ICRU REPORT 16

L i n e a r T r a n s f e r

E n e r g y

Issued JUNE 15, 1970 INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON RADIATION UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS 4201 CONNECTICUT AVENUE, N.W. WASHINGTON, D.C. 20008 USA
UBR069010932145

Copyright International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements 1970 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 72-113962

Copies of this report can be purchased for U.S. $3.00 each from ICRU Publications P.O. Box 4869 Washington, D.C. 20008 .S.A. (For detailed information on the availability of this and other ICRU Reports see page 48)

P r e f a c e

Scope of ICRU Activities

T h e International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements ( I C R U ) , since its inception i n 1925, has had as its principal objective the development of internationally acceptable recommendations re garding: (1) Quantities and units of radiation and radio activity, (2) Procedures suitable for the measurement and application of these quantities i n clinical radiology and radiobiology, (3) Physical data needed i n the application of these procedures, the use of which tends to assure uniformity in reporting. T h e Commission also considers and makes recom mendations i n the field of radiation protection. I n this connection, its work is carried out in close cooperation with the International Commission on Radiological Protection ( I C R P ) .

point; it endeavors to base its decisions on the longrange advantages to be expected. T h e I C R U invites and welcomes constructive com ments and suggestions regarding its recommendations and reports. These may be transmitted to the Chair man.

Current Progra m
I n 1962 the Commission laid the basis for the devel opment of the I C R U program over the next several years. A t that time it defined three broad areas of concern to the Commission: I . The Measurement of Radioactivity I I . The Measurement of Radiation I I I . Problems of Joint Interest to the I C R U and the Inter national Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) T h e Commission divided these three areas into nine subareas with which it expected to be primarily con cerned during the next decade. T h e division of work agreed upon is as follows: I . Radioactivity A. Fundamental Physical Parameters and Measure ment Techniques B . Medical and Biological Applications I I . Radiation A. Fundamental Physical Parameters . X Rays, Gamma Rays and Electrons C. Heavy Particles D . Medical and Biological Applications (Therapy) E . Medical and Biological Applications (Diagnosis) F . Neutron Fluence and Kerma I I I . Problems of Joint Interest to the I C R U and the I C R P A. Radiation Protection Instrumentation and its Ap plication T h e Commission established a separate planning board to guide I C R U activities in each of the subareas. The planning boards, after examining the needs of their respective technical areas with some care, recom mended, and the Commission subsequently approved, the constitution of task groups to initiate the prepa ration of reports. T h e substructure which resulted from these actions is given below.

Policy
T h e I C R U endeavors to collect and evaluate the latest data and information pertinent to the problems of radiation measurement and dosimetry and to recom mend the most acceptable values for current use. T h e Commission's recommendations are kept under continual review in order to keep abreast of the rapidly expanding uses of radiation. T h e I C R U feels it is the responsibility of national organizations to introduce their own detailed technical procedures for the development and maintenance of standards. However, it urges that all countries adhere as closely as possible to the internationally recom mended basic concepts of radiation quantities and units. T h e Commission feels its responsibility lies i n devel oping a system of quantities and units having the widest possible range of applicability. Situations may arise from time to time when an expedient solution of a current problem may seem advisable. Generally speak ing, however, the Commission feels that action based on expediency is inadvisable from a long-term view

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Preface Task Group 2. Neutron Instrumentation and its Application to Radiation Protection Because the Commission's basic recommendations on radiation quantities and units relate to the work of all of the planning boards, the Commission decided to establish a separate committee with membership drawn largely from the Commission itself to initiate the revision of I C R U Report 10a, Radiation Quantities and Units. T h u s , the Committee on Fundamental Quantities and Units was added to the above substructure. I n 1962 the Commission decided to abandon its past practice of holding a meeting together with all of its sub-units every three years. Instead, it was decided that the Commission would receive reports from the subgroups at the time of their completion rather than at fixed deadlines. Meetings of the Commission and of the subgroups are held as needed. T h e adoption of the above substructure and mode of operation was intended to alleviate some of the problems associated with the expanded program required in recent years. I n the past, the Commission's attempt to administer and review the work of each of the working groups imposed a very considerable burden on the Commission itself. T h e need to concern itself with each detail, which was inherent in such a scheme of operation, when coupled with the procedure of completing all reports at one time, subjected the C o m mission members to an intolerable work load if rigorous standards were to be maintained. T h e above substructure and mode of operation have now produced results in the form of reports drafted by the task groups and reviewed by the planning boards. Present evidence i n dicates that the substructure and mode of operation, has to a substantial extent succeeded i n alleviating the problems previously experienced. Recently, however, the Commission has begun the examination of further modification of the substructure.

Planning Board I.A. RadioactivityFundamental Physical Parameters and Measurement Techniques Task Group 1. Measurement of Low-Level Radioactivity Task Group 2. Specification of Accuracy in Certificates of Activity of Sources for Calibration Purposes Task Group 3. Specification of High Activity Gamma-Ray Sources (Joint with P.B. II.B) Planning Board I . B . RadioactivityMedical and Biological Applications Task Group 1. I n Vivo Measurements of Radioactivity Task Group 2. Scanning Task Group 3. Tracer Kinetics Task Group 4. Methods of Assessment of Dose in Tracer Investigations Planning Board H.A. RadiationFundamental Physical Parameters Planning Board I I . B . RadiationX Rays, Gamma Rays and Electrons Task Group 1. Radiation Dosimetry; X Rays from 5 to 150 kV Task Group 2. Radiation Dosimetry; X and Gamma Rays from 0.6 to 100 M V Task Group 3. Electron Beam Dosimetry Planning Board L L C . RadiationHeavy Particles Task Group 1. Dose as a Function of L E T Task Group 2. High Energy and Space Radiation Dosimetry Planning Board I I . D . RadiationMedical and Biological Applications (Therapy) Task Group 1. Measurement of Absorbed Dose at a Point in a Standard Phantom (Absorbed Dose Detenriination) Task Group 2. Methods of Arriving at the Absorbed Dose at any Point in a Patient (In Vivo Dosimetry) Task Group 3. Methods of Compensating for Body Shape and Inhomogeneity and of Beam Modification for Special Purposes (Beam Modification) Task Group 4. Statement of the Dose Achieved (Dosage Specification) Planning Board U . E . RadiationMedical and Biological Applications (Diagnosis) Task Group 1. Photographic Materials and Screens Task Group 2. Image Intensifier Radiography Task Group 3. T V Systems Planning Board I I . F . RadiationNeutron Fluence and Kerma Task Group 1. Neutron Fluence, Energy Fluence, Neutron Spectra and Kerma Planning Board I I I . A . Radiation Protection Instrumentation and its Application Task Group 1. Radiation Protection Instrumentation HandbookPart I

ICRU Reports
I n 1962 the I C R U , i n recognition of the fact that its triennial reports were becoming too extensive and i n some cases too specialized to justify single-volume publication,, initiated the publication of a series of reports, each dealing with a limited range of topics. T h i s series was initiated with the publication of six reports: ICRU ICRU ICRU ICRU ICRU ICRU Report Report Report Report Report Report 10a, Radiation Quantities and Units 10b, Physical Aspects of Irradiation 10c, Radioactivity lOd, Clinical Dosimetry lOe, Radiobiological Dosimetry lOf, Methods of Evaluating Radiological Equipment and Materials

Preface These reports were published, as had been many of the previous reports of the Commission, by the United States Government Printing Office as Handbooks of the National Bureau of Standards. I n 1967 the Commission determined that i n the future the recommendations formulated by the I C R U would be published by the Commission itself. This is the sixth report to be published under this new policy. W i t h the exception of I C R U Report 10a, which was superseded by I C R U Report 11, the other reports of the " 1 0 " series have continuing validity and, since none of the reports now in preparation are designed to specifically supersede them, will remain available until the material is essentially obsolete. A l l future reports of the Commission, however, will be published under the I C R U ' s own auspices. Information about the availability of I C R U Reports is given on page 48.

International Labor Organization International Union of Pure and Applied Physics United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organiza tion Relations with these other international bodies do not affect the basic affiliation of the I C R U with the International Society of Radiology. T h e Commission has found its relationship with all of these organizations fruitful and of substantial benefit to the I C R U program.

Operating Funds
Throughout most of its existence, the I C R U has operated essentially on a voluntary basis, with the travel and operating costs being borne by the parent organizations of the participants. (Only token assist ance was originally available from the International Society of Radiology.) Recognizing the impracticability of continuing this mode of operation on an indefinite basis, operating funds were sought from various sources in addition to those supplied by the International Society of Radiology. Prior to 1959, the principal financial assistance to the I C R U had been provided by the Rockefeller Foundation which supplied some $11,000 to make possible various meetings. I n 1959 the International Society of Radiology increased its contribution to the Commission providing $3,000 for the period 19591962. F o r the periods 1962-1965 and 1965-1969 the Society's contributions were $5,000 and $7,500 re spectively. I n 1960 the Rockefeller Foundation sup plied an additional sum of some $4,000 making possible a meeting of the Quantity and Units Committee in 1960. I n 1960 and 1961 the World Health Organization made available the sum of $3,000 each year. This was increased to $4,000 per year in 1962 and $6,000 per year i n 1969. I t is expected that this sum will be allo cated annually, at least for the next several years. I n connection with the Commission's Joint Studies with the I C R P , the United Nations allocated the sum of $10,000 for the joint use of the two Commissions. T h e most substantial contribution to the work of the I C R U has come from the Ford Foundation. I n December 1960, the Ford Foundation made available to the Commission the sum of $37,000 per year for a period of five years. This grant was to provide for such items as travel expenses to meetings, for secretarial services and other operating expenses. I n 1965 the Foundation agreed to a time extension of this grant making available for the period 1966-1970 the unused portion of the original grant. T o a large extent, it is because of this grant that the Commission has been able to move forward actively with its program. I n 1963 the International Atomic Energy Agency a l -

ICRU Relationships With Other Organizations

One of the features of I C R U activity during the last few years has been the development of relationships with other organizations interested in the problems of radiation quantities, units, and measurements. I n addition to its close relationship with the International Commission on Radiological Protection and its financial relationships with the International Society of R a d i ology, the World Health Organization, and the Inter national Atomic Energy Agency, the I C R U has also developed relationships of varying intensity with several other organizations. Since 1955, the I C R U has had an official relationship with the World Health Organization ( W H O ) whereby the I C R U is looked to for primary guidance in matters of radiation units and measurements, and in turn, the W H O assists in the worldwide dissemination of the Commission's recommendations. I n 1960 the I C R U entered into consultative status with the International Atomic Energy Agency. T h e Commission has a formal relation ship with the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation ( U N S C E A R ) , whereby I C R U observers are invited to attend U N S C E A R meetings. T h e Commission and the International Organization for Standardization ( I S O ) informally ex change notifications of meetings and the I C R U is formally designated for liaison with two of the I S O Technical Committees. T h e I C R U also corresponds and exchanges final reports with the following organi zations: Bureau International des Poids et Mesures Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences Food and Agriculture Organization International Council of Scientific Unions International Electrotechnical Commission

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Preface T h e c u r r e n t m e m b e r s h i p of t h e C o m m i s s i o n is as f o l lows: H. O. WYCKOFF, Secretary Chairman Chairman A . A L L I S Y , Vice indirect contri of Bureau several K . LIDEN, F. F . P. COWAN GAUWERKY GREENING J . R.

l o c a t e d t h e s u m of $6,000 per y e a r f o r use b y t h e I C R U . T h i s was increased t o $9,000 per year i n 1967. I t is expected t h a t t h i s s u m w i l l be allocated a n n u a l l y least for the n e x t several years. From 1934 through 1964 valuable b u t i o n s were made b y t h e U . S . N a t i o n a l B u r e a u S t a n d a r d s where t h e Secretariat provided substantial secretarial services a n d t r a v e l costs i n t h e resided. T h e services, amount of at

publication

A . M . KELLERER R. H . MORGAN . H . Rossi W . K . SINCLAIR F . W . SPIERS A . TSUYA A. WAMBERSIE

t h o u s a n d s of dollars. T h e C o m m i s s i o n wishes t o express i t s deep apprecia t i o n t o a l l of these a n d o t h e r organizations c o n t r i b u t e d so i m p o r t a n t l y t o i t s w o r k . t h a t have

Composition of the I C R U I t is of interest t o note t h a t t h e m e m b e r s h i p of t h e Commission and its subgroups totals 140 persons d r a w n f r o m 16 countries. T h i s gives some i n d i c a t i o n of t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e I C R U has achieved i n t e r n a t i o n a l b r e a d t h of m e m b e r s h i p w i t h i n i t s basic selection r e q u i r e m e n t of h i g h t e c h n i c a l competence of i n d i v i d u a l participants. The membership of the Commission during the p r e p a r a t i o n of t h i s r e p o r t was as f o l l o w s : L . S. TAYLOR, Chairman M . TUBIANA, Vice Chairman H . O . WYCKOFF, Secretary A . ALLISY J . W . BOAG ( 1 9 6 5 - 1 9 6 6 ) R . H . CHAMBERLAIN F . P . COWAN F . ELLIS (1965) J . F . FOWLER H . FRANZ ( 1 9 6 5 ) F . GAUWERKY J . R , GREENING . E . JOHNS ( 1 9 6 5 - 1 9 6 6 ) K . LIDFIN R . H . MORGAN V . A . PETROV ( 1 9 6 5 ) . H . ROSSI A . TSUYA S e r v i n g o n t h e T a s k G r o u p o n D o s e as a F u n c t i o n of L E T d u r i n g t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of t h i s r e p o r t w e r e : W . K . SINCLAIR, P. R. J . BURCH A. W. COLE GROSS D . V . CORMACK A . M . KELLERER Serving on the Planning B o a r d on Particles d u r i n g t h a t t i m e w e r e : W . K . SINCLAIR, G. J . N E A R Y W . C. ROESCH . H . R o s s i served as C o m m i s s i o n Sponsor for t h e Planning Board. T h e C o m m i s s i o n wishes t o express i t s a p p r e c i a t i o n t o the individuals involved i n the preparation of this r e p o r t for t h e t i m e a n d effort t h e y d e v o t e d t o t h i s t a s k . HAROLD O. WYCKOFF Chairman, W a s h i n g t o n , D . C. January 15, 1970 ICRU Chairman RadiationHeavy Chairman C o m p o s i t i o n o f I C R U S u b g r o u p s R e s p o n s i b l e for the I n i t i a l Drafting of this Report

Contents
Preface 1. I n t r o d u c t i o n 1.1 R a d i a t i o n - I n d u c e d Changes a n d R a d i a t i o n Q u a l i t y 1.2 Specification of R a d i a t i o n Q u a l i t y : H i s t o r i c a l 1.3 C u r r e n t D e f i n i t i o n of L i n e a r E n e r g y Transfer ( L E T ) 1.4 L E T D i s t r i b u t i o n s a n d Averages 1.5 O t h e r M e t h o d s of Specifying R a d i a t i o n Q u a l i t y 1.6 Scope of t h i s R e p o r t 2. I n t e r a c t i o n o f R a d i a t i o n w i t h M a t t e r 2.1 General 2.2 A b s o r b e d Dose, P a r t i c l e Fluence a n d L E T 2.3 D e l t a R a y s 3 D e f i n i t i o n a n d C o n c e p t s o f L E T 3.1 C u r r e n t D e f i n i t i o n of L E T 3.2 1962 D e f i n i t i o n of L E T a n d F u r t h e r Considerations 3.3 Concepts 3.4 L E T D i s t r i b u t i o n s a n d T h e i r Averages 3.5 R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s 4. C a l c u l a t i o n s o f D i s t r i b u t i o n s o f A b s o r b e d D o s e i n L E T 4.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n 4.2 C a l c u l a t i o n s of P a r t i c l e Fluence S p e c t r u m U s i n g t h e C o n t i n uous S l o w i n g D o w n A p p r o x i m a t i o n (csda) 4.3 C a l c u l a t i o n s of A b s o r b e d Dose D i s t r i b u t i o n Based o n a T w o Group Model 4.4 L E T D i s t r i b u t i o n s i n W a t e r 4.5 V a r i a t i o n of L E T w i t h D e p t h i n a M e d i u m 4.6 A v e r a g e L E T 5. A p p l i c a t i o n s o f L E T C a l c u l a t i o n s 5.1 5.2 5.3 6. L E 6.1 6.2 General General A p p l i c a t i o n s , R B E vs. L E T L i m i t a t i o n s of R B E vs. L E T P l o t s T i n Radiation Protection Quality Factor M e a s u r e m e n t of A b s o r b e d Dose D i s t r i b u t i o n i n L E T f o r t e c t i o n Purposes iii 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 6 6 6 6 8 8 8 8 9 10 11 14 14 15 15 15 15 16 16 Pro17 17 19 19 21 21 22 22 22 24 24

