain into the Ibulao river. The barangays included in the study are sub-watersheds of the Hapao and Dakkitan rivers. About half of Hungduan is forestland, particularly in the western portion. The eastern side is where clusters of rice terraces can be found.
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Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
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Methodology
Research Design The activities that were undertaken in the study, which include site selection, capacity building of farmer groups for communitybased management planning, and process documentation, are shown in Figure 3. The development and issuance of the PECS contracts is not included in the scope of this research project funded by the Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture-Seed Fund for Research and Training (SEARCASFRT). The final output of the project were enabled farmer groups, from which potential bidders for the PECS project (Figure 4) may be recruited based on the process discussed in the original proposal (see Limitations of the Study). Selection of study sites The criteria considered in selecting the project sites were the willingness of the community to participate, accessibility (for efficient monitoring), area of the terrace-woodlot cluster, and the extent of damage based on an ocular survey that the team conducted in March 2009. With assistance from the Ifugao Cultural Heritage Office (ICHO) and the local government of Hungduan, four sub-watersheds were identified, from which the farmer-participants were drawn. Inasmuch as the unit of management would be the watershed and not the political boundaries, the participants were divided into four clusters (Figure 5) with each cluster corresponding to one subwatershed, namely, Cluster 1 - Nungulunan and Hapao; Cluster 2 - Baang and Nungulunan; Cluster 3 - Baang and Hapao; and Cluster 4 - Hapao and Poblacion.
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Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
Process Documentation
Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
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Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
Capacity building of farmer groups To build the capacity of farmer groups, three training-workshops on resource and damage assessment methods, community mapping, and management plan preparation were conducted. The same farmers attended the three training-workshops since the lectures and hands-on exercises led towards the preparation of the final output, which is the management plan. Aside from the farmer-participants, representatives of the Hungduan LGU and ICHO were also present. During the first training-workshop (15-16 February 2010), the research team discussed community-based management planning, resource assessment methods, and community mapping. Geographic information system (GIS)-based maps were produced on large sheets of paper showing basic features such as stream network, communal forest upstream, farmlots, and trails, among others. The community members were asked to indicate damaged areas on the map. The farmer groups were likewise trained on simple techniques to monitor soil erosion (e.g., erosion pins) and rainfall through the installation of simple fabricated instruments. The second training-workshop (26-28 May 2010) was conducted to (1) validate the outputs of the farmer groups, (2) identify the environmental and cultural services that farmers produce as they tend the rice terraces, and (3) prepare the management plan. To facilitate plan preparation, the research team provided the farmers with a simplified management plan template. The third training-workshop (13-15 October 2010) was conducted to enhance the management plans prepared by the farmers and to present these to local government officials.
Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
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Community-based resource and damage assessment After the first training-workshop, the farmer groups undertook community-based resource and damage assessment. In this activity, the farmers also conducted an inventory of their communal forest/ woodlots to generate an estimate of floral diversity, including the extent and scope of use of the communal forest by the communities. A socio-economic survey involving 200 farmer respondents was also conducted. The resources and the damaged terraces were estimated through a participatory process involving the community members from each of the clusters. The process included the following steps: (1) community three-dimensional (3D) mapping of land use and rice terraces, (2) GIS-based mapping, and (3) validation workshop. Community 3D maps help to maximize the learning experience by enhancing the visual familiarity of the landscape in which the community lives. In this approach, the community members constructed the 3D models (Figure 6). The 3D models allowed the participants to better visualize their own landscape and thus indicate more accurately the different land uses on the map. The land uses of interest include the extent and coverage of terraces, woodlots, and the households. The participants were also asked to indicate the conditions of the terraces (i.e., whether these were damaged or abandoned). The data from the 3D models were then transformed into GIS maps. These maps were used to provide estimates of coverage (i.e., location) and extent (ha). After this exercise (step 2), a validation workshop (step 3) was undertaken to enable the participants to refine the results of landuse and terrace-woodlots, especially the extent of damaged terraces. Also, the results of the validation served as input in the preparation of the management plan.