7. L i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e L E T C o n c e p t 8. O t h e r M e t h o d s o f S p e c i f y i n g Q u a l i t y 9. C o n c l u s i o n s A p p e n d i x A l . F o r m u l a e for S t o p p i n g P o w e r or L E T A l . l General A1.2 H e a v y Particles A 1 . 3 Electrons A1.4 L o w Energy H e a v y Particle Stopping Power and Ranges Appendix A2. Definition and Measurement of Ranges A 2 . 1 Range a n d S t o p p i n g Power vii

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Conients A 2 . 2 S e m i - E m p i r i c a l Range-Energy Relations A 2 . 3 E x p e r i m e n t a l D e t e r m i n a t i o n of Ranges A p p e n d i x A 3 . M e a s u r e m e n t o f dE/dl A 3 . 1 General A3.2 Energy Distribution MethodVery T h i n A b sorber, ^ IQ A 3 . 3 M e a n E n e r g y L o s s V e r y T h i n Absorber, AI ^ k A 3 . 4 E n e r g y A b s o r p t i o n T h i n Absorber R > k A 3 . 5 Slope of E n e r g y versus Range C u r v e A3.6 T h i n Detectors A p p e n d i x A 4 . T h e o r e t i c a l a n d E x p e r i m e n t a l V a l u e s for R a n g e , d/dUndLET A 4 . 1 General A4.2 Electrons A 4 . 3 H e a v y Particles Appendix A5. M e a s u r e m e n t of L E T Distributions Appendix A 6 . D i s t r i b u t i o n of I o n s i n Clusters Appendix A7. M e a n Excitation Energy A 7 . 1 General A7.2 E m p i r i c a l R e l a t i o n s A7.3 R e c o m m e n d e d Values A7.4 M i x t u r e s and Compounds Appendix A 8 . A p p l i c a t i o n of L E T i n Radiobiology a n d C h e m i c a l Dosimetry A8.1 Direct and Indirect Action A 8 . 2 E x p o n e n t i a l Absorbed D o s e - S u r v i v a l C u r v e A 8 . 3 Simple T a r g e t T h e o r y A8.4 Target Theory and Inactivation by Multiple I o n i zations A 8 . 5 T a r g e t T h e o r y , Complex T a r g e t A 8 . 6 I n d i r e c t A c t i o n and A p p l i c a t i o n t o Chemical D o simeters Appendix A9. L i s t A9.1 A9.2 A9.3 A9.4 A9.5 A9.6 A9.7 A9.8 References I C R U Reports Index of Symbols General A b s o r b e d Dose Energy Fluence Ionization L i n e a r E n e r g y Transfer Range Microdosimetry 25 25 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 27 27 28 31 34 35 36 36 36 36 36 37 37 37 37 38 38 39 40 40 40 40 41 41 41 42 42 43 48 50

Linear Energy Transfer

1. I n t r o d u c t i o n

1.1

Radiation-Induced Changes Radiation Quality

and

I o n i z i n g r a d i a t i o n can induce m a n y physical, c h e m i c a l a n d b i o l o g i c a l changes. T h e k i n d and t h e e x t e n t of change o f t e n depend o n t h e physical conditions of i r r a d i a t i o n . F o r e m o s t a m o n g such conditions is t h e energy dissipated per u n i t mass (absorbed dose) i n t h e regions of interest. H o w e v e r , t h e q u a l i t y of t h e r a d i a t i o n a n d t h e t e m p o r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e transferred energy sometimes exert a p r o f o u n d influence. A l t h o u g h factors such as absorbed dose rate a n d absorbed dose f r a c t i o n a t i o n can be most i m p o r t a n t , especially i n biological systems, these t e m p o r a l aspects w i l l n o t concern us here. T h e subject of t h i s r e p o r t is r a d i a t i o n q u a l i t y . T h e t e r m quality i n t h i s r e p o r t refers t o those features of t h e spatial d i s t r i b u t i o n of energy transfersalong and w i t h i n t h e t r a c k s of p a r t i c l e s t h a t influence t h e effectiveness of a n i r r a d i a t i o n i n producing change, w h e n other physical factors such as t o t a l energy dissipated, absorbed dose, absorbed dose rate and absorbed dose f r a c t i o n a t i o n are k e p t constant. I n t h i s r e p o r t p a r t i c u l a r emphasis is given t o t h e description of q u a l i t y i n terms of linear energy transfer ( L E T ) . M a n y r a d i a t i o n - i n d u c e d phenomena (such as i n t r a - t r a c k ion comb i n a t i o n , l i g h t emission f r o m organic and inorganic s c i n t i l l a t o r s , chemical y i e l d , gene m u t a t i o n a n d cell k i l l i n g ) depend on t h e spatial d i s t r i b u t i o n of discrete energy transfers f r o m t h e i o n i z i n g p a r t i c l e t o t h e i r r a d i a t e d m e d i u m . I n some systems a large n u m b e r of energy transfers per u n i t l e n g t h of t r a c k of a p a r t i c l e favors a h i g h y i e l d of one p r o d u c t b u t a l o w y i e l d of another.
1

v a l i d f o r a l l circumstances. I n c e r t a i n S3 stems m u l t i p l e energy transfers w i t h i n a g i v e n s m a l l t a r g e t region or regions m a y be needed t o effect change. I n others, t h e i m m e d i a t e p h y s i c a l or c h e m i c a l p r o d u c t s of a n i r r a d i a t i o n m a y i n t e r a c t w i t h one a n o t h e r , a l o n g or close t o the t r a c k of t h e i o n i z i n g p a r t i c l e . W e m a y be concerned w i t h t h e u l t i m a t e y i e l d of p r o d u c t s t h a t either escape f r o m , or are p r o d u c e d b y , t h e i n t r a - t r a c k i n t e r a c t i o n s . W e m a y also be i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e p h y s i c a l , c h e m i c a l , or biological effects p r o d u c e d b y such i n t r a - t r a c k p r o d u c t s . A t h e o r y of r a d i a t i o n a c t i o n i n a n y g i v e n system m u s t be able t o e x p l a i n t h e different effects produced b y r a d i a t i o n s of d i f f e r e n t q u a l i t y .
T

N o single i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e influence of L E T o n r a d i a t i o n - i n d u c e d change has y e t been given t h a t is

A l t h o u g h s t r i c t l y t h e t e r m q u a l i t y refers to the r a d i a t i o n o n l y , i n d e p e n d e n t l y of t h e m e d i u m i r r a d i a t e d , the d i s t r i b u t i o n of events produced i n a m e d i u m can also be used to describe r a d i a t i o n q u a l i t y (as w e l l as the i r r a d i a t i o n circumstances). A precedent exists i n t h e use of H a l f Value L a y e r i n a given m a t e r i a l for q u a l i t y specification ( I C R U , 1962b).
1

I n some circumstances, w h e n t h e effect of a g i v e n absorbed dose of one t y p e of r a d i a t i o n is k n o w n , we m a y w i s h t o p r e d i c t t h e effect of a s i m i l a r absorbed dose of a different t y p e of r a d i a t i o n . T o do t h i s , t h e q u a l i t y aspects of b o t h i r r a d i a t i o n s m u s t f i r s t be described i n quantitative terms. A complete description would list the s p a t i a l a n d t e m p o r a l coordinates of every a c t i v e product i n the system, t h r o u g h o u t the irradiation, and t h r o u g h o u t t h e subsequent p e r i o d d u r i n g w h i c h change can be effected. H o w e v e r , t h e stochastic features of t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of r a d i a t i o n w i t h m a t t e r alone p r o h i b i t a n y such exhaustive a n d u n i q u e d e s c r i p t i o n . T h e p r a c t i c a l p r o b l e m , therefore, is t o find a c o n v e n i e n t , b u t i n evitably incomplete, c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of r a d i a t i o n q u a l i t y t h a t w i l l enable p r e d i c t i o n s t o be m a d e w i t h sufficient accuracy f o r t h e purpose i n q u e s t i o n . A r e l a t i v e l y crude a c c o u n t of r a d i a t i o n q u a l i t y m a y be adeq u a t e for some purposes, f o r example i n r a d i a t i o n p r o t e c t i o n , where o f t e n e v e n a b s o r b e d dose need n o t be accurately assessed. I n o t h e r a p p l i c a t i o n s , such as chemical d o s i m e t i y , a r e l a t i v e l y d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n becomes o b l i g a t o r y .

1.2

Specification of R a d i a t i o n Q u a l i t y : Historical

L e a (1946) c a l c u l a t e d a n d t a b u l a t e d t h e p r i m a r y i o n i z a t i o n densities, s t o p p i n g powers a n d t h e spectra of 1

7.

Introduction 1962 t o 1968) have sought to a v o i d confusion. T h e m a t t e r is discussed i n more d e t a i l i n Section 3.4. T h e f o l l o w i n g is t h e m o s t recent d e f i n i t i o n g i v e n b y I C R U (1968): T h e linear energy transfer or restricted linear collision stopping power (LA) of charged particles i n a m e d i u m is the q u o t i e n t of dE b y dl, where dl is t h e distance traversed b y t h e particle and dE is t h e mean energy-loss due t o collisions w i t h energy transfers less t h a n some specified v a l u e .

secondary or d e l t a t r a c k s p r o d u c e d i n w a t e r b y electrons ( o f energy 100 eV t o 384 k e V ) , p r o t o n s ( 1 M e V t o 10 M e V ) , a n d a l p h a p a r t i c l e s ( 1 M e V t o 10 M e V ) . G r a y (1947) i n t r o d u c e d t h e p a r a m e t e r mean linear ion density, w h i c h , f o r x , 7, a n d r a y s c o u l d be defined as f o l l o w s : M e a n linear i o n d e n s i t y
EQ ~ RE -W
Q

where E
0

average electrons

initial

kinetic

energjr of

primary

- G&
N O T E : A l t h o u g h t h e d e f i n i t i o n specifies a n energy cut-off a n d n o t a range cut-off, t h e energy losses are sometimes called " e n e r g y locally i m p a r t e d " . B y t h i s d e f i n i t i o n , L100, for example, designates t h e L E T w h e n = 100 eV. T h e s y m b o l L is used w h e n a l l possible energy transfers are i n c l u d e d , i n accord ance w i t h previous usage ( R B E C o m m i t t e e , 1963). H o w e v e r , t h e subscript co should n o t be t a k e n t o mean t h a t i n f i n i t e l y large transfers of energy are possible. T h e m a x i m u m energy transfer ( Q ) is governed b y t h e t y p e a n d v e l o c i t y of t h e i n c i d e n t p a r t i c l e a n d w i l l be discussed i n A p p e n d i x 1. I n this r e p o r t , t h e s y m b o l L w i l l designate t h e L E T w i t h o u t reference to any p a r t i c u l a r value of .
m a x

R EQ = W =

range of electrons of energy EQ average energy expended per i o n p a i r f o r m e d i n a gas.

C o r m a c k a n d J o h n s ( 1 9 5 2 ) c a l c u l a t e d complete d i s t r i b u t i o n s of e l e c t r o n fluence as a f u n c t i o n of linear i o n d e n s i t y , a n d used a m o r e r i g o r o u s averaging p r o cedure for m e a n l i n e a r i o n d e n s i t y , i n w h i c h t h e m e a n v a l u e is o b t a i n e d b y d i v i d i n g t h e t o t a l n u m b e r of i o n p a i r s per c m b y t h e t o t a l l e n g t h of t h e electron t r a c k s per c m . T h e mean values o b t a i n e d u s i n g t h i s averaging procedure were a b o u t 3 0 % l o w e r f o r l o w L E T r a d i a t i o n s t h a n those c a l c u l a t e d b y G r a y ( 1 9 4 7 ) .
3 3

I o n i z a t i o n is d i f f i c u l t o r i m p o s s i b l e t o measure or even t o define i n l i q u i d s a n d solids, a n d other types of energy transfer, n o t a b l y e x c i t a t i o n , c a n also lead t o r a d i a t i o n - i n d u c e d change. Z i r k l e e t a l . (1952) i n t r o d u c e d t h e concept of linear energy transfer (LET), f o r m e r l y called l i n e a r energy a b s o r p t i o n b y Z i r k l e ( 1 9 4 0 ) . T h i s refers t o t h e l i n e a r d e n s i t y of a l l f o r m s of energy transfer i n c l u d i n g e x c i t a t i o n a n d i o n i z a t i o n . B u r c h considered t h e p r o b l e m s raised b y d e l t a t r a c k f o r m a t i o n , a n d b y t h e v a r i a t i o n i n t h e linear d e n s i t y of energy transfers a l o n g t h e t r a c k of t h e decelerating i o n i z i n g p a r t i c l e . H e d e t e r m i n e d t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of absorbed energy i n L E T (see Sec. 1.4) b y c a l c u l a t i n g t h e f r a c t i o n of t o t a l energy deposited w i t h i n each L E T i n t e r v a l a n d defined a n e n e r g y - w e i g h t e d mean L E T f o r t h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n ( B u r c h a n d B i r d , 1956; B u r c h , 1957a, b ) . [ E n e r g y t r a n s f e r s t o electrons i n excess of 100 e V were regarded b y B u r c h ( a n d earlier b y L e a , 1947) as c o n s t i t u t i n g separate, i n d e p e n d e n t ( o r d e l t a ) tracks.]

1.4

L E T D i s t r i b u t i o n s a n d Ave rages

T h e " R e p o r t of t h e R B E C o m m i t t e e " (1963) d i s cusses t w o types of L E T d i s t r i b u t i o n . I n one t y p e , i.e. t ( L ) , t(L)d.L represents t h e f r a c t i o n of t o t a l t r a c k l e n g t h , T , h a v i n g values of L E T between L a n d L + d L . T h u s , i f T ( L ) is defined as the t r a c k l e n g t h associated w i t h L E T u p t o L , d i v i d e d b y t o t a l t r a c k l e n g t h , \ t ( L ) = d T ( L ) / d L . I n t h e other, i.e. d(L), d(L)dL represents t h e f r a c t i o n of t h e absorbed dose, D , delivered between L a n d L + d L . T h u s i f D(L) is t h a t p a r t of the absorbed dose w i t h L E T u p t o L , d i v i d e d b y t h e t o t a l absorbed dose, D , d ( L ) = d D ( L ) / d L . T h u s t ( L ) a n d d(L) are t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s of t r a c k l e n g t h a n d absorbed close i n L E T respectively. Associated w i t h t h e first d i s t r i b u t i o n is a t r a c k average L and w i t h the second, a n
2 3 T

1.3

Current Definition of Linear Energy Transfer (LET)

L E T has been defined i n t e r m s of local energy t r a n s fers. U n f o r t u n a t e l y local has h a d v a r i o u s connotations a n d recent I C R U d e f i n i t i o n s ( n o t e m o d i f i c a t i o n f r o m

T h e f r a c t i o n of t h e t r a c k l e n g t h w i t h L E T between L a n d L + dL is equal t o the p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t the p a r t i c l e is f o u n d w i t h L E T between L and L + d L . T h i s a l t e r n a t e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n m a y be preferable i n instances where the concept of a t r a c k is considered to be i l l - d e f i n e d .
2

S t r i c t l y , absorbed dose d i s t r i b u t i o n s of L E T should be described as absorbed energy d i s t r i b u t i o n s of L E T as these

3

2. absorbed dose average, L . Unless there is o n l y a single v a l u e of L , these t w o averages have d i s t i n c t l y d i f f e r e n t values for t h e same circumstances because in t h e one e q u a l w e i g h t is assigned t o each u n i t of t r a c k l e n g t h , w h i l e i n t h e other equal w e i g h t is as signed t o each u n i t of energy deposited along the t r a c k . T h e m e a n l i n e a r i o n density of G r a y (1947) and of C o r m a c k a n d Johns (1952) corresponded t o a t r a c k average L E T , w h i l e B u r c h ' s calculations determined an absorbed dose average L E T . T h e differences i n values of L f o r different types of r a d i a t i o n are usually n o t as large as f o r L . T h e relationship between these d i s t r i b u t i o n s , t ( L ) a n d d(L), t h e i r averages and the effect of a n energy cut-off w i l l be discussed i n Section 3.-1.
D D T

Interaction of Radiation with Matter

possible t o r e l a t e t h e energy deposition t o t h e size of a n y s t r u c t u r e w h i c h m a y be t h o u g h t r e l e v a n t . T h e local energy density, Z , has been defined as t h e energy dissipated i n a s m a l l sphere d i v i d e d b y i t s mass ( R o s s i , 1966, 1 9 6 7 ) . T h e p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e local energy d e n s i t y , ' P ( Z ) , can be d e t e r m i n e d f o r d i f f e r e n t r a d i a t i o n s a n d t h e f o r m of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n depends on t h e absorbed dose, Z>, t o t h e i r r a d i a t e d m e d i u m a n d o n t h e d i a m e t e r of t h e test sphere. T h e m e a n v a l u e of is e q u a l t o D . T h e energy d i s s i p a t e d b y i n d i v i d u a l events d i v i d e d by t h e mass of t h e c o n t e n t of t h e test sphere is called t h e incremental local energy density . I t can be s h o w n (Rossi, 1966, 1967) t h a t = Y/d w h e r e Y, t h e individual event size, is defined as t h e energy expended i n t h e e v e n t d i v i d e d b y d, t h e d i a m e t e r of t h e t e s t sphere. is a c o n s t a n t = / i f t h e u n i t s used are coherent. H o w e v e r t h e u n i t s used for Y a n d are often n o t coherent a n d t h e n t h e v a l u e of depends u p o n t h e m . These concepts are discussed f u r t h e r i n Section 8.
2

L i n e a r energ}* transfer d i s t r i b u t i o n s have been c a l c u l a t e d b } v a r i o u s authors for m a n y radiations i n c o m m o n use ( B o a g , 1954; B u r c h , 1957a, b ; H o w a r d F l a n d e r s , 1958; D a n z k e r , Kessaris, a n d L a u g h l i n , 1959; H a y n e s a n d D o l p h i n , 1959; C o r m a c k , 1956; B r u c e , Pearson a n d Freedhoff, 1963; Snyder, 1964; L a w s o n a n d W a t t , 1967; Bewley, 1968a and 1968b). E x a m p l e s of such d i s t r i b u t i o n s are shown i n Section 4.
r

1.6 1.5 O t h e r M e t h o d s of Specifying Radiation Quality

Scope of this Report

A l t h o u g h L E T d i s t r i b u t i o n s can be calculated for m a n y i o n i z i n g particles, i t is difficult t o measure L E T d i s t r i b u t i o n s . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e concept of L E T has l i m i t a t i o n s ; these are discussed i n Section 7. Rossi (1959, 1964, 1966, 1967) i n t r o d u c e d t h e concepts, l o c a l energy density ( Z ) , i n c r e m e n t a l local energy d e n s i t y ( ) a n d i n d i v i d u a l event size ( F ) w h i c h overcome some of these difficulties and also make i t

T h e progress t h a t has been made i n specifying r a d i a t i o n q u a l i t y i n t e r m s of L E T is described here, a n d some of t h e o u t s t a n d i n g problems r e m a i n i n g are discussed. D e s c r i p t i o n s are g i v e n of the p h y s i c a l a n d t h e o r e t i c a l premises o n w h i c h calculations of L E T a n d LET d i s t r i b u t i o n s , are based. E x a m p l e s of L E T d i s t r i b u t i o n s are g i v e n . E x a m p l e s of applications of average L E T a n d L E T d i s t r i b u t i o n s t o p r a c t i c a l a n d t h e o r e t i c a l p r o b l e m s are described a n d t h e l i m i t a t i o n s of such procedures are discussed. A l t e r n a t i v e m e t h o d s of specifying r a d i a t i o n q u a l i t y are b r i e f l y considered.

2.

I n t e r a c t i o n of R a d i a t i o n w i t h M a t t e r

2.1

General

energetic l i g h t p a r t i c l e s , f o r nuclear i n t e r a c t i o n s b y v e r y energetic h e a v y p a r t i c l e s a n d , a t v e r y l o w speeds, f o r losses b y elastic collisions. E n e r g e t i c p h o t o n s such as rays a n d g a m m a r a y s lose energy m a i n l y b y t h r e e mechanisms: ( a ) t h e p h o t o electric effect, i n w h i c h t h e t o t a l energy of t h e p h o t o n is expended i n the ejection of an orbital electron; (c) ( b ) C o m p t o n s c a t t e r i n g , i n w h i c h a p a r t of t h e p h o t o n ejaergy is t r a n s f e r r e d t o a n o r b i t a l electron; a n d p a i r p r o d u c t i o n , i n w h i c h t h e p h o t o n energy is c o n v e r t e d t o t h e mass a n d k i n e t i c energy of a n e l e c t r o n -

E n e r g e t i c charged particles lose energy i n t r a v e r s i n g a m e d i u m m a i n l y b y processes of electronic excitation i n w h i c h an o r b i t a l electron is raised t o a higher energy l e v e l , a n d b y ionization i n w h i c h an o r b i t a l electron is ejected. E n e r g y losses b y other processes are less i m p o r t a n t , except for r a d i a t i o n losses f r o m v e r y
d i s t r i b u t i o n s are n o t necessarily related to mass. I n accordance with past p r a c t i c e , h o w e v e r , the t e r m absorbed dose d i s t r i b u t i o n i n L E T w i l l be used t h r o u g h o u t .

2.

Interaction of Radiation with Matter .

p o s i t r o n p a i r . T h u s t h e b u l k of t h e i n c i d e n t p h o t o n energy is expended i n t h e l i b e r a t i o n of energetic elec t r o n s ( a n d sometimes p o s i t r o n s ) w h i c h t h e n lose energy t h r o u g h m e c h a n i s m s of a t o m i c e x c i t a t i o n a n d ionization. E n e r g e t i c n e u t r o n s lose energy m a i n l y b y elastic collision processes w h i c h i m p a r t energy t o t h e a t o m i c n u c l e i of t h e m e d i u m . I n h y d r o g e n o u s m a t e r i a l t h e b u l k of t h e energy of t h e f a s t n e u t r o n is g i v e n t o h y d r o g e n t o p r o d u c e p r o t o n recoils. P r o t o n s t h e n lose energy b y e x c i t a t i o n a n d i o n i z a t i o n processes. A t energies b e l o w a f e w k e V a n d above tens of M e V , n e u t r o n s i n t e r a c t w i t h m a t t e r p r i n c i p a l l y b y inelastic nuclear reactions. These processes m a y give rise t o b o t h h e a v y particles a n d r a d i a t i o n . A l l d i r e c t l y i o n i z i n g r a d i a t i o n s t r a n s f e r m o s t of t h e i r energy t o m a t t e r b y c o l l i s i o n processes i n v o l v i n g i o n i z a t i o n a n d e x c i t a t i o n ; these p r i m a r y events occur r a n d o m l y along t h e t r a c k s of charged particles. T h e r a t i o of e x c i t a t i o n t o i o n i z a t i o n energy losses and t h e r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y of i o n i z a t i o n clusters of different size are considered t o be n e a r l y i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e n a t u r e a n d energy of t h e p r i m a r y p a r t i c l e . H e n c e differences i n b i o l o g i c a l effectiveness of different i o n i z i n g r a d i a t i o n s s h o u l d be due m a i n t y t o differences i n t h e spatial distribution of t h e p r i m a r y events and n o t t o differences i n t h e nature of t h e events themselves. T h e factors r e l e v a n t t o q u a l i t y are therefore t h e spacing of the p r i m a r y collisions a n d t h e frequency of t h e more energetic d e l t a r a y s a l o n g t h e t r a c k of t h e d i r e c t l y i o n i z i n g p a r t i c l e . These are discussed i n more d e t a i l i n Section 2.3. Because energy losses are r a n d o m i n n a t u r e , t h e physical q u a n t i t i e s p e r t a i n i n g t o a specific i r r a d i a t i o n should be described e i t h e r i n t e r m s of m e a n values, or b e t t e r , t h e i r p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s . Procedures f o r a r r i v i n g a t such descriptions are discussed i n Section 4.

w h i c h enter a sphere, b y i t s cross-sectional area

= AN/ Aa T h e fluence spectrum i n energy { () = An{E)/Aa

2.2.(2) is d e f i n e d by

2.2.(3)

where An(E)dE is t h e n u m b e r of incident p a r t i c l e s w i t h energies between and + dE e n t e r i n g . One m a y f u r t h e r specify an angular d i s t r i b u t i o n of fluence of a r a d i a t i o n field. D i r e c t l y i o n i z i n g particles of k i n e t i c e n e r g y w i l l transfer energy locally t o the m e d i u m a c c o r d i n g t o L = AE/Al where AE is t h e average e n e r g y t r a n s f e r r e d w h e n t h e p a r t i c l e moves t h r o u g h the d i s t a n c e . L , t h e L i n e a r E n e r g y Transfer ( L E T ) , depends o n t h e v e l o c i t y , charge and mass of t h e p a r t i c l e . T h e p a r t i c l e fluence spectrum i n L E T is given b y <t>(L) = An{L)/Aa 2.2.(4)

where An(L)dL is t h e n u m b e r of particles w i t h L E T b e t w e e n L a n d L + dL w h i c h enter . N o t e t h a t b y n o r m a l i z i n g t h e spectrum <f>(L) one obtains t h e t r a c k length distribution i n L E T . (,)
M L )

0(L) dL
=

An(L)
=

(T = t ( L

S
)

/ x
r

" " "

-AN-

"

F r o m 2.2.(3) and 2.2.(4) and t h e fact t h a t An(L)dL An(E)dE, t h e r e l a t i o n between ( L ) and () is * ( L ) = () (g)

2.2.(6)

2.3

Delta Rays

2.2

Absorbed

Dose, Particle F l u e n c e , and L E T dose, D, is defined ( I C R U , 1968) as

T h e absorbed follows:

The absorbed dose (D) is t h e q u o t i e n t of AE b y Am, w h e r e AE is t h e energy i m p a r t e d b y ionizing radiation to the matter i n a volume element a n d Am is t h e mass of t h e m a t t e r i n t h a t v o l u m e element.
D D

T h e t y p e s of i n t e r a c t i o n ( e x c i t a t i o n - i o n i z a t i o n ) w h i c h occur along t h e tracks of i n d i v i d u a l i o n i z i n g particles are i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 1. T w o m a i n types m a y be d i s t i n g u i s h e d , ( a ) a localized excitation or i o n i z a t i o n i n t h e t r a c k of t h e ionizing particle, ( b ) a larger energy transfer leading t o the ejection of an atomic electron of sufficient energy t o produce f u r t h e r i o n i z i n g events. I n t h e l a t t e r case the energy transferred m a y be so
T h r o u g h o u t t h i s r e p o r t the d i f f e r e n t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of one q u a n t i t y (A) w i t h respect to another (B) w i l l be w r i t t e n i n t h e f o r m A (B) r a t h e r t h a n i n the f o r m Ab to a v o i d c o m p l i c a t i o n s i n t h e use of a d d i t i o n a l suffixes. F o r example, the d i s t r i b u t i o n of fluence w i t h respect t o L E T w h e n an energy l i m i t is i m posed, is w r i t t e n () i n this r e p o r t instead of ^ w h i c h m i g h t h a v e been chosen.
4 6

= ^ Am

2.2.(1)

T h e particle fluence, , i n t h e region of interest is defined as t h e q u o t i e n t of t h e n u m b e r of particles

See f o o t n o t e 2, p. 2.

2.3 l o w t h a t o n l y a n i o n cluster of 2,3,4, etc. i o n pairs is f o r m e d o r i t m a y be large enough t o produce a separate t r a c k k n o w n as a d e l t a r a y . T h e d i s t i n c t i o n between clusters a n d d e l t a rays, a l t h o u g h largely a r b i t r a r y , has been used t o c o n s t r u c t models of t r a c k s t r u c t u r e (e.g., M o z u m d e r a n d M a g e e , 1966). T r a c k s of h e a v y charged particles are essentially s t r a i g h t a n d except a t higher energies t h e y are densely i o n i z i n g , i . e . t h e mean spacing between successive p r i m a r y collisions is very s m a l l . Single ions a n d i o n clusters a l o n g t h e t r a c k c o n s t i t u t e t h e t r a c k " c o r e " . A l t h o u g h t h e m a x i m u m d e l t a - r a y energy is o n l y a s m a l l f r a c t i o n of t h e energy of t h e p r i m a r y p a r t i c l e , t h e more energetic d e l t a rays generated b y h e a v y charged p a r t i c l e s m a y be clearly separated f r o m t h e t r a c k core because t h e i r range greatly exceeds t h e m e a n spacing of t h e p r i m a r y collisions i n t h e t r a c k core. T h e s i t u a t i o n is different w i t h fast electrons. E n e r getic d e l t a r a y s c a n be f o r m e d w i t h a range c o m p a r a b l e t o t h e range of t h e p r i m a r y p a r t i c l e . T h e m a x i m u m energy t h a t c a n be i m p a r t e d t o a delta r a y is h a l f t h a t of t h e p r i m a r y electron. O n t h e other h a n d t h e distances b e t w e e n successive p r i m a r y collisions are o f t e n larger t h a n t h e range of t h e m a j o r i t y of t h e d e l t a rays. Therefore, t h e n o t i o n of a t r a c k core d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e d e l t a r a y has l i t t l e meaning for fast electrons. F o r slower electrons, i n c l u d i n g delta rays, t h e s i t u a t i o n is also c o m p l i c a t e d b y t h e fact t h a t t h e t r a c k s are devious (see F i g u r e 1 ) . T h e p r o b a b i l i t y per scattering center per u n i t area t h a t a charged p a r t i c l e of energy w i l l undergo a n i n t e r a c t i o n i n v o l v i n g a given energy transfer, Q, is expressed b y t h e collision cross section, a ( Q ) . Classical collision t h e o r y indicates t h a t t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of a n

Delta Rays
1 1

Electron Energy Loss/eV

F i g . 2 . T h e single c o l l i s i o n e n e r g y loss d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r 20 k e V electrons passing t h r o u g h a l a y e r o f F o r m v a r 13 n m t h i c k . T h e percentage of t h e i n e l a s t i c a l l y s c a t t e r e d e l e c t r o n s p e r 10-eV e n e r g y loss i n t e r v a l is p l o t t e d a g a i n s t t h e energy loss ( R a u t h a n d S i m p s o n , 1964). [ B y c o u r t e s y of t h e a u t h o r s a n d R a d i a t i o n Research ( c o p y r i g h t h e l d b y A c a d e m i c Press).]

energy transfer Q is p r o p o r t i o n a l t o 1/Q a n d t h e recoil angle of t h e d e l t a r a y is

2

[
0

4ra Mo
0

J
0

where is t h e mass of t h e i n c i d e n t p a r t i c l e a n d m is t h e mass of t h e s t r u c k p a r t i c l e . A s t h e v a l u e of t h e cosine of t h e recoil angle ranges f r o m 0 t o 1 , t h e recoil angle itself w i l l range f r o m 9 0 t o 0 . T h e m a x i m u m d e l t a r a y energy is [ 4 m i l f / ( m + Mo) ] E, except f o r collisions i n v o l v i n g i d e n t i c a l p a r t i c l e s , e.g. negative electrons, f o r w h i c h i t is E/2.
0 0 0 2

Incident Particle

X
Single Ionizations (or Excitations)

J>- Clusters

F i g . 1 . D i a g r a m m a t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e t r a c k of a n ionizing particle i n m a t t e r .

These simple r e l a t i o n s h i p s h o l d o n l y w h e n t h e t w o particles are considered u n b o u n d a n d w*hen n o q u a n t u m mechanical, r e l a t i v i s t i c , o r m u l t i - b o d y k i n e t i c s are involved. L e a ( 1 9 4 6 ) c a l c u l a t e d t h e d e l t a - r a y energ\r d i s t r i b u t i o n of d i f f e r e n t i o n i z i n g p a r t i c l e s o n t h e basis of t h e 1/Q dependence. T h e o r e t i c a l considerations a n d ex p e r i m e n t a l evidence s u p p o r t t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p f o r Q > 200 e V , i n l o w a t o m i c n u m b e r m e d i a . H o w e v e r t h e o r e t i c a l considerations i m p l y t h a t t h e relationship cannot h o l d f o r smaller values of Q a n d t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n is considerably steeper a t energies below a few h u n d r e d e V . T h u s t h e shape of t h e s p e c t r u m a t l o w energies depends o n t h e k i n e t i c energy of t h e i o n i z i n g p a r t i c l e . U s i n g B e t h e ' s ( 1 9 3 3 ) t h e o r y , Walske (1952, 1956) has d e r i v e d t h e o r e t i c a l r e l a t i o n s f o r t h e collision spectra p r o d u c e d b y energetic particles i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h K - a n d L - s h e l l electrons; n u m e r i c a l evalua t i o n s h a v e been p e r f o r m e d b y B i c h s e l ( 1 9 6 8 ) . C h o i a n d Merzbacher (1969) have treated t h e problem numeri cally f o r p r o t o n s .
2

3.