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Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
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Socio-economic survey A socio-economic survey involving 200 farmer respondents was conducted, through which information regarding the farmers farming practices, water supply situation, farm labor availability, costs and returns from farming, problems in the terraces, and socioeconomic situation were gathered. The farmer respondents were distributed proportionately across the four clusters based on the area of each cluster (Table 1). This means that the bigger the area of a cluster, the greater the number of respondents selected. In choosing the respondents per barangay for a given cluster, the proportion of respondents was based on the number of households of the barangay. The sample size of each barangay was 20 percent of the total number of households. There are 175 households in Baang, 420 households in Hapao, 179 households in Nungulunan, and 225 households in Poblacion. The respondents were selected systematically. The data gathered from the socio-economic survey were subjected to quantitative analysis and descriptive statistics.
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Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
Process documentation Process documentation was undertaken throughout the implementation of the project. The documentation included meeting highlights, process and photo-documentation, and regular discussions among the research team members and co-implementers (e.g., ICHO and the Hungduan LGU).
Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
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Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
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Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
As expected, the creek area exhibited the highest erosion. However, unexpectedly, the abandoned area fared better than the forest area. Initial analysis revealed that the reason may be due to the presence of more ground cover, in terms of grass, in the abandoned area than in the forest area. Given the short period for this research, this result should not be taken as conclusive and should be pursued with more resources and a longer period of research. Socio-economic Survey A total of 200 respondents were interviewed for the socioeconomic survey, with 27, 35, 74, and 64 respondents for Clusters 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively. A summary of the respondents socioeconomic characteristics is given in Table 5. Most of the respondents (84%) were male, married (80%), with ages ranging from 24 to 88 years old, with an average age of 48.97 years. The primary occupation of 59 percent of the respondents was cultivating their own farms, while 20 percent were tenant farmers. The income from their primary occupation ranged from PHP 500 to PHP 45,000 per month, with an average of PHP 6,436 per month. It is interesting to note that 46 percent of the respondents said that they did not have any secondary occupation, which means that they were totally dependent on farming. About 25 percent of the respondents were elementary school undergraduates, and only a few (7.5%) finished college. In terms of ownership of the terraces they tilled, 45 percent of the respondents said that these were owned by their relatives, while 40 percent, 30 percent, and 28 percent revealed that the terraces were owned by both husband and wife, husband alone, and wife alone, respectively (Table 6). The most common mode of terrace acquisition was inheritance (70%), although kinapya1 was also usual (Table 7).
1
Scheme where the farmer tenant and the owner of the land share the harvest equally
Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
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Almost all respondents (96%) said that they were able to plant in all their plots. The nine respondents who revealed they were not able to plant in all their plots cited insufficient water supply (4%), and damaged terraces as the reasons (2%). All the respondents from Baang belonging to Clusters 2 and 3 said that irrigation was available, and so did most respondents from Nungulunan (Clusters 1 and 2) and Poblacion (Cluster 4) (Table 8). However, 21 respondents from Hapao belonging to Clusters 1 and 4, said that irrigation was not readily available. This is because most irrigation facilities in Hapao, with the exception of those in Hapao Proper, were damaged. Furthermore, all respondents except those from Cluster 4s Hapao said that water was sufficient during the rainy season. However, 62 percent of the respondents encountered water supply problems during the dry season, which made them resort to other sources of water, such as springs. According to 62 percent of the respondents, the insufficient water supply was the main reason for their low harvests. Water supply problems also contributed to the collapse of terrace walls, earthworm infestation, and the eventual abandonment of the terraces (Table 9). To improve the water supply for the rice terraces, 42 percent of the respondents saw the need to rehabilitate the existing irrigation canals by concretizing them, or by installing PVC pipes in the canals (39%). It is interesting to note that some respondents have been farming for more than 50 years, with a few having farmed for about 70 years (Table 10). As is the common practice in other rice terraces in Ifugao, the farmers plant rice only once a year, all of them using the traditional variety tinawon. Only four respondents said they used commercial fertilizers, while the rest used organic fertilizer. Likewise, all the respondents said they observed a fallow period for their farms.