Definition and Concepts of LET t r o n s a n d F o r m v a r foils, is shown i n F i g u r e 2. distribution The maximum occurred a t 22 cV and average energy loss of about 60 eV was d e t e r m i n e d . simple classical of delta rays relationships for a n g u l a r disare c e r t a i n t y n o t v a l i d for has a tribution The an

E x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a on t h e shape of t h e energy-loss s p e c t r u m are scarce. C l o u d c h a m b e r studies have been m a d e b y A l p e r ( 1 9 3 2 ) . E x p e r i m e n t s have been c o n ducted by R u t h e m a n n (1948) and by R a u t h and S i m p s o n (1964) on t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of energy losses f r o m l o w energy electrons i n t h i n plastic foils. R u t h e m a n n used 5 k e V electrons a n d collodion foils a n d he f o u n d t h a t collision losses of a b o u t 25 eV h a d the highest frequency. A similar peak was e v i d e n t i n early seconda r y electron emission w o r k (e.g., R u d b e r g 1930, 1931) a n d has been observed i n m a n y o t h e r materials ( f o r a r e v i e w see M a r t o n et a l , 1955). A n example f r o m t h e w o r k of R a u t h and Simpson, w h o used 20 k e V elec-

moderate or s m a l l delta r a y energies. I n classical t h e o r y each recoil angle unique value of or related scattering angle AE associated w i t h it. However,

R a u t h ( 1 9 6 2 ) observed t h a t a b r o a d d i s t r i b u t i o n of energy loss values was associated w i t h a l l s c a t t e r i n g angles between 0 a n d 50. D e t a i l s are a v a i l a b l e i n R a u t h ( 1 9 6 2 ) a n d R a u t h a n d Simpson ( 1 9 6 4 ) .

D e f i n i t i o n a n d C o n c e p t s of L E T

3.1

Current

Definition of L E T

o n R a d i o l o g i c a l U n i t s a n d Measurements vided additional information.

(1963) pro-

T h e c u r r e n t d e f i n i t i o n of L E T b y I C R U ( I C R U , 1968) is q u o t e d on page 2, Section 1.3 of t h i s r e p o r t . T h i s d e f i n i t i o n was modified f r o m t h e previous d e f i n i t i o n ( I C R U , 1962a) as a r e s u l t of a r e c o m m e n d a t i o n developed b y t h e T a s k G r o u p responsible for t h i s r e p o r t . T h e b a c k g r o u n d of t h e c u r r e n t d e f i n i t i o n is r e l e v a n t t o an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e concept of L E T .

3.2

1962 D e f i n i t i o n o f L E T a n d F u r t h e r Considerations

R e p o r t 10a of I C R U ( I C R U , 1962a) defined L E T as f o l l o w s : T h e linear energ^y t r a n s f e r (L) of charged particles i n a m e d i u m is t h e q u o t i e n t of dE b y dl where dE is t h e average energy locally i m p a r t e d t o t h e m e d i u m b y a charged p a r t i c l e of specified energ}^ i n t r a v e r s i n g a distance dl.
L L T

" . . . V a r i o u s cut-off levels of energy have been selected t o separate d e l t a r a y t r a c k s f r o m clusters, a n d i t is l i k e l y t h a t different cut-off levels are a p p r o p r i a t e for different reactions. I t is, therefore, suggested t h a t t h e cut-off level be indicated b y a subscript, e.g. L E T o w o u l d be an L E T obtained when tracks due t o seconda r y particles w i t h energy of 100 eV or more are counted as separate tracks. T h e simplest parameter t o use is t h e L E T o o , defined as the energy loss per u n i t distance of t h e charged particles o r i g i n a l l y set i n m o t i o n b y electromagnetic r a d i a t i o n or neutrons, or of t h e charged particles w h i c h originate i n r a d i a t i o n sources ( a - r a y s , -rays, e t c . ) . LEToo is t h e same as "stopping power". . .
1 0

A discussion of the basic concepts a n d the l i m i t a t i o n s of these earlier definitions follows.

3.3

Concepts

Consider t h e possible types of energy loss b y charged particles of specified energy, E, w h i c h are i n c i d e n t n o r m a l l y o n a n absorber of thickness AL I t is assumed t h a t Al is sufficiently t h i n so t h a t m u l t i p l e scattering events can be neglected. A particle loses energy AE

dE

T h e t e r m " l o c a l l y i m p a r t e d " m a y refer either t o a m a x i m u m distance f r o m t h e ( p a r t i c l e ) t r a c k or t o a m a x i m u m v a l u e of discrete energy loss b y t h e p a r t i c l e b e y o n d w h i c h losses are no longer considered as local. I n either case, t h e l i m i t s chosen should be specified. T h e r e p o r t of the R B E C o m m i t t e e of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Commissions o n R a d i o l o g i c a l P r o t e c t i o n a n d

a t a discrete site, is deflected at an angle 0, and passes o u t of t h e absorber w i t h energy E'. A S i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 3, t h e several characterized U represents types of energy loss may be b y the f o l l o w i n g : a p a r t i c l e traversal w i t h no energy

inter-change is t h e energy transferred t o a localized i n t e r a c t i o n site

3.3 q Q' 7 r is t h e energy transferred t o a short range sec o n d a r y p a r t i c l e for w h i c h q < where is a selected energy cut-off level is t h e energy transferred t o a l o n g range second a r y p a r t i c l e f o r w h i c h Q* > is t h e energy transferred t o photons ( u p t o a m a x i m u m equal t o E ) is a geometric cut-off distance f r o m t h e p a r t i c l e track

Concepts

s t o p p i n g p o w e r dl is replaced b y pdl, w h i c h is mass per u n i t area. W e n o w t u r n t o t h e p r o b l e m of defining L E T w i t h either energy or distance cut-off l i m i t s i m p o s e d . L E T A ( o r L A ) is defined as t h a t p a r t of t h e t o t a l s t o p p i n g power, dE/dl, w h i c h is associated w i t h e x c i t a t i o n - i o n i z a t i o n energy transfers u p t o a cut-off v a l u e . F r o m t h e classification of energy losses t h i s can be seen t o be
LA
= r

is t h e s c a t t e r i n g angle of the i n c i d e n t p a r t i c l e T h e i n t e r a c t i o n s q, Q'', a n d 7 are f u r t h e r d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e c o m p a r t m e n t s : c o m p a r t m e n t 1 represents energy s p e n t w i t h i n b o t h Al a n d a c y l i n d e r of radius r s u r r o u n d i n g t h e p a r t i c l e t r a c k , c o m p a r t m e n t 3 represents energy spent outside Al b u t w i t h i n t h e c y l i n d e r s u r r o u n d i n g t h e t r a c k , a n d c o m p a r t m e n t 2 represents energy spent outside t h e c y l i n d e r .
6

Al

or

( - ) JA \dl

3.3.(2)

where AEA represents the s u m of t h e energies expended i n categories i n 0 , U, a n d q o n l y d i v i d e d b y t h e t o t a l n u m b e r of i n c i d e n t particles. LA is t h e same as t h e " r e s t r i c t e d s t o p p i n g p o w e r " a n d can be r e a d i l y c a l c u l a t e d for a w i d e range of energies.

ABSORBER F i g . 3. D i a g r a m of the passage of p a r t i c l e s of energy t h r o u g h a t h i c k n e s s Al of m a t e r i a l i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e several t y p e s of energy loss t h a t m a y occur.

D i s t r i b u t i o n s i n t h e various energy c o m p a r t m e n t s are generated as t h e result of m a n y i n c i d e n t charged particles of energy t r a v e r s i n g t h e absorber. A E represents t h e s u m of t h e various energies expended i n categories 0 , U, qi, q , Qi, Q2, Qz\ 7 1 , 7 2 , a n d 7 3 , d i v i d e d b y t h e t o t a l n u m b e r of i n c i d e n t particles. T h e linear s t o p p i n g power of t h e absorber is t h e n defined as
2

L E T (or L ) is defined as t h a t p a r t of t h e t o t a l energy loss dE/dl w h i c h is deposited w i t h i n a c y l i n d e r of radius r a n d l e n g t h Al, centered along the p a r t i c l e track.
r R

F r o m figure 3, t h i s is seen t o be L = Al 3.3.(3)

3.3.(1) Hence dE/dl the

6

is an average rate of energy' loss a n d

distance t r a v e l l e d is dl. I n t h e case of t h e mass

N o t e t h a t c o n t r i b u t i o n s f r o m 7 rays are n o t i n c l u d e d i n the d e f i n i t i o n of s t o p p i n g power as explained i n A p p e n d i x A l , page 2 1 . T h e c o n v e n t i o n ( I C R U , 1968) of t r e a t i n g energy losses as p o s i t i v e is adopted here.
7

where AE represents an average f o r t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s i n 0 , U, qi, Qi, a n d 7 1 . H o w e v e r , o n t h e average, compensation w i l l occur a n d t h e energy p o r t i o n s , Qz a n d 7 3 w h i c h are expended outside Al b u t w i t h i n the c y l i n d e r w i l l be compensated b y s i m i l a r t r a c k s o r i g i n a t i n g outside Al; hence Qz a n d 7 3 s h o u l d also be i n c l u d e d i n AE .
r r

I t is e v i d e n t f r o m t h e previous discussion t h a t LA is easy t o e v a l u a t e a n a l y t i c a l l y b u t d i f f i c u l t t o measure

4.

Calculation of Distribution of Absorbed

Dose in LET w a y are t a ( L ) a n d e f o ( L ) , a n d i n t h e i n t e g r a l f o r m , TA(L) a n d DA(L). LA,D a n d LA, represent t h e a b sorbed dose a n d t r a c k averages of these d i s t r i b u t i o n s . T h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s a n d averages w h e n is e q u a l t o t h e m a x i m u m d e l t a r a y energy are designated t (L)
w

d i r e c t l y ; whereas L is d i f f i c u l t t o e v a l u a t e a n a l y t i c a l l y ,
r

b u t can be measured i n p r i n c i p l e b y ( m i c r o ) dosimeter.

replacing the

c y l i n d e r w i t h a suitable m e a s u r i n g device such as a

and

dUL) 3.4 L E T Distributions and Their Averages

and L ^ ,

and L ^ ,

. F u r t h e r discussion o f these

m o d i f i e d d i s t r i b u t i o n s of L E T a n d t h e i r averages is presented i n S e c t i o n 4.

A s a fast charged p a r t i c l e loses energy i n i t s passage t h r o u g h a n absorber, t h e v a l u e of L w i l l also change. T h e r e s u l t a n t d i s t r i b u t i o n i n L can be expressed i n t w o ways, the track length distribution, t ( L ) and the absorbed dose d i s t r i b u t i o n , d ( L ) , (see Section 1.4). T h e t w o d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n s are r e l a t e d as follows (L) = k ^ l
LT

3.5

Recommendations

T h e use of t h e energy c u t - o f f f o r m of L E T w h i c h can be e v a l u a t e d i n a s t r a i g h t - f o r w a r d m a n n e r using r e s t r i c t e d s t o p p i n g p o w e r f o r m u l a e , is r e c o m m e n d e d w h e n a r e s t r i c t e d f o r m of L E T is desired. T h u s t h e linear energy t r a n s f e r , LA , is defined as t h a t p a r t of t h e t o t a l linear energy loss of a charged p a r t i c l e w h i c h is due t o energy transfers u p t o a specified f o r r e s t r i c t e d s t o p p i n g power. energy that cut-off v a l u e , . T h i s d e f i n i t i o n corresponds t o

3.4.(1)

a n d are each n o r m a l i z e d t o u n i t y . T h e i n t e g r a l f o r m s of these d i s t r i b u t i o n s are denoted b y T(L) = f t(L)dL and D(L) = d(L)dL

Loo signifies t h e v a l u e of l i n e a r energy transfer w h i c h includes a l l energy losses u p t o t h e m a x i m u m a l l o w e d a n d is therefore n u m e r i c a l l y e q u a l t o the t o t a l s t o p p i n g power. venience T h e subscript oo is used f o r and to conform w i t h mass con

respectively. T h e mean L E T associated w i t h t h e t r a c k d i s t r i b u t i o n is t h e t r a c k average L E T , L

00
T

, where 3.4.(2) dose

D

recent usage b u t i t

LT The

t(L)TAL with

s h o u l d n o t be t a k e n t o m e a n t h a t an a r b i t r a r i l y h i g h energy transfer c o u l d occur. L is an i n t e r e s t i n g p h y s i c a l q u a n t i t y of potential

r

m e a n L E T associated

t h e absorbed

d i s t r i b u t i o n is t h e absorbed dose average L E T , L where

CO

significance. H o w e v e r t h e q u e s t i o n of w h e t h e r L

or

LA is of m o r e significance or usefulness i n t h e e v a l u a t i o n of r a d i a t i o n effects w i l l n o t be discussed f u r t h e r d(L)LdL 3.4.(3) here. T h e m o s t recent I C R U d e f i n i t i o n of L E T , ( I C R U , 1968), see page 2, is i n accord w i t h this discussion. A special p r o b l e m arises i n t h e definition of t h e L E T of l o w energy electrons where t h e t o t a l p a t h or pene t r a t i o n l e n g t h is c o m p a r a b l e t o t h e cut-off distance, r. T h i s p o i n t is discussed i n S e c t i o n A4.2.2. L = /

A s discussed i n Section 3.3, LA represents t h e L E T c a l c u l a t e d w h e n energy transfers a b o v e a n energy ( i n eV or k e V ) are considered t o generate separate t r a c k s . T h e t r a c k l e n g t h a n d absorbed dose d i s t r i b u t i o n s corresponding t o values of L E T r e s t r i c t e d i n t h i s

C a l c u l a t i o n of D i s t r i b u t i o n of A b s o r b e d D o s e i n L E T
8

4.1

Introduction

Because L E T is a u n i q u e f u n c t i o n of kinetic energy for a given t y p e of particle, t h e fluence distribution in k i n e t i c energy m a y be c o n v e r t e d d i r e c t l y t o a d i s t r i b u t i o n i n L E T . T h e absorbed dose delivered b y p a r ticles w i t h a g i v e n k i n e t i c energy ( o r L E T ) m a y be f o u n d b y m u l t i p l y i n g t h e p a r t i c l e fluence b y t h e cor responding L E T . A fluence s p e c t r u m m a y be calculated b } means of
r

E q u a t i o n 2 . 2 . ( 3 ) defines t h e p a r t i c l e fluence spec t r u m i n p a r t i c l e energy. H o w e v e r , w h a t is u s u a l l y of m o r e interest i n r a d i a t i o n b i o l o g y is t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of

8

t h e fluence, n o t i n k i n e t i c energy b u t i n L E T .
See f o o t n o t e 3, page 2.

4,2
;

Calculations o f Particle Fluence Spectrum

I I I I 1 I I I 1 I I I I I I L

11

\ I0
;

50 kV Rays

\ \

/
\

200 kV Ray

I I I I I

I I

I0

coi
v

21 1
I I 10
I I I I I I I

0.1

100 keV

1000

ELECTRON KINETIC ENERGY;

F i g . 4. E l e c t r o n fluence d i s t r i b u t i o n s i n k i n e t i c energy f o r w a t e r f o r v a r i o u s r a d i a t i o n s . T h e e l e c t r o n fluence d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r 50 k V rays is based o n t h e x - r a y s p e c t r u m g i v e n b y B u r k e a n d P e t t i t (1960). T h e e l e c t r o n fluence d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r 200 k V x r a y s was deduced f r o m d a t a of B u r c h (1957b). T h e fluence d i s t r i b u t i o n s i n c l u d e t h e d e l t a rays or k n o c k - o n electrons.

t h e continuous-slowing-down which charged particles continuously

approximation

(csda) i n

area per u n i t i n t e r v a l of E ) a t a p o i n t of t h e m e d i u m , under conditions of r a d i a t i o n e q u i l i b r i u m , is

9

are assumed t o lose energy

along t h e i r p a t h s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e linear () = L ~
l

energy transfer, L . Such a m o d e l ignores t h e discrete n a t u r e of energy decrements r e m o v e d f r o m t h e p a r t i c l e track by delta rays. A s indicated i n the previous physical model" sections a better a p p r o x i m a t i o n t o t h e real

?i(E )dEo
0

4.2.(1) ma}' then

T h e fluence d i s t r i b u t i o n as a f u n c t i o n of be f o u n d f r o m : *(L) The = ()

s i t u a t i o n is obtained b y a p p l y i n g a " t w o - g r o u p an energy cut-off, i n calculations . This

i n w h i c h t h e collisions are d i v i d e d i n t o t w o groups b y m o d e l utilizes t h e t o t a l continuous-slowing-down p a r t i c l e fluence i n c l u d i n g t h a t of t h e d e l t a rays whereas, based o n t h e a p p r o x i m a t i o n , the fluence of p r i m a r y particles o n l y is needed. F u r t h e r m o r e , i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of absorbed dose f r o m the fluence b y t h e t w o - g r o u p m o d e l , one uses the a p p r o p r i a t e restricted stopping power, dE/dl (dE/dl)A r a t h e r t h a n t h e t o t a l s t o p p i n g power, and

4.2.(2) a function of

d i s t r i b u t i o n s of absorbed dose as

p a r t i c l e k i n e t i c energy, d^(E), are given b y d(E)

a n d of L E T ,

dcc(L),

= Leo ()/

4.2.(3)

dco(L) = Leo 4>*(L)/ D

P

4.2.(4) L ().