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Cluster 1
Cluster 3
Cluster 4
Total
Characteristics No 12 3 35-70 52.27 0 13 2 0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 2 4 13.3 5 25.0 0 0.0 11 20.4 0.0 3.7 7.4 86.7 15 75.0 19 95.0 37 68.5 0.00 0 0.0 1 5.0 0 0.0 0 16 2 0 0 1 49.8 49.3 48.4 49.5 0.0 84.2 10.5 0.0 0.0 5.3 2 37 2 0 0 4 29-65 24-75 27-87 35-72 20.0 5 25.0 0 0.0 14 25.9 1 5.3 6 13.3 23-88 45.4 4.4 82.2 4.4 0.00 0.00 8.9 3 160 25 0 2 10 80.0 15 75.0 20 100.0 40 74.1 18 94.7 39 86.7 168 32 % No % No % No % No % No % No
Hapao
Nungulunan
No
No
% 84.0 16.0 24-88 48.97 1.5 80.0 12.5 0.0 1.0 5.0
Gender
Male
81.8
15
93.8
Female
18.2
6.3
Age
Range (yrs)
31-68
24-83
Average (yrs)
49.5
47.7
Marital Status
Unmarried
0.0
0.0
63.6
16
100.0
Widow/Widower
27.3
0.0
Divorced
0.0
0.0
Separated
0.0
0.0
Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
9.1
0.0
Cluster 1 Total No %
Cluster 3
Cluster 4
Characteristics No % No % No % No % No % No %
Hapao
Nungulunan
No
No
Primary Occupation 08 03 03 020.0 01 005 05 025 07 013.0 020.0 06 030 03 015 12 022.2 053.3 12 060 10 050 23 042.6 18 094.7 29 064.4
07
063.6
10
062.5
Tenant farmer
04
036.4
04
025.0
Handicraft/ Processing/ cottage industry 00 00 01 00 000.0 01 005 00 000 006.7 00 000 02 010 000.0 00 000 00 000 02 003.7 05 009.3 04 007.4 000.0 00 000 00 000 01 001.9
00
000.0
01
006.3
00
000.0
00
000.0
Transport operator
00
000.0
00
000.0
Construction labor
00
000.0
01
006.3
00
000.0
00
000.0
Income 1,00034,000 2,000-2,000 5,850 6,933.33 1,500-5,000 500-20,000 8,860 5,853.70 2,00019,000 5,657.90 1,00024,000 6,877.78 500-45,000 6,435.69
Range (PHP/mo)
2,000-14,000 500-25,000
Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
5,109.09
6,343.75
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30
Cluster 1
Characteristics
Hapao
Nungulunan
No
No
Secondary Occupation 08 04 00 01 006.7 05 025 01 050 03 005.6 03 015.8 000.0 01 005 02 010 08 014.8 00 000.0 02 04 026.7 01 005 05 025 11 020.4 00 000.0 07 053.3 11 055 07 035 24 044.4 12 063.2 17 037.8 015.6 004.4 008.9
None
05
045.5
07 043.8
00
000.0
01 006.3
Tenant farmer
00
000.0
01 006.3
Handicraft/ Processing/ Cottage industry 00 00 02 00 00 00 15 100.0 20 100 20 000.0 00 000 00 000.0 00 000 00 000 000 100 02 00 54 000.0 02 010 00 000 03 013.3 00 000 05 025 02 000.0 00 000 00 000 01 001.9 003.7 005.6 003.7 000.0 100.0 01 02 01 00 00 19 000.0 00 000 00 000 00 000.0 00
04
036.4
06 037.5
00
000.0
00 000.0
00 01 08 04 00 02 45
Transport operator
00
000.0
00 000.0
Construction labor
01
009.1
01 006.3
00
000.0
00 000.0
Home maker
01
009.1
00 000.0
Gardening/vegetable crop
00
000.0
00 000.0
Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
Total
11
100.0
16 100.0
Cluster 1
Characteristics
Hapao
Nungulunan
No
No
Highest Educational Attainment 1 0 7 2 3 2 0 0 0 0 0 15 100.0 20 100 0.0 0 0 0 20 0.0 1 5 0 0 0 100 0.0 1 5 0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 9 0 1 0 54 0.0 0 0 1 5 7 12.9 16.7 0.0 2.2 0.0 100.0 13.3 1 5 3 15 14 25.9 07 00 01 00 00 00 19 20.0 2 10 0 0 07 12.9 03 13.3 6 30 2 10 05 9.3 04 21.1 15.8 36.8 0.0 5.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 44.7 4 20 11 55 07 12.9 04 21.1 7 8 11 12 2 5 0 0 0 45 0.0 1 5 0 0 00 0.0 00 0.0 0 6.7 4 20 3 15 04 7.4 00 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 15.6 17.8 24.4 26.7 4.4 11.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0
None
18
25
18 1 49 34 30 40 10 15 1 2 0 200
9.0 0.5 24.5 17.0 15.0 20.0 5.0 7.5 0.5 1.0 0.0 100.0
Pre-School
Elementary undergraduate
36
31
Elementary graduate
18
31
18
13
College undergraduate
College graduate
Vocational undergraduate
Vocational graduate
Postgraduate
Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
Total
11
100
16
100
31
32
Cluster
Barangay
Conjugal
No.
Hapao
11
46
Nungulunan
13
31
Baang
04
14
Nungulunan
08
24
Baang
04
09
Hapao
09
13
Hapao
03
13
Poblacion
07
13
Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
Total
59
30
Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
33
34
Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
Table 9. Perceived causes and recommendations to improve limited or insufficient water supply
Cluster 1 (n=27) No. Perceived Cause Low harvest Collapse of terrace walls Worm attacks Abandonment of rice fields Hardening of soil Rehabilitate existing irrigation canals (e.g., construction of concrete canals) Install PVC pipes as new irrigation canals Reforestation 19 04 01 02 00 71 15 04 07 00 19 03 02 01 00 55 09 06 03 00 38 04 01 00 01 51 05 01 00 01 47 04 00 01 00 73 06 00 02 00 123 015 004 004 001 62 08 02 02 01 % Cluster 2 (n=35) No. % Cluster 3 (n=74) No. % Cluster 4 (n=64) No. % Total (n=200) No. %
15 01
56 08
12 04
34 11
16 10
22 14
35 02
55 03
078 017
39 09
Cluster
Barangay
Range 1 2 3 4 Hapao Nungulunan Baang Nungulunan Baang Hapao Hapao Poblacion 09-55 02-70 07-60 10-56 01-60 02-71 05-60 02-70
Ave. 32 34 33 32 25 28 31 23
O 11 16 15 19 18 53 19 45
I 0 0 0 1 2 1 0 0
Y 11 16 15 20 20 54 19 45
N 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Note: Rice varieties used: H=hybrid; T=traditional Fertilizers used: O=organic; I=inorganic
Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
35
Asked about the problems they encounter in rice terrace farming, 91 percent of the farmers cited the destruction of terrace walls by earthworms as a major concern, followed by damaged walls (84%), and pest infestation (e.g., rodents and golden snail [77%]) (Table 11). They also identified inadequate water supply and poor irrigation facilities as problems. More respondents (72%) said that they did not have funds to rehabilitate or maintain the terraces. This is probably the reason why 82 percent of the respondents have not adopted any measure to control the earthworm problem. The respondents gave a wide range of estimated damage of their terraces, from 2 percent to 70 percent of the total terrace area (Table 12). Despite their problems in rice terrace farming, 97 percent of the respondents said they did not plan to abandon rice terrace farming in the future, mainly because the terraces are their only source of rice (96%) and they value the terraces they inherited from their forefathers (28%). The remaining three percent who said they could abandon terrace farming cited low rice harvests and lack of capital as their reasons. According to the respondents, the farmers who have already abandoned their farms may come back and farm again if they will be given subsidy to hire labor for terrace repair and maintenance (79%), and if the irrigation system will be rehabilitated (51%). Furthermore, 76 percent of the respondents believed that the owners should rehabilitate the terraces they have abandoned, while a few (9%) said these should be rented or leased to other farmers. To instill the importance of the terraces in the youth, 84 percent of the respondents said they advise their children to take care of the terraces (84%) and allow their children to help in the farm on weekends and during vacations (45%).