4.2

C a l c u l a t i o n s of P a r t i c l e F l u e n c e S p e c t r u m Using the Continuous-Slowing-Down A p p r o x i m a t i o n (csda) Suppose t h a t charged particles are e m i t t e d u n i f o r m l y

where t h e absorbed dose D =

(1/p) / Jo

Calculations of fluence a n d absorbed dose d i s t r i b u t i o n based o n t h e csda have been made b y a n u m b e r of authors ( f o r example C o r m a c k a n d Johns, 1952; B o a g , 1954; Johns et a l . , 1954; D a n z k e r et a l , 1959; B i a v a t i et a l . , 1963; Snyder, 1964; B e w l e y , 1968a).
T h e p o i n t is assumed to be s u r r o u n d e d o n a l l sides b y a thickness of m e d i u m greater t h a n t h e m a x i m u m range of t h e charged p a r t i c l e s .
9

i n a homogeneous m e d i u m such t h a t t h e n u m b e r particles w i t h i n i t i a l k i n e t i c energies E

0 Q 0

of

to

E +dEo
0

per u n i t v o l u m e is n(E )dE . slowing-down approximation, fluence spectrum ()

Using the the

continuousparticle

charged

(number

of particles per u n i t

4.

Calculation of Distribution of Absorbed Dose in LET energy is 7i(E ). I n slowing d o w n , these p a r t i c l e s w i l l transfer most of t h e i r k i n e t i c energy t o t h e m e d i u m i n t h e f o r m of e x c i t a t i o n and i o n i z a t i o n b u t some energy w i l l appear as brernsstrahlung w h i c h w i l l generally escape f r o m the region of interest. P a r t of t h e energy is dissipated along the tracks of t h e p r i m a r y particles a n d p a r t is carried away b y the d e l t a rays.
0

or

< :

S t a r t i n g w i t h t h e s p e c t r u m of i n i t i a l electrons i n t h e m e d i u m , t h e electrons w i t h i n the highest i n i t i a l k i n e t i c energy range are considered first. T h e energy these electrons dissipate ( i n collisions i n v o l v i n g energy transfers below t h e chosen cut-off) as well as a l l t h e secondary electrons a n d brernsstrahlung t h e y generate i n passing t o a lower energy range is t h e n c a l c u l a t e d . T h e c a l c u l a t i o n is continued b y f o l l o w i n g t h e h i s t o r y of t h e electrons i n t h e next lower energy range a n d so o n , u n t i l t h e t o t a l energy dissipated is accounted for. T h e particles i n any energy range consist, i n general, of ( 1 ) electrons whose i n i t i a l energy is w i t h i n t h e range ( 2 ) electrons w h i c h enter f r o m a higher energy range as t h e r e s u l t of dissipative or discrete energy losses a n d
30 LINEAR ENERGY TRANSFER; keV^nf 50

<

or

( 3 ) secondaries, tertiaries, etc. generated b y t h e p r i m a r y electrons. T h e technique has been extended t o v a r i o u s types of i o n i z i n g particles ( B u r c h a n d B i r d , 1956; B u r c h , 1957a, b ; B r u s t a d , 1962; D o l p h i n , 1959). 4.3.2 Calculations Using Distribution Energy Spencer and Fano (1954) developed the t h e o r y of t h e s l o w i n g - d o w n of fast electrons and performed sample calculations of the fluence spectrum of electrons, i n c l u d i n g d e l t a rays, for a few situations. T h e m e t h o d was used b y M c G i n n i e s (1959) to prepare an extensive set of tables of the electron fluence spectrum per i n i t i a l p a r t i c l e , y(Eo, E ) , at energy for electrons w i t h v a r i o u s i n i t i a l energies E . Here y(E , E ) is the elec t r o n fluence spectrum w h i c h results if one p a r t i c l e of i n i t i a l energy is generated per u n i t volume. M c G i n nies' tables are for values of f r o m 6 k e V t o 6 M e V , for values of f r o m 0.45 k e V to 5 M e V and for several m a t e r i a l s i n c l u d i n g air, water, muscle and bone.
Q 0

F i g . 5. D i s t r i b u t i o n of absorbed dose i n L E T f o r w a t e r f o r t h e electrons set i n m o t i o n b y C o g a m m a r a y s . T h e L E T values f o r v a r i o u s e l e c t r o n energies used i n F i g s . 5 to 10 were taken from Table A l .
6 0

H a y lies a n d

the E l e c t r o n Function of

Fluence Kinetic

4.3

Calculations of Absorbed Dose Distributions Based on a T w o - G r o u p Model

as

T h e l i m i t a t i o n s of t h e csda m o d e l i n b o t h c a v i t y ionization theory and i n calculating the absorbed dose d i s t r i b u t i o n i n L E T have been p o i n t e d o u t b y a n u m b e r of workers ( B u r c h , 1955, 1957a, b, c; Spencer a n d A t t i x , 1955; N C R P , 1961). T h e t w o - g r o u p m o d e l described above has been used i n t w o wa ys t o calculate absorbed dose d i s t r i b u t i o n s da(E) or da(L). I n the first of these, developed b y B u r c h (1955, 1957b), t h e particles are followed f r o m t h e highest energy d o w n t o t h e cut-off energy, , i n a step-wise manner, t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of absorbed dose a m o n g a n u m b e r of k i n e t i c energy i n t e r v a l s being c a l c u l a t e d f r o m s t o p p i n g p o w e r t h e o r y . T h e second m e t h o d (Spencer a n d A t t i x , 1955) proceeds v i a t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e t o t a l p a r t i c l e fluence, {), ( i n c l u d i n g delta r a y s ) f r o m w h i c h t h e absorbed dose d i s t r i b u t i o n da(E) may be f o u n d b y m u l t i p l y i n g () b y LA .
t

T h e fluence spectrum under e q u i l i b r i u m conditions f o r a d i s t r i b u t i o n of i n i t i a l energies n(E ) can be found bv integration:

0

()

/ y(E , J
0

E)

n(E )dE
0

4.3.(1)

4.3.1

Calculations Using the Step-Wise Method

A s i n Section 4.2, i t is assumed t h a t charged particles are generated u n i f o r m l y i n t h e v o l u m e of m e d i u m s u r r o u n d i n g t h e p o i n t or s m a l l r e g i o n of t h e m e d i u m a n d t h a t t h e n u m b e r per u n i t v o l u m e a n d u n i t k i n e t i c

T h i s fluence spectrum pertains t o a l l values of t h e cut-off energy, , b u t values of () are required o n l y for > A. T h e absorbed dose delivered b y particles w i t h energy is t h e n f o u n d b y m u l t i p l y i n g b y the appropriate L E T . Thus:

4.4
ddE) = LA4>(E)/ D
P

LET Distributions in Water

11

4.3.(2)

d a t a f o r m t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t for t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of d i s t r i b u t i o n s of absorbed dose i n L E T , t h e n e x t step being t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e fluence as a f u n c t i o n of L E T f r o m t h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d of t h e d a t a of T a b l e A l (Appendix 4 ) . F i g u r e 5 shows t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of absorbed dose i n L E T for
60

T h e absorbed dose delivered b y particles w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r l i n e a r t r a n s f e r , L , is t h e n f o u n d f r o m

(w)

1M E )

(3)

C a l c u l a t i o n s of p a r t i c l e fluence spectra f o r w a t e r a n d of t h e corresponding absorbed dose spectra have been m a d e b y D a n z k e r et a l . (1959) for = 5.1 k e V , b y C o r m a c k (1956, 1966) for equal t o 5, 0.5 a n d 0.1 k e V a n d b y B r u c e et a l . (1963) for equal t o 0.5 a n d 0.1 k e V .

C o r a d i a t i o n . T h e effect u p o n t h e d i s t r i

b u t i o n of v a r i o u s choices of cut-off energy for t h e d e l t a rays i n v o l v e d i n LA is also shown. I n F i g u r e 6 t h e same d a t a f o r tional absorbed dose DA(L)
60

C o are p l o t t e d u s i n g d A { L ) is

t h e c u m u l a t i v e d i s t r i b u t i o n , i.e. t h e c u m u l a t i v e f r a c rather than p l o t t e d against L E T . T h e advantages of t h i s m e t h o d are t h a t i t d i r e c t l y indicates t h e f r a c t i o n a l absorbed dose between a n y l i m i t s of L E T a n d t h a t t h e curves are i n v a r i a n t w i t h coordinate transformations. T h e m e t h o d is used i n Figures 7-10, for a single v a l u e of t h e cut-off energy, = All L report values 100 eV i n Figures 7-9, a n d w i t h i n this or o u t cut-off, D o o ( L ) , i n F i g u r e 10. a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n s presented on energy cut-off are based e\^aluations

4.4

L E T Distributions i n Water

T h e m e t h o d of d e r i v i n g the d i s t r i b u t i o n s of absorbed dose i n L E T f r o m t h e fluence spectra has been used i n o b t a i n i n g t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s g i v e n i n Figures 4 t o 10. A l l of these a p p l y t o w a t e r as t h e m e d i u m . F i g u r e 4 shows t h e p a r t i c l e fluence d i s t r i b u t i o n s as a f u n c t i o n of electron k i n e t i c energy for 50 k V rays, 200 k V r a y s , a n d C o y rays. These a n d s i m i l a r
60

estimates. A s discussed i n Section A4.2.2, t h e deter m i n a t i o n of p r o p e r L values t o be used for l o w energ

1

1 I 1 I

H l

I ' M

'

> ^

=/2

^ 4 = 10,000 eV
/ A-\C\CS a\J ~r ZI-IVJU cV

<

In/

6Co

--/ (CSDA)
0.1 1 0.3 ! 0.5 LINEAR ENERGY TRANSFER;
6 0

1 1 1

1 10 LA

1 30

1 , , ,, 50 100

keV./im '

F i g . 6. C u m u l a t i v e absorbed dose d i s t r i b u t i o n i n L E T f o r w a t e r f o r C o . T h e o r d i n a t e values g i v e t h e f r a c t i o n of t h e absorbed dose d e l i v e r e d b y electron t r a c k s w i t h L E T ' s less t h a n t h e v a l u e o n t h e abscissa and are i n t e g r a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of t h e curves i n F i g . 5. T h e curve for = 100 eV is based o n e l e c t r o n fluence d a t a c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g M c G i n n i e s ' (1959) t a b l e s a n d is i n agreement w i t h d a t a f r o m B u r c h (1957b).

1.0
0.9

1 J 11 1

0.8
J

C O Q Q J O D
er
<

0.7

2 MeV electrons (complete track) \ 22 MV X R a y s - S ^

/ I

0.6

C O
<
0.5

Fo <

0.4

er

/
~ ^ 200 kV X Rc / Tritium / Beta Rays

/ /
/
/ / 50 kV X Rays

>
3

0.3

02

0.1 5.3 MeV Alpha Rays 0.1 0.3 , , ,, 05

L I N E A R ENERGY T R A N S F E R ;

30

50

100 . . 1 a n e n e r g y c u t - o f f of 100 e V M e V a l p h a r a y s were t a k e n for 50-kV rays was calcu

^ 1 , 1 , , ' keV.^m F i g . 7. C u m u l a t i v e absorbed dose d i s t r i b u t i o n s i n L E T f o r w a t e r f o r v a r i o u s r a d i a t i o n s f o r T h e curves f o r 2 2 - M V x r a y s , 2 M e V e l e c t r o n s , C o , 200 k V r a y s , t r i t i u m b e t a r a y s a n d 5.3 f r o m B u r c h (1957b) a n d a d j u s t e d t o c o r r e s p o n d t o the L E T values g i v e n i n T a b l e A l . T h e c u r v e l a t e d using t h e p a r t i c l e fluence f r o m t h e p h o t o n s p e c t r u m of B u r k e a n d P e t t i t t (1960).
1 6 0

<
<

000 LINEAR ENERGY TRANSFER; keV./i.m~'

100

F i g . 8. C u m u l a t i v e absorbed dose d i s t r i b u t i o n s i n L E T f o r w a t e r f o r h e a v y i o n beams w i t h energies of 10 M e V p e r n u c l e o n . T h e d e l t a - r a y s p e c t r u m has t h e same shape a n d c o n t r i b u t e s t h e same f r a c t i o n of t h e dose f o r a l l beams.

1 2

4.4

LET Distributions in Water

13

LINEAR ENERGY TRANSFER; F i g . 9. cleoli.

^. keV.^irrf
J

C u m u l a t i v e absorbed dose d i s t r i b u t i o n s i n L E T f o r w a t e r f o r h e a v y i o n beams w i t h energies of 100 M e V per n u -

LINEAR ENERGY TRANSFER;

-: keV.^m"

F i g . 10. C u m u l a t i v e absorbed dose d i s t r i b u t i o n s i n L E T f o r w a t e r f o r the charged p a r t i c l e s set i n m o t i o n b y f a s t n e u t r o n s a n d b y C o g a m m a r a y s . T h e L E T i n c l u d e s a l l collisions a n d t h e r e f o r e i t is assumed t h a t a l l t h e energy is d e p o s i t e d a l o n g t h e p r i m a r y t r a c k s . T h e curves f o r 0 . 1 , 0.34, 0.65, a n d 1.8 M e V n e u t r o n s were o b t a i n e d b y i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e d a t a of B i a v a t i et a l . (1963) a n d those f o r 3 a n d 14.6 M e V n e u t r o n s f r o m B e w l e y (1968a).
6 0

14 electrons

4.

Calculation of Distribution of Absorbed ambiguous. This may be a

Dose in LET g i v e n i n T a b l e 1. I n a d d i t i o n values of LA,D a n d LA, are g i v e n for

e o

is somewhat

p a r t i c u l a r p r o b l e m w h e n L d i s t r i b u t i o n s are g i v e n f o r m i x t u r e s of l i g h t a n d heavy p a r t i c l e s .

C o 7 rays for =

1 k e V a n d 10 k e V . from 0.1 k e V ) are

I t is clear f r o m these

data and, for example,

F i g u r e 5, t h a t LA,D a n d LA, ( w i t h = 4.5 Variation of L E T w i t h D e p t h i n a M e d i u m for h e a v y p a r t i c l e h i g h L E T r a d i a t i o n s .

m o r e w i d e l y separated for l o w L E T r a d i a t i o n s t h a n These a n d a d d i t i o n a l features m a y be d e r i v e d d i r e c t l y T h e d a t a g i v e n i n F i g u r e s 6 a n d 7 are based u p o n p r i m a r y x - or 7 - r a y spectra with no allowance for scattered r a d i a t i o n . Scattered r a d i a t i o n should be t a k e n i n t o account w h e n s i t u a t i o n s a t d e p t h s i n an extended m e d i u m are considered. L E T d i s t r i b u t i o n s at v a r i o u s d e p t h s i n w a t e r p h a n t o m s i r r a d i a t e d w i t h 280 k V r a v s , have been calculated b y Bruce
137

from

t h e d e f i n i t i o n s of
D

these

averages,

as of

follows. absorbed divided moment

T h e mean L&, , of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n da(L) distribution

2

dose i n L E T is equal t o t h e second m o m e n t of t h e t^(L) of track-length i n LET b y t h e m e a n LA,, of t h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n . T h e v a r i a n c e , , of a d i s t r i b u t i o n is e q u a l t o t h e second

Cs and

60

Co

m i n u s t h e square of t h e m e a n , t h u s one o b t a i n s t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n f o r t h e v a r i a n c e of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n t (L)

A

et a l . (1963)

with

cut-off energies of b o t h 100 e V a n d 500 eV. T h e v a r i a t i o n of t h e L E T s p e c t r u m w i t h d e p t h due t o increasing scatter is v e r y s m a l l a n d i t was concluded that the

[see 3 . 4 . ( 1 ) a n d 3 . 4 . ( 2 ) ] :
2

= LA,T(LA,D

LA,T)

4.6.(1)

change is u n l i k e l y t o be b i o l o g i c a l l y significant. T h e p r o b l e m of v a r i a t i o n of absorbed dose average L E T w i t h h i g h energy electrons has been discussed b y Ha3-nes and D o l p h i n ( 1 9 5 9 ) . C a l c u l a t i o n s of t h e energy d i s t r i b u t i o n of electrons as a f u n c t i o n of d e p t h f o r 10 M e V at low (Harder, energies, within 1964) sub large p r i m a r y electron beams of For stantial

F r o m t h i s i t follows t h a t LA,D is always greater t h a n LA, except i n t h e case w h e r e one has t o deal w i t h o n l y one v a l u e of L (i.e. i n t h e t r a c k segment t y p e of ex periment). A useful dimensionless of quantity which directly indicates t h e spread L E T values is t h e r e l a t i v e

show t h a t the s p e c t r u m does n o t r e m a i n constant. neutrons, p a r t i c u l a r l y changes i n L E T distribution

v a r i a n c e of L E T - v a l u e s . 4~ L& T
T

organisms are t o be expected.