Environmental and Cultural Services of Hungduan
The farmers representing the four clusters identified the ecosystem and cultural services of Hungduan during the second training-workshop. For the ecosystem services, they identified
36
Cluster 1
Problems Baang (n=15) No. 11 03 04 02 13 13 65 02 10 21 39 11 58 27 14 70 03 15 34 63 18 95 26 20 03 15 03 15 09 17 00 00 06 73 14 70 11 55 46 85 18 95 42 93 % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % Baang (n=20) Hapao (n=54) Hapao (n=19) Poblacion (n=45)
Hapao (n=11)
Nungulunan (n=16)
No.
No.
Damaged walls
11
100
15
94
Poor soil
03
027
06
38
09
082
14
88
08
073
14
86
11
100
14
88
16 11
84 58
43 42
96 93
181 154
90.5 77.0
11
100
12
75
Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
Birds
00
000
00
00
00
02
11
00
00
004
02.0
Cluster 1
% of terraces damaged
Hapao (n=11)
Nungulunan (n=16)
No.
No.
02
00
000
00
000
05
03
026
01
006
10
01
010
05
031
15
00
000
01
006
20
00
000
01
006
25
00
000
00
000
30
03
026
02
013
37
00
000
00
000
40
01
010
02
013
45
00
000
00
000
50
02
018
04
025
57
00
000
00
000
60
00
000
00
000
Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
70
01
010
00
000
Total
11
100
16
100
37
38
Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
water (irrigation, hydroelectric power, and domestic uses), carbon sequestration (global warming mitigation, fresh air, and trees), and soil conservation (protection from soil erosion). On the other hand, they listed organic farming (increased rice production), native customs (ubbu 2, hudhud 3, and mumbaki 4), and the maintenance and restoration of stone walls, terraces, and woodlots (ecotourism) as the cultural services they produce. The farmers were asked what they would do as a cluster to increase their chances of getting funds for the rehabilitation of their terraces and woodlots, if their clusters would have to compete to get funding. The farmers agreed that their strategies should be consistent with the priorities of the Barangay Development Plan, and for such activities to concentrate on damaged areas with the largest number of beneficiaries. They also saw the importance of minimizing plan implementation costs, offering counterparts such as own labor, having an active organization where the members are cooperative and united, preparing a good management plan, and ensuring quality of work when the plan is implemented. If their clusters would be awarded funds for rehabilitation, the farmers said that the system of benefit-sharing among farmer members should be discussed within their organizations, and that areas with more damage should be prioritized over areas with less deterioration. The farmers also recognized the importance of contracts to institutionalize the production of services, and that the cluster members will have responsibilities under such an agreement. These include strengthening their organizations by ensuring that members
Exchange labor or farmers who work in other farms, after which the owners will reciprocate by helping them Consists of narrative chants traditionally performed by the Ifugao community, and is practiced during the rice sowing season, harvest time and funeral wakes and rituals Native priest
3 4
Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
39
follow policies, rules and regulations, and the full implementation of the provisions in the contract.