= LA,

4.6.(2)

4.6

Average L E T

T h i s r e l a t i o n also aids i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g the depend ence of LA, a n d LA.D o n r a d i a t i o n q u a l i t y a n d on t h e cut- v a l u e . F o r h i g h , a n d especially for L ^ , t h e difference between LA, a n d LA,D indicates the spread of L E T values i n t h e field of p r i m a r y charged particles. T h e effect of a s m a l l cut-off is one of sepa r a t i n g t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s f r o m t h e t r a c k core a n d f r o m d e l t a rays. T h i s is m o s t r a d i a t i o n s where conspicuous for low-LET t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of the delta-rays

T h e absorbed dose average LA.D a n d t h e t r a c k aver age LA, have been p r e v i o u s l y defined Values of LA,D a n d LA, range of r a d i a t i o n s w i t h = (Section 3.4). h a v e been calculated f o r a 0.1 k e V a n d these are

T A B L E 1 Track-average and absorbed close-average values of LET in water irradiated with various radiations
Radiation Cut-off Energy eV /-.) keV/

lies i n a m u c h h i g h e r L E T - r a n g e t h a n t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of t h e t r a c k core. T h e r e f o r e , f o r l o w L E T - r a d i a t i o n s t h e absorbed dose average of L E T increases steeply w i t h a decrease of ; as can be seen f r o m t h e data of T a b l e 1, a n d , f o r example, f r o m F i g u r e 5 where t h e values of LA, a n d LA, are w i d e l y separated. F o r s m a l l a n d l o w L E T r a d i a t i o n , LA,D is (as p o i n t e d out b y Burch (1957a)) almost i n d e p e n d e n t of the s p e c t r u m of i n i t i a l p a r t i c l e s ; i t depends m a i n l y on the d e l t a - r a y c o n t r i b u t i o n s . LA, , however, depends on the spectrum of initial p a r t i c l e s a n d therefore varies w i d e l y for different r a d i a t i o n q u a l i t i e s . F o r h e a v y charged p a r t i cles t h e effect of b r o a d e n i n g t h e L E T spectrum b y i n t r o d u c i n g a cut-off is m u c h less pronounced. I n t h i s case t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of t h e delta-rays is near t h e L E T - r a n g e of t h e p r i m a r y particles.

keV//um

6 0

C o g a m m a rays

2 2 - M V rays 2 - M e V electrons (whole t r a c k ) 200-kV rays H beta rays 50 k V r a y s 5.3 M e V a l p h a r a y s (whole t r a c k )

3

Unrestricted 10,000 1,000 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

0.23 0.23 0.23 0.22 0.19 0.20 1.7 4.7 6.3 43

0.31 0.48 2.8 6.9 6.0 6.1 9.4 11.5 13.1 63

N o t e : T h e t r a c k ends (E < A) w e r e assigned an L E T of A/R(A) u s i n g values f r o m T a b l e A l .

5.3

Limitations of RBE vs LET Plots

15

5.
5.1 General

A p p l i c a t i o n s of L E T C a l c u l a t i o n s
A n example, t a k e n f r o m N a k a i a n d M o r t i m e r ( 1 9 6 7 ) is s h o w n i n F i g u r e 1 1 . W i t h i n a c t i v a t i o n as t h e e n d point, the relation between Relative Biological Effec tiveness ( R B E ) a n d L E T ( L ) differs f r o m one b i o l o g i c a l system t o a n o t h e r . F o r t h e i n a c t i v a t i o n of c e r t a i n b a c t e r i a , v i r u s e s , e n z y m e molecules, a n d f o r some chemical y i e l d s s u c h as t h e o x i d a t i o n of f e r r o u s s u l f a t e t h e c u r v e of R B E ( o r y i e l d ) v s L E T has n o m a x i m u m : b e y o n d a b o u t 10 k e V / i t declines w i t h i n creasing values of L E T ( c f . c u r v e f o r T - l phage i n F i g u r e 1 1 ) . H o w e v e r , t h e R B E f o r t h e i n a c t i v a t i o n of t r a n s f o r m i n g D N A shows a p e a k a t 30 keV/ ( F i g u r e 1 1 ) . I n more c o m p l e x systems, i n c l u d i n g m a m m a l i a n cells, t h e c u r v e of R B E v s L E T generally has a m a x i m u m a t L E T values i n t h e v i c i n i t y of 100 k e V / . T h e a c t u a l v a l u e of t h e L E T a t w h i c h t h e m a x i m u m occurs appears t o differ s o m e w h a t depending u p o n t h e b i o l o g i c a l m a t e r i a l s t u d i e d a n d t h e c o n d i t i o n s of i r r a d i a t i o n . I n F i g u r e 11 L was e m p l o y e d because t h e experiments were done b y t h e t r a c k segment m e t h o d .
x

C a l c u l a t i o n s of average L E T values, a n d of L E T d i s t r i b u t i o n s , have t w o m a i n applications. I n funda m e n t a l s t u d i e s , observed r e l a t i o n s between r a d i a t i o n effect a n d L E T f o r d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of r a d i a t i o n m a y be used e i t h e r t o suggest, o r t o test, models of t h e mecha n i s m o f r a d i a t i o n a c t i o n . W h e n , f o r several types of r a d i a t i o n , t h e effectiveness as w e l l as t h e L E T d i s t r i b u t i o n o r average is k n o w n , t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n c a n some t i m e s b e used b y i n t e r p o l a t i o n or l i m i t e d e x t r a p o l a t i o n , t o p r e d i c t t h e effectiveness of o t h e r s i m i l a r l y specified r a d i a t i o n s . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e effectiveness of Cs r a y s is expected t o be i n t e r m e d i a t e b e t w e e n t h a t of C o 7 r a y s a n d 200 k V p r a y s . I n a second a p p l i c a t i o n L E T v a l u e s are used i n t h e e s t i m a t i o n of dose e q u i v a l e n t i n r a d i a t i o n p r o t e c t i o n (see Section 6 ) .
137 60

5.2

G e n e r a l A p p l i c a t i o n s , R B E vs L E T

M a n y a u t h o r s h a v e p u b l i s h e d graphs of t h e effec tiveness of different r a d i a t i o n s against some f o r m of average L E T . R e p r e s e n t a t i v e examples f r o m r a d i a t i o n b i o l o g y are g i v e n b y H o w a r d - F l a n d e r s ( 1 9 5 8 ) , Sinclair a n d K o h n (1964), Tobias and M a n n e y (1964) a n d N a k a i a n d M o r t i m e r ( 1 9 6 7 ) a l l of w h i c h show s i m i l a r features. 10 11

5.3

Limitations

o f R B E vs L E T P l o t s

( 1 ) B r o a d g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s of response vs L E T i n b i o l o g i c a l m a t e r i a l are u s e f u l f o r establishing t h e genera f o r m of response a n d are s u i t a b l e f o r l i m i t e d i n t e r p o l a t i o n a n d f o r gross comparisons between s t u d i e 11

1 1 1 1 1I

INACTIVATION EFFICIENCY AS A FUNCTION OF LET FOR DIFFERENT BIOLC)GICAL SYSTEMS

Transforming DN/ (Hutchinson)

Human kidney cells, ^^jf T-l (initial s ope) odd)

RBE

Bach (Brus 7-] hage in broth (rus tad)

" ^ ^ v ^ Haploid yec ist X T > w (Manney, Irustad >v Ny and Tobias)

0.1

! ! ! ! ! !

10

100

1,000

LINEAR ENERGY TRANSFER;

keV.^rr.

F i g . 1 1 . R B E v s . L E T (i.e. L J ( N a k a i a n d M o r t i m e r , 1967) f o r i n a c t i v a t i o n of h u m a n k i d n e y cells ( T o d d , 1965); h a p l o i d y e a s t ( M a n n e y , B r u s t a d a n d T o b i a s , 1963); b a c t e r i a ( B r u s t a d , 1961); T - l phage ( B r u s t a d , 1961); a n d t r a n s f o r m i n g D N A ( H u t c h i n s o n , 1965). [ B y courtesy of t h e a u t h o r s , M e d i c a l College of V i r g i n i a Q u a r t e r l y , W i l l i a m s and W i l k i n s C o . , a n d R a d i a t i o n Research. ( C o p y r i g h t o n t h e paper b y N a k a i a n d M o r t i m e r h e l d b y A c a d e m i c Press. C o p y r i g h t o n the p a p e r b y T o d d h e l d b y the M e d i c a l College of V i r g i n i a Q u a r t e r l y . ) !

16

6.

LET in Radiation

Protection t h e k i n d of average chosen is i n a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e L E T dependence of t h e s y s t e m . ( 5 ) T h e d a t a i n F i g u r e 11 a p p l y t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r experiments c i t e d a n d g r e a t l y d i f f e r e n t values of R B E are f o u n d i n a n u m b e r of t e s t systems f o r o t h e r c o n d i t i o n s ( N e a r y et a l . , 1963; D a v i e s a n d B a t e m a n , 1963; Dumanovic 1966). a n d E h r e n b e r g , 1965; S m i t h a n d biological system must be Rossi, of t h e Each analyzed

i n v o l v i n g different b i o l o g i c a l e n d p o i n t s , e.g. i n a c t i v a t i o n vs 1967). (2) One serious d i f f i c u l t y i n such p l o t s is t h e choice of L E T . Since t h e i r r a d i a t i o n circumstances are such t h a t o n l y a n L E T d i s t r i b u t i o n , a n d n o t a single v a l u e (see Section 4) describes t h e m p r o p e r l y , t h e choice of a single average v a l u e is a r b i t r a r y . I n m a n y b i o l o g i cal circumstances, e.g. i n a r e l a t i v e l y large o r g a n i s m s u c h as a dog, e v e n (3) To t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of L E T may equal change s u b s t a n t i a l l y t h r o u g h o u t t h e a n i m a l . a f i r s t a p p r o x i m a t i o n r a d i a t i o n s of to yield Loo are expected s i m i l a r b i o l o g i c a l results. m u t a t i o n frequency ( N a k a i and M o r t i m e r ,

separately a n d n o g e n e r a l l y accepted models m e c h a n i s m of r a d i a t i o n a c t i o n are y e t available.

( 6 ) I n a p l o t of R B E v s L E T such as F i g u r e 1 1 , no f e a t u r e of t h e b i o l o g i c a l m a t e r i a l w h i c h relates t h e d e p o s i t i o n of energy t o t h e size, shape or n a t u r e of particular s t r u c t u r e s is taken into account. These aspects can a t best be a p p r o x i m a t e d b y t h e choice of a suitable v a l u e of A i n LA . A l t e r n a t i v e l y , m e t h o d s of q u a l i t y specification w h i c h do t a k e these features i n t o account c o u l d be e m p l o y e d (see Section 8 ) . A p p e n d i x 8 shows some of t h e w a y s i n w h i c h L E T can be a p p l i e d t o e x p e r i m e n t a l s i t u a t i o n s i n r a d i a t i o n biology.

H o w e v e r , differences h a v e been c i t e d ( B e w l e y , 1968a). These differences m a y be due t o d i f f e r e n t associated d e l t a r a y spectra. N o t w o r a d i a t i o n s h a v i n g t h e same LA d i s t r i b u t i o n s appear t o h a v e been tested i n t h i s ( 4 ) T h e v a l u e of a s i m p l i f i e d p l o t such as s h o w n i n F i g u r e 11 is l i m i t e d because average values of L E T are necessarily i n v o l v e d . T h i s is p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e w h e n respect.

6.

L E T i n Radiation Protection

6.1

Quality Factor

F o r a m i x e d r a d i a t i o n field t h e dose equivalent is t o be o b t a i n e d f r o m an average Q F b y an integral over t h e L E T s p e c t r u m of t h e f o r m QF = [ Q F ( L ) doo(L)dL 6.1.(1)

T h e International Commission on Radiological Pro tection ( I C R P ) and the International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements ( I C R U ) ( I C R U , 1962a) have recommended that the e v a l u a t i o n of (D) r a d i a t i o n hazards be based u p o n t h e dose e q u i v a l e n t ( D E ) w h i c h is t h e p r o d u c t of t h e absorbed dose a n d a n u m b e r of m o d i f y i n g f a c t o r s one of w h i c h is t h e q u a l i t y factor ( Q F ) appropriate for the radiation. T h e Q F is a n e s t i m a t e of t h e effectiveness of a g i v e n r a d i a t i o n , as e v a l u a t e d f r o m i t s L E T , f o r t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s of r a d i a t i o n p r o t e c t i o n . I t is a p p a r e n t that, because of t h e l i m i t e d accurac}^ r e q u i r e d i n r a d i a t i o n p r o t e c t i o n a n d t h e u n c e r t a i n t y i n t h e selection of a s u i t a b l e v a l u e of , t h e use of L V a l u e s of Q F r e c o m m e n d e d as a f u n c t i o n of L
w x

where t h e q u a l i t y f a c t o r is assumed t o be a continuous f u n c t i o n of L , , doo(L) is t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of absorbed dose as a f u n c t i o n of L

w

a n d t h e l i m i t s of the i n t e g r a l

span t h e range of L E T values i n t h e r a d i a t i o n field. K n o w l e d g e of d ^ { L ) is seldom a v a i l a b l e i n sufficient d e t a i l t o enable a n i n t e g r a t i o n of t h i s t y p e to be per f o r m e d . T h e m o s t c o m m o n procedure is t o separate t h e absorbed dose i n t o l o w a n d h i g h L E T components a n d t h e n assign a q u a l i t y f a c t o r t o t h e component of h i g h L E T a l l o w i n g f o r a s u i t a b l e safety m a r g i n . A n o t h e r possible m e t h o d is t o assume t h a t Q F is linearly related to L E T . Thus the relation ( R B E Committee, 1 9 6 3 )

o n l y is acceptable. (1966)

by the I C R P

are s h o w n i n T a b l e 2.
M

T A B L E 2 Values of QF as a function of L
in water keV/

Q F = 0.8 + 0.16 Loo-Mrn/keV

6.1.(2)

QF

represents an a p p r o x i m a t i o n w h i c h , i n the range u p

1 2 5 10 20

3.5 or less 7.0 23 53 175

t o 100 keV/, This includes

is u s u a l l y sufficiently conservative. i m p o r t a n t range i n many

the most

r a d i a t i o n p r o t e c t i o n s i t u a t i o n s i n v o l v i n g heavy particles ( p a r t i c u l a r l y n e u t r o n s ) . E q u a t i o n 6.1.(1) may t h e n be w r i t t e n as

7.

Limitations of the LET Concept

Q F = 0.8 +

0.16 j u m / k e V (
J

Ld*>(L)dL

effort t h a n a s i m p l e d e r i v a t i o n of absorbed dose f r o m a n i o n chamber m e a s u r e m e n t . H o w e v e r , t h e i r usefulness i n accurate e v a l u a t i o n of t h e hazards of a r a d i a t i o n 6.1.(3) field i n d o u b t f u l cases is considerable ( C o w a n , 1966). E x p l i c i t e v a l u a t i o n of t h e f u n c t i o n d U ( L ) is n o t a l w a y s r e q u i r e d since m e t h o d s h a v e been developed t o estimate t h e dose e q u i v a l e n t d i r e c t l y , u t i l i z i n g i n s t r u ments w i t h special response characteristics. One s y s t e m utilizes t h e R o s s i - t y p e L E T spectrometer, above, i n combination w i t h a discussed suitable n o n - l i n e a r

= where L ,
X D

0.8 +

0.16-Loo,D-Mm/keV

is t h e absorbed dose average L E T .