Community-based Management Planning
The management plan preparation activity was designed such that farmers would be able to generate competitive management plans that the team can furnish and package for potential funding from LGUs and other financing agencies in the context of a PECS scheme. The farmers management plans were products of the interaction of the different farmer groups regarding available resources, strategies, and achievable recommendations for the sustainability and protection of their rice terraces. The farmer groups went through the following activities to develop their management plans: introduction to management planning, resource characterization, identification of problems and solutions (Figures 9 and 10), formulation of management goals, objectives and strategies, analysis and evaluation of management strategies, and management plan preparation. The farmers were able to formulate the main objective of restoring and rehabilitating the abandoned and damaged rice terraces. They were also able to identify their management objectives and listed their specific strategies (Table 13). The farmers outputs from each step of management planning were input in a simple management plan template to help them complete their draft management plans. The team reviewed the draft management plans and provided suggestions for improvement. The plans were then returned to the farmers during the third trainingworkshop for revision and detailing. It was observed that the plans developed by the farmers were similar in terms of objectives and strategies but different in implementation strategies, costs, and scheduling. Also, the plans lacked specific details particularly in the objectives and costs of the identified strategies.
40
INCREASING NUMBER OF RICE TERRACES THAT ARE BEING ABANDONED AND DAMAGED
Lack of Interest among the Younger Generation to Work in the Rice Fields
Media/ Technology
Western Culture
Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
Reforest Woodlots
Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
41
42
Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
After completing the final management plans, the farmers were asked to map them out. This was done to highlight the specifics of the plans, such as the location of reforestation areas, terraces to be restored and rehabilitated, and irrigation systems to be established. In the course of management plan preparation, it was observed that the farmers were not used to planning using the watershed as the planning unit since they were more familiar with developing plans using administrative boundaries. In the initial part of the planning process, farmers belonging to different barangays but were grouped in one cluster insisted that they should work based on their barangay boundaries. The team clarified that mapping and management planning would be done using the watershed approach where, instead of political boundaries, the natural boundaries such as rivers and mountain ridges would be used. Eventually, the farmers understood the approach and worked as one cluster and not as members of different barangays.
Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
43
It was also observed that when farmers placed cost estimates on their activities in the context of submitting their management plans to compete for a fund source, some farmers exhibited strategic behavior. Some farmers priced labor services much higher than other clusters. Also, some farmers would not agree to labor-sharing and counterpart funding. However, this behavior was checked when the research team informed the farmers that their management plans would be more attractive to funding agencies if they would include elements of labor-sharing and counterpart funding in their proposals. In the visual maps, farmers identified the specific location of woodlots to be reforested, abandoned and damaged terraces to be restored and repaired, as well as damaged irrigation canals to be rehabilitated. In addition, they also identified on the visual maps the terrace areas that experience varying levels of pest infestations and soil erosion. Most terrace areas were identified to have moderate to high infestations of pests, such as snails and earthworms. On the other hand, the areas that were most prone to soil erosion usually occur near river banks and creek bottoms.
44
Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
Conclusions
he study aimed to build the capacity of Hungduan farmers in preparation for a full-blown Payments for Environmental and Cultural Services (PECS) project, by engaging them in environmental and cultural resource assessment in a watershed context. Specifically, the project facilitated activities that enhanced Ifugao farmers knowledge in community-based resource and damage assessment and mapping, identified the environmental and cultural services of Hungduan, and formulated community-based management plans for four sub-watersheds. Based on the results of the project, the following conclusions are offered: 1. The approach used by the research team to complement indigenous knowledge with classroom and research techniques proved to be effective in generating reliable information, which is important in planning. This worked because of the Ifugao farmers themselves and their indigenous knowledge system. This approach may be replicated when partners have similar characteristics as the Ifugao and when a strong indigenous knowledge system is in place. 2. Through the project, the farmers learned several resource assessment techniques, such as the use of the global positioning system (GPS), compass, grid-based assessment, and the use of meter tape in surveys. On the other hand, the farmers used their indigenous knowledge in the identification of plant and animal species, definition of which terraces were considered damaged or abandoned and the extent, ownership, and location of terraces and woodlots, boundaries of sitios and barangays on the ground, and the use of natural landmarks and boundaries in locating properties, sitios, and barangays.
Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
45
3. The farmers familiarity with their areas was evident during the mapping activity. Once a landmark has been located, it was easy for them to identify terraces, woodlots, houses, and other landmarks relative to the original. It was because of this that community mapping worked for the farmers, and it became a cost-effective and reliable way of ground truthing. 4. The preparation of management plans was facilitated by the use of the 3D map, which enabled the farmers to visualize the extent and location of problem areas. This also allowed them to come up with realistic estimates of damaged areas, which they used in management plan preparation. 5. The farmers knew how to address their problems in the terraces, particularly the damaged and abandoned terraces, water supply, and pests. However, their harvests from the terraces are barely enough for their subsistence, and have no surplus income to repair the terraces. 6. Some farmers did not readily accept the use of the watershed as a management unit. The resistance could be due to their familiarity with political boundaries and the usual approach of using political units as management units. 7. The farmers encountered problems in preparing their financial plans, as shown by the wide variability of cost estimates for different management activities. Some farmer groups indicated very high cost estimates, which could be due to strategic behavior.
46
Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
47
5. The management plans prepared by the farmer groups through this project can be packaged and submitted to potential funding institutions. However, the farmer groups will need to re-think their cost estimates and make them more realistic. 6. The farmers who participated in the project should disseminate the knowledge and techniques they had learned to other members of their communities, and upscale by replicating the project in other municipalities of Ifugao. This may be done through echo training-workshops that the provincial government, through ICHO, can organize. 7. There is a need to strengthen ICHO to ensure holistic planning and sustainable management and conservation efforts for the IRT. In addition, a regular budgetary allocation to enable ICHO to implement its programs for the conservation of the rice terraces is also needed. 8. The indigenous knowledge system of the Ifugao should be preserved and promoted by being taught formally in schools. 9. There is a need to enhance IEC activities to conserve the rice terraces and forests of Ifugao, and to engage national and international publics in their conservation.
48
Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
References
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Capacity for the Conservation of the Ifugao Rice Terraces: The Hungduan Farmers of Ifugao
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van Noordwijk, M., B. Leimona, L. Emerton, T.P. Tomich, S.J. Velarde, M. Kallesoe, M. Sekher, and B.M. Swallow. 2007. Criteria and Indicators for Environmental Service Compensation and Reward Mechanisms: Realistic, Voluntary, Conditional and Pro-poor. Working Paper No. 37, World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF). Volante, J. R. n.d. A Manual for Participant Observation in Process Documentation Research. IPC Reprint No. 2. Manila, Philippines: Institute of Philippine Culture, Ateneo de Manila University. Wunder, S. 2005. Payments for Environmental Services: Some Nuts and Bolts. CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 42, Center for International Forestry Research. Accessed June 30, 2009. http://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP42.pdf Wunder, S. 2006. Are Direct Payments for Environmental Services Spelling Doom for Sustainable Forest Management in the Tropics? Ecology and Society 11 (2):23. Zilberman, D. 2007. Payments for Environmental Services: Who Gains and Who Loses? Agricultural and Resource Economics Update of California 11 (1): 1-3.
EDITORIAL STAFF Adviser: Gil C. Saguiguit, Jr. Technical Editors: Mercedita A. Sombilla Maria Celeste H. Cadiz Managing Editor: Mariliza V. Ticsay Language Editors: Marie Cddyqa Jaya G. Rogel Production Coordinators: Avril Adrianne D. Madrid Rico Ancog Layout Artist: Avril Adrianne D. Madrid Production Assistant: Arlene A. Nadres For more information about SEARCA publications, please contact: Knowledge Resources Unit Knowledge Management Department SEARCA Los Baos, Laguna 4031, Philippines Tel. No. (63-49) 536-2283 local 138 Fax: (63-49) 536-2283 (Attn: KRU) Email: publications@agri.searca.org or visit www.searca.org