H o w e v e r i n m o s t s i t u a t i o n s even s i m p l e r a p p r o x i m a t i o n s are e m p l o y e d t h a n t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of values g i v e n i n T a b l e 2. E x a m p l e s i n c l u d e separate assessment of a b s o r b e d doses d u e t o n e u t r o n s a n d g a m m a rays w i t h a n assumed Q F of 10 f o r t h e f o r m e r ; or a s i m p l e m e a s u r e m e n t of t o t a l absorbed dose a n d an assumed QF of 10 regardless of LET distributions. These also approaches are p r o g r e s s i v e l y m o r e simple b u t

amplifier t o o b t a i n a r e a d - o u t d i r e c t l y i n dose e q u i v a l e n t or effective q u a l i t y f a c t o r f o r a n y t y p e of r a d i a t i o n ( B a u m , 1.967 a n d B a u m e t a l . , 1968). A n o t h e r s y s t e m w h i c h u t i l i z e s t h e dependence of c o l u m n a r r e c o m b i n a t i o n o n t h e L E T of t h e p a r t i c l e was developed by two groups (Zielczynski, 1968; S u l l i v a n a n d B a a r l i , 1 9 6 3 ) . A n i o n i z a t i o n c h a m b e r is e m p l o y e d w i t h a l o w c o l l e c t i n g v o l t a g e so t h a t o n l y a f r a c t i o n of t h e i o n p a i r s f o r m e d are collected. By comparison of t h e i o n i z a t i o n i n t h i s chamber w i t h t h a t i n a f u l l y s a t u r a t e d c h a m b e r , t h e average q u a l i t y f a c t o r a n d t h e dose-equivalent c a n be e s t i m a t e d (Lebedev, 1966). S t i l l a n o t h e r m e t h o d of d e t e r m i n i n g t h e dosee q u i v a l e n t i n m i x e d n e u t r o n a n d g a m m a r a y fields also uses t w o i o n i z a t i o n c h a m b e r s ( G o o d m a n e t a l . , 1964). T h e basic p r i n c i p l e here is t o use an i o n i z a t i o n chamber whose response t o n e u t r o n s is r e l a t e d t o t h e q u a l i t y f a c t o r a p p r o p r i a t e t o these n e u t r o n s . T h i s is accomplished b y t h e use of T e f l o n i n t h e w a l l s a n d b y p r o v i s i o n of a gas m i x t u r e i n t h e chamber selected f o r i t s response t o n e u t r o n s . I n a d d i t i o n , a tissue e q u i v a l e n t i o n i z a t i o n c h a m b e r is used s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . B y elec t r o n i c a l l y a d d i n g a p p r o p r i a t e f r a c t i o n s of t h e c u r r e n t f r o m these t w o c h a m b e r s , a d i r e c t d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e absorbed dose a n d d o s e - e q u i v a l e n t is possible. T o d a t e only preliminary experimental development of this

increasingly more conservative. 6.2 M e a s u r e m e n t of Absorbed Dose Distribution in L E T for Protection * Purposes

m e t h o d of o b t a i n i n g t h e absorbed dose d i s t r i b u t i o n i n L E T u s i n g a spherical p r o p o r t i o n a l c o u n t e r d e v e l o p e d b y Rossi a n d Rosenzweig (Rossi a n d Rosenz w e i g , 1955a, 1955b) is discussed i n A p p e n d i x 5 of t h i s r e p o r t . T h e a p p l i c a t i o n of t h i s m e t h o d t o t h e e v a l u a t i o n of r a d i a t i o n hazards a t h i g h energy accelerators has been described b y Rossi et a l . ( 1 9 6 2 ) . T h i s m e t h o d can supply the unknown spectrum d*>(L) distribution for radiation of composition. T h e
x X

several assumptions r e f r o m t h e pulse h e i g h t are

q u i r e d t o derive t ( L ) or d ( L ) obtained w i t h

t h e spherical c o u n t e r

described i n A p p e n d i x 5. T h e i r effect o n a n a c t u a l s u r v e y has been e s t i m a t e d b y Rossi et a l . (1962) a n d f o u n d t o be s m a l l . S o l i d s t a t e detectors h a v e also been used I to derive the d ( L )
M

d i s t r i b u t i o n of a r a d i a t i o n of a n to perform a d (L)
x

u n k n o w n c o m p o s i t i o n ( R a j u et a l . , 1967). T h e measurements necessary analysis are f a i r l y c o m p l i c a t e d a n d r e q u i r e m u c h more

m e t h o d has been a c c o m p l i s h e d .

7.

L i m i t a t i o n s of t h e L E T C o n c e p t

T h e purpose of t h e foregoing i n f o r m a t i o n o n L E T has been t o p r o v i d e t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l r a d i a t i o n research w o r k e r w i t h definite i n f o r m a t i o n o n q u a l i t y specifica t i o n for g i v e n i r r a d i a t i o n circumstances. D a t a p e r t i n e n t t o m o s t of t h e r a d i a t i o n s i n c o m m o n e x p e r i m e n t a l use are i n c l u d e d . W h e n e v e r feasible, f u l l L E T d i s t r i b u t i o n s s h o u l d be q u o t e d ; i n general these are o b t a i n e d b y c a l c u l a t i o n o n l y . A s discussed l a t e r i n t h i s section, measurements are beset b y severe l i m i t a t i o n s . A s has been emphasized t h r o u g h o u t t h i s r e p o r t , a n average v a l u e of L E T is r a r e l y s a t i s f a c t o r y . I f , however, o n l y a n average is

given, its nature and for

6 0

s h o u l d be

clearly i d e n t i f i e d . low

LA,

LA,D differ

m a r k e d l y for

L E T radiations

p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h a l o w energy cut-off (e.g. see F i g u r e 5 C o ) , b u t t h e difference is s t i l l m u c h t o o l a r g e t o be neglected even w i t h r e l a t i v e l y h i g h L E T r a d i a t i o n s (e.g. see T a b l e 1 f o r a l p h a r a y s ) or for h i g h values of . Since t h e v a r i a n c e of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t r a c k l e n g t h i n L E T is d e t e r m i n e d b y b o t h LA, a n d LA,D (see Sec t i o n 4.6) i t is u s e f u l t o g i v e b o t h values i n order t o i n d i c a t e t h e spread of situation. F o r purposes of a p p r o x i m a t e q u a l i t y specification, L E T values i n a p a r t i c u l a r

18

7.

Limitations of the LET Concept t i m e s be useful, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n considering t h e f o r m of t h e dependence of a biological effect o n L E T . T h e u n d e r l y i n g a s s u m p t i o n of t h i s k i n d of analysis is t h a t t h e biological effect is d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e n u m b e r of collisions i n a t a r g e t r a t h e r t h a n b}^ t h e t o t a l transferred. The s t a t i s t i c a l spread of energy loss c a n be ne glected o n l y i f t h e n u m b e r of p r i m a r y collisions w i t h i n t h e t r a c k segment is large, corresponding t o a n energy loss of t h e order of one k e V or m o r e , since t h e m e a n energy t r a n s f e r r e d per p r i m a r y collision is a r o u n d 60 eV ( F i g u r e 2 ) . F o r l o w L E T r a d i a t i o n s t h i s i m p l i e s a r e s t r i c t i o n t o s t r u c t u r e s w i t h dimensions of a t least a few m i c r o n s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , for densely i o n i z i n g r a d i a t i o n s , t h e use of t h e L E T concept is l i m i t e d t o s m a l l s t r u c t u r e s since a t r a c k segment can be char acterized b y a single L E T v a l u e o n l y i f t h e energy lost is s m a l l as c o m p a r e d t o t h e t o t a l energy of t h e i o n i z i n g p a r t i c l e . F o r l o w energy electrons, t h e r a d i u s of c u r v a t u r e or t h e l e n g t h of t h e t r a c k m a y be parable t o t h e sample size; t h e n t h e average com energy energy

e.g. i n t h e assignment of q u a l i t y f a c t o r s for r a d i a t i o n p r o t e c t i o n , t h e absorbed dose average, L , is a p p r o p r i a t e , since t o a f i r s t a p p r o x i m a t i o n t h e q u a l i t y factor is a linear f u n c t i o n of L E T . I n general, however, t h e v a r i a t i o n of response w i t h L E T means t h a t no single average or effective v a l u e is u n i v e r s a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e . T h u s the f u l l L E T d i s t r i b u t i o n is r e l e v a n t unless ex p e r i m e n t s are done i n w h i c h single values of L E T can be realized or a t least a p p r o x i m a t e d . I n " t r a c k seg m e n t ' ' experiments a t h i n b i o l o g i c a l specimen is ex posed t o monoenergetic charged p a r t i c l e s . P r o v i d e d t h e specimen is t h i n enough, t h e L E T stays effectively constant t h r o u g h o u t t h e t a r g e t zone. H o w e v e r , i f d e l t a rays are considered t o be separate f r o m t h e m a i n t r a c k , a d i s t r i b u t i o n , r a t h e r t h a n a single v a l u e of L E T , is i n v o l v e d .
D

D e s p i t e reservations expressed i n t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n , t h e remainder of t h i s r e p o r t m i g h t be t a k e n t o i m p l y t h a t t h e L E T concept p e r m i t s a precise d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of absorbed r a d i a t i o n energy. H o w ever, a t t e m p t s m a d e t o e m p l o y i t f o r t h i s purpose encounter serious p r o b l e m s . I f charged particles ex pended t h e i r energy continuously a n d uniformly along t r a c k s h a v i n g negligible diameter a n d curvature, L E T w o u l d be i d e a l l y s u i t e d t o define r a d i a t i o n q u a l i t y . I n r e a l i t y , these c o n d i t i o n s are n e v e r m e t and r a r e l y approached w i t h i n l i m i t s t h a t are of p r a c t i c a l interest. I n d e e d , i n the most c o m m o n l y e n c o u n t e r e d situation t h a t of electrons secondary t o r a y s h a v i n g energies of t h e order of 100 k e V o n e can often n o t even discern a t r a c k w h e n t h e p a t t e r n of energy deposition is r e n dered visible i n a c l o u d c h a m b e r . T h e a d o p t i o n of a cut-off can a t least give a l i m i t e d m e a n i n g t o t h e L E T concept i n these cases. T h e average energy lost b y a p a r t i c l e of L E T , L , i n going a distance Al is LAI; b u t because of s t a t i s t i c a l fluctuations, particles generally lose m o r e or less t h a n t h i s average. M o s t t a r g e t t h e o r y analyses have allowed f o r t h e r a n d o m occurrence of p r i m a r y collisions along a t r a c k . U s u a l l y , a fixed v a l u e f o r t h e m a g n i t u d e of t h e energy t r a n s f e r r e d i n a c o l l i s i o n is assumed a n d t h e m e a n n u m b e r of collisions ( d e f i n e d i n t h i s c o n v e n t i o n a l sense) per u n i t l e n g t h of t r a c k is d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e r a t i o of the L E T t o t h e energy per c o l l i s i o n . T h i s mean n u m b e r defines t h e Poisson d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t any specified n u m b e r of collisions w i l l occur i n a c e r t a i n segment of a t r a c k . C l e a r l y , t h e absolute values of t h e v a r i o u s p r o b a b i l i t i e s w i l l depend on t h e estimate of t h e energy per c o l l i s i o n a n d o n t h e energy l i m i t , , above w h i c h a c o l l i s i o n is regarded as g i v i n g rise t o a separate d e l t a t r a c k . I n spite of these elements of arbitrariness, calculations o n such a basis m a y some

deposited b y a p a r t i c l e of L E T , L , i n a l a y e r of t h i c k ness Al m a y be greater t h a n LAI. A l s o , t h e difference between energy lost b y t h e charged p a r t i c l e a n d energy absorbed b y t h e sample is a f a c t o r w h i c h can be ac c o u n t e d for o n l y v e r y r o u g h l y b y an energy or range cut-off. F o r sparsely i o n i z i n g r a d i a t i o n , a n L E T v a l u e is representative o n l y over distances of at least a few m i c r o n s , hence t h e cut-off values have t o be correspond i n g l y large. T h e p r i n c i p a l r e s u l t arising f r o m these difficulties is t h a t L E T d i s t r i b u t i o n s c a n n o t be observed a l t h o u g h sometimes t h e y can. be deduced f r o m measurements. T h i s is due t o t h e f a c t t h a t real d i s t r i b u t i o n s of energy deposition are due t o v a r i o u s stochastic factors of w h i c h t h e L E T d i s t r i b u t i o n is o n l y one. A complete set of L E T spectra for a l l different c u t offs contains m u c h of t h e essential i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e r e l a t i o n is v e r y fluence distributions. However,

complex a n d i t w o u l d appear t h a t no a t t e m p t has been m a d e t o calculate one set of d i s t r i b u t i o n s e n t i r e l y f r o m t h e o t h e r . T w o m a i n difficulties are t h a t L E T d i s t r i b u t i o n s do n o t c o n t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e rate of change of L E T along t h e t r a c k a n d t h a t there is no u n i q u e r e l a t i o n between fluence a n d L E T d i s t r i b u t i o n s w h e n several t y p e s of particles are present. F o r t h i s reason a n d also because one fluence s p e c t r u m contains m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n t h a n a w h o l e set of L E T - s p e c t r a , t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of fluence i n energ}^ is more f u n d a m e n t a l t h a n t h e L E T d i s t r i b u t i o n as a basis for theoretical analysis of i r r a d i a t i o n circumstances.

9.

Conclusions

19

8.

O t h e r M e t h o d s of S p e c i f y i n g Q u a l i t y

I n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e a m o r e d i r e c t specification of energy d i s t r i b u t i o n s Rossi ( 1 9 5 9 ) has defined t h e q u a n t i t y , F ( s o m e t i m e s called t h e event size), w h i c h is t h e energy deposited i n a single event i n a s m a l l sphere d i v i d e d b y i t s d i a m e t e r . T h e dimensions of Y ( e n e r g y / l e n g t h ) are t h e same as for L E T . P ( F ) , t h e p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n of a l l t h e events i n F , is used t o charac terize t h e r a d i a t i o n q u a l i t y for a g i v e n size of sphere. I f charged p a r t i c l e s expended t h e i r energy c o n t i n u o u s l y and u n i f o r m l y a l o n g t r a c k s h a v i n g negligible d i a m e t e r and c u r v a t u r e , P ( F ) w o u l d be i n d e p e n d e n t of sphere size. R a d i a t i o n of a single L E T , L , w o u l d y i e l d a triangular spectrum, P ( F ) = 2 Y / L (0<F<L), w i t h P ( F ) d r o p p i n g d i s c o n t i n u o u s l y t o zero a t Y = L . R a d i a t i o n fields of m i x e d L E T w o u l d t h e n y i e l d P ( F ) spectra w h i c h w o u l d be sums of such t r i a n g l e s . A s discussed above, t h e r e are considerable d e v i a t i o n s f r o m this ideal behavior and the extent to which P ( F ) does v a r y w i t h t h e size of t h e sphere is a measure of the i n a b i l i t y of L E T p r o p e r l y t o characterize local energy d e p o s i t i o n .
2

T h e essential f e a t u r e of F is t h a t i t represents t h e a c t u a l energy deposited b y a n a b s o r p t i o n event. N o a d d i t i o n a l corrections, as for energy loss fluctuations, d e l t a - r a y escape, or t r a c k l e n g t h v a r i a t i o n , have t o be applied to t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n P( Y). F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e F d i s t r i b u t i o n s m a y be measurable even w h e n i t is d i f f i c u l t t o characterize t h e r a d i a t i o n field b y other means. One factor, t h e fluctuation i n t h e n u m b e r of events at a c e r t a i n dose, is n o t e x p l i c i t l y i n c l u d e d i n either t h e L E T - c o n c e p t or t h e F-concept. T o overcome t h i s deficiency, Rossi, B i a v a t i a n d Gross ( 1 9 6 1 ) i n t r o d u c e d t h e n o t i o n of local energy density w h i c h t h e y designate

as Z. T h e l o c a l energy d e n s i t y is defined as t h e energy absorbed i n a sphere d i v i d e d b y t h e mass of t h e sphere. F o r reasonably large spheres a n d / o r h i g h doses, a n d the absorbed dose are essentially equal. W h e n smaller spheres a n d / o r l o w e r doses are considered i n t h e l i g h t of a l l t h e factors described above, there is a w i d e range i n t h e possible values of energy a b s o r p t i o n for a single dose. T h u s , a d i s t r i b u t i o n T?(Z) i n is o b t a i n e d , P ( Z ) d Z b e i n g t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of o b t a i n i n g values of local energy d e n s i t y i n t h e range t o + dZ. P ( Z ) is a f u n c t i o n n o t o n l y of t h e t y p e of r a d i a t i o n a n d sphere size, b u t also of t h e absorbed dose. F o r large spheres a n d / o r h i g h absorbed dose, P ( Z ) is a sharp Gaussian d i s t r i b u t i o n centered a t values equal t o t h e absorbed dose. A t t h e o t h e r extreme, s m a l l spheres a n d / o r l o w absorbed doses, P ( Z ) is i d e n t i c a l i n shape t o t h e F d i s t r i b u t i o n since t h e p r o b a b i l i t y for m o r e t h a n one event i n a g i v e n sphere is n e g l i g i b l y s m a l l . T h e r e is, however, a h i g h p r o b a b i l i t y f o r = 0. T h e P ( Z ) d i s t r i b u t i o n s c a n be measured (Gross, B i a v a t i a n d Rossi, 1962; B i a v a t i , Gross a n d Rossi, 1962), or c o m p u t e d f r o m t h e F d i s t r i b u t i o n ( B i a v a t i and B i a v a t i , 1964). These q u a n t i t i e s p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n n o t easily available f r o m a k n o w l e d g e of absorbed dose a n d L E T alone, b u t i t r e m a i n s t o be seen whether t h e y w i l l be f o u n d generally useful i n t h e specification of r a d i a t i o n q u a l i t y . T h e i r greatest v a l u e m a y be i n t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y m a k e possible p r e d i c t i o n s concerning t h e size of c r i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s w h e n e x p e r i m e n t a l biological d a t a for different r a d i a t i o n s are t a k e n i n t o account a n d t h e r e b y help i n t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of mechanisms of radiobiological action.

9.

Conclusions

( 1 ) Because t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of charged particles w i t h m a t t e r is a stochastic process, t h e s p a t i a l and t e m p o r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e p r o d u c t s of a n i r r a d i a t i o n can be described o n l y i n s t a t i s t i c a l t e r m s . P r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s can be c o m p u t e d or measured, i n greater or lesser d e t a i l , a n d these can be useful for t h e o r e t i c a l and p r a c t i c a l purposes. ( 2 ) A m o n g a p p r o x i m a t e descriptions of r a d i a t i o n q u a l i t y , L E T m a y serve useful f u n c t i o n s . D i f f e r e n t radiations h a v i n g t h e same d ( L ) (i.e. absorbed dose d i s t r i b u t i o n i n L E T ) w i l l n o t necessarily have t h e same biological or chemical effects, b u t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y
W

exists t h a t t h i s is t h e case f o r some value of i n d & ( L ) w i t h d e p e n d i n g o n circumstances. W h e n there is n o basis for choosing a p a r t i c u l a r cut-off energy, t h e L d i s t r i b u t i o n c a n be a h e l p f u l a p p r o x i m a t i o n .
Y W

( 3 ) A v e r a g e values of L E T d i s t r i b u t i o n s are l i k e l y t o be useful o n l y i n v e r y r o u g h a p p r o x i m a t i o n s . T h e p r i n c i p a l indices are t h e t r a c k average, LA,, a n d t h e absorbed dose average, LA,D , b u t neither s h o u l d be c i t e d w i t h o u t c l e a r l y i d e n t i f y i n g i t s character. C o m plete specification is p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t w i t h l o w L E T r a d i a t i o n s a n d s m a l l f o r w h i c h LA,T a n d LA,D differ v e r y m a r k e d l y . I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t t h e range

20

9.

Conclusions specification of r a d i a t i o n q u a l i t y . T h e q u a l i t y f a c t o r ( Q F ) is related to L .

M > D

of values of LA,D among various radiations is u s u a l l y m u c h n a r r o w e r t h a n t h a t of LA, . ( 4 ) I n calculations, t h e source of L E T values should be clearly i d e n t i f i e d . () I n r a d i a t i o n p r o t e c t i o n , L, serves as a suitable

I n f o r m a t i o n on calculated L E T d i s t r i b u t i o n s a n d averages applicable t o p a r t i c u l a r i r r a d i a t i o n c i r c u m stances w i l l be f o u n d i n Section 4.

APPENDIX 1 AI. F o r m u l a e for S t o p p i n g P o w e r or L E T

A 1.1

General

T h e collision cross section, , represents t h e c o l l i sion p r o b a b i l i t y of an i n c i d e n t p a r t i c l e per s c a t t e r i n g center a n d u n i t area. D i f f e r e n t i a l forms are used t o express p a r t i a l probabilities such as a(Q)dQ which represents t h e p r o b a b i l i t y (per scattering center per u n i t area) f o r collisions w h i c h i n v o l v e energy transfers b e t w e e n Q a n d Q + dQ. M u l t i p l y i n g a(Q)dQ by Q gives, f o r a n u m b e r of particle traversals, the average energy loss per scattering center per u n i t area due t o i n t e r a c t i o n s i n v o l v i n g t h e energy transfer Q. T h e i n t e gral
00

I n general, a(Q) w i l l depend o n factors other t h a n Q such as , 0, etc. A l t h o u g h these dependencies are n o t i n d i c a t e d t h e y are assumed t o be i n c l u d e d i n t h e subsequent f o r m u l a e . T h e s t o p p i n g power of a m e d i u m is defined as t h e average energy loss per u n i t p a t h l e n g t h of a charged p a r t i c l e . I f we consider a l l o r b i t a l electrons as p o t e n t i a l s c a t t e r i n g centers, t h e n for a u n i t area t h e r e are pN Z/M electrons i n a u n i t l e n g t h , a n d expression A . 1.(1) can be modified t o
A A

or Qa(Q)dQ
10

'

=
J

Al.(l)

l ^ =^
at
A

f QVQMQ
Jo as

Al.(3)

t h e n represents t h e average energy loss per s c a t t e r i n g center per u n i t area due t o interactions i n v o l v i n g a l l possible energy transfers. T h e i n t e g r a n d w i l l have non-zero values only over a suitable range of p e r m i t t e d values of Q; elsewhere a(Q) is zero. I n t h e subsequent formulae the f o l l o w i n g symbols w i l l be used. F u n d a m e n t a l Constants: = A v o g a d r o ' s constant e = electronic charge c = v e l o c i t y of l i g h t I n c i d e n t F a s t Charged P a r t i c l e :

I t is convenient t o express a(Q)

Al.(4) where s is expressed as a r e l a t i v e d i f f e r e n t i a l cross sec t i o n per energy i n t e r v a l . I f k i is s u b s t i t u t e d f o r t h e numerical obtained and physical constants the following is

Mo Mi

= = = =

rest mass r e l a t i v e atomic mass ( C = 12) charge, i n m u l t i p l e s of t h e electronic charge k i n e t i c energy

12

= velocity = v/c Absorbing M e d i u m : = density = atomic number M = relative atomic mass ( C

a 12

(l/p)(dE/dl) is expressed i n M e V - c m ^ g " , w h e n k i has the v a l u e 0.1536 a n d t h e t e r m s inside t h e i n t e g r a l are expressed i n a p p r o p r i a t e M e V u n i t s . I n q u a n t u m mechanical formulae t h e cross-section s is m a d e u p of the t r a n s i t i o n p r o b a b i l i t i e s , s , appropriate t o the e x c i t a t i o n energy levels, E . T h e e q u a t i o n t h e n becomes
1 n n

KtHj&f?*-*

= 12) I n t h i s f o r m u l a t h e s u m m a t i o n over E complished b y u t i l i z i n g t h e r e l a t i o n ln(/) = /aln^n

n

(6)
ac

molar mass i n g / m o l and is n u m e r i c a l l y t h e same as M Recoil P a r t i c l e of A b s o r b i n g M e d i u m : M

A a

m a y be

AI.(7)

mo vio
10

= rest mass of recoil electron = m c = rest mass energy for recoil electron rest mass of nuclear recoil
0 2

where I a n d E are i n t h e same u n i t s , usually eV. / is called t h e mean e x c i t a t i o n energy for t h e p a r t i c u l a r absorber a n d t h e f are t e r m e d oscillator strengths a n d represent t h e f r a c t i o n of electron o r b i t a l s a v a i l a b l e
n n

T h e c o n v e n t i o n ( I C R U , 1968) of t r e a t i n g energy losses as p o s i t i v e is adopted here.

21

22

Ah

Formulae for Stopping

n

Power or LET arc b o t h electrons and cannot be d i s t i n g u i s h e d . T h i s requires s e t t i n g Q = E/2 r a t h e r t h a n Q = and proper s u m m a t i o n over a l l the events.
m a x m a x

t o be excited t o t h e l e v e l w i t h v a l u e E . E m p i r i c a l l y d e t e r m i n e d values f o r / are c o m m o n l y used i n these equations because t h e values f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l f are k n o w n o n l y i n c e r t a i n cases (see W a l s k e , 1952, 1956). / is discussed f u r t h e r i n A p p e n d i x 7.
n

T h e electron stopping power R o h r l i c h and Carlson (1954) is

as

formulated

by

1 /dA'\T
A1.2 Heavy Particles \dl
/total

= 1

,0
2

In

-E 2-(1 )
2

T h e p r i n c i p l e s o u t l i n e d a b o v e were used b y B e t h e ( 1 9 3 3 ) t o d e r i v e t h e f o l l o w i n g expression for t h e collision s t o p p i n g p o w e r of h e a v y p a r t i c l e s : 1 (dE\

=

Zz M In
&

AI.(11) *
2 2

\dl)

(2/3 ) J2(l _ 02)2

Al.(S)

and l(dE\ , j 2(

T h e shell c o r r e c t i o n 2{C/Z) allows f o r b o t h t h e i n a c c u r a c y of t h e B o r n a p p r o x i m a t i o n ( B o r n , 1926) used i n t h e d e r i v a t i o n ( w h i c h assumes t h a t t h e i n c i d e n t p a r t i c l e w a v e f u n c t i o n is u n d i s t u r b e d b y t h e s c a t t e r i n g field) a n d t h e n o n - p a r t i c i p a t i o n of e x c i t a t i o n - i o n i z a t i o n levels w h e n these levels exceed t h e m a x i m u m possible energy transfer, + (Mo due t o t h e r e s t r i c t i o n s conservation. + of (2M c/E)
0

2)(

)()

- -

+ -

+ .
.(12)

+ (f-)'0

m ) c V 2 m t ' ,]
0 2 0

and

Al.(9) energy where ^ /2.

7

momentum

T h e d e n s i t y c o r r e c t i o n accounts f o r t h e f a c t t h a t energy losses are r e d u c e d because a p o l a r i z a t i o n i n duced i n t h e absorber tends t o shield d i s t a n t atoms f r o m t h e electric field of t h e i n c i d e n t p a r t i c l e . F o r t h e energies considered i n t h i s r e p o r t , t h i s effect is a p preciable o n l y f o r condensed m a t e r i a l (i.e. l i q u i d s or solids). I t is o f t e n of i n t e r e s t t o d e t e r m i n e t h e " l o c a l " r a t e of energy loss due t o energy interchanges u p t o a specified v a l u e . T h i s r e s t r i c t e d mass s t o p p i n g power is d e t e r m i n e d b y i n t e g r a t i n g e q u a t i o n A l . ( 5 ) o n l y u p t o t h e v a l u e . I n t h i s case t h e B e t h e e q u a t i o n f o r h e a v y p a r t i c l e s takes t h e f o r m 1 /cLB\ _ , \ dZ " Zz M^
2

I n equation A I . ( 1 1 ) , (l/p)(d7^ /d0rad represents t h e energy given to p h o t o n r a d i a t i o n ( B r e m s s t r a h l u n g ) due to the deceleration of t h e charged particle i n t h e a t o m i c or nuclear fields. R a d i a t i o n losses represent a n appreciable c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e t o t a l stopping power o n l y for energetic l i g h t particles. These losses are n o t i n c l u d e d i n restricted s t o p p i n g power formulae because most of t h e energy w i l l , i n general, be dissipated a t a n appreciable distance f r o m t h e particle t r a c k .

A1.4

L o w Energy Heavy Particle Stopping Power and Ranges

L )A
2

2
2

^)
2

(1 2 where < Q
m a x

C
2

(and Q

r a a x

= 2 /(1

-]
2

Al.(lO)

)).

A 1.3

Electrons

S t o p p i n g p o w e r f o r m u l a e f o r n e g a t i v e electrons m u s t account for t h e f a c t t h a t t h e i n c i d e n t a n d recoil particles

I n t h e range below 1 M e V / a t o m i c mass u n i t (amu) for protons and a t s t i l l higher speeds for heavier n u clei, electrons tend to be captured b y the m o v i n g par ticle so t h a t the net charge is reduced and t h e stopping power correspondingly altered (Bohr and L i n d h a r d , 1954; L i n d h a r d and Scharff, 1961; N o r t h c l i f f e , 1963; M o z u m d e r et a l . , 1968). As decreases t o below 2Z/ 137, the net charge tends t o 0 and t h e excitationi o n i z a t i o n collision losses consequently decline to zero. L i n d h a r d and Scharff (1960) have derived an expression f o r electronic collision losses i n the range < ' /137
2 3

AI.4

Low Energy Heavy Particle Stopping 1

Power and Ranges

23

\ CD = * [m i ? 4 w J k
2 6 _ 1

AL(13)

zZ (Mi

+ )

( *
21 2

2 / 3

1 / 2

where is t h e value of t h e expression i n t h e brackets a n d k = 1.584 10 w h e n (1/p) (dE/dl) is i n M e V . A n a l t e r n a t i v e n o r m a l i z e d f o r m is cm" k -j z

3

\dlj

*M
2 4

Al.(14)

a n d for (1/p)(dE/dl) i n M e V - c m - g ~ \ k = 1.S2 1 0 " a n d k = 6.49 10 . F o r h e a v y p a r t i c l e s w i t h < 10~ L i n d h a r d a n d Scharff ( 1 9 6 0 ) h a v e d e r i v e d a n o t h e r r e l a t i o n f o r (l/p)(dE/dl) due t o n u c l e a r collisions w h i c h reaches a m a x i m u m v a l u e g i v e n b y
4 1 5 4 3

ZMi
M

where ( 1 / p ) (de/dl) = (1/p) ( d # / d Z ) - l / z and e = /Mi (see A p p e n d i x 4 ) . k = 7.355 10 w h e n is i n M e V and (1/p) (dE/dl) is i n M e V - c m ^ g - .
3 1

(^2/3

2 2 / 8 ) 1 / 2 . ^ . 2 ^ .
3

M)
&

Al.(16)
2

where k g .
- 1

= 2,15 1 0 f o r ( 1 / p ) (de/dl)

in MeV-cm -

Collisions of t h e i n c i d e n t particle w i t h the a t o m as a whole ( t e r m e d " n u c l e a r " collisions) become a rela t i v e l y i m p o r t a n t mode of energy loss as electronic e x c i t a t i o n losses decline. F o r > 10~ , nuclear energy losses have been described b y B o h r (1948) i n t h e f o l lowing form
3

T h e m a x i m u m v a l u e occurs a t t h e n o r m a l i z e d

p a r t i c l e energy
u tM = k l

Z(Mj + MM" Mjfi

6 M

Z)

A L ( 1 7 )

l ( m ) where

( w ] t

where k = 9 1 0 " f o r e i n M e V / a m u . B e l o w t h i s v a l u e of p a r t i c l e energy, t h e energy losses decline t o zero a t zero e . F o r h i g h e r values of e, t h e v a l u e of (1 /p) (dE/dl) declines t o a n a p p r o x i m a t e correspondence w i t h t h e B o h r t h e o r y .
7 M M

APPENDIX 2 2 D e f i n i t i o n a n d M e a s u r e m e n t of R a n g e s

A2.1

R a n g e a n d Stopping Power

T h e s t o p p i n g p o w e r c a n be u t i l i z e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e range of a p a r t i c l e . I f dE/dl represents t h e t o t a l average r a t e of energy loss per u n i t p a t h l e n g t h ( w i t h p a t h l e n g t h measured a l o n g t h e t r a c k ) , t h e n dl/dE repre sents t h e average p a t h l e n g t h per u n i t of energy loss. T h e integral

T h e a c t u a l p a t h l e n g t h d i s t r i b u t i o n can best be observed u s i n g detectors w h i c h visualize three d i m e n sional p a t h configurations such as W i l s o n cloud c h a m bers, p h o t o g r a p h i c emulsion, bubble chambers, or s p a r k chambers. T h e r a t h e r s m a l l values of the range s t r a g g l i n g v a r i a n c e a n d t h e s m a l l average scattering angles associated w i t h h e a v y particles p e r m i t measurements of ' p r o j e c t e d ranges" t o be accurately correlated w i t h t h e t h e o r e t i c a l p a t h l e n g t h range, j R . Projected ranges refer t o a c t u a l p e n e t r a t i o n depths i n absorbers, i.e., t h e p r o j e c t i o n of t h e p a t h of the particle i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of incidence t o t h e m a t e r i a l . T h e mean p r o j e c t e d range, R, represents the thickness of absorber t h a t stops 5 0 % of t h e i n c i d e n t particles. R w i l l be shorter t h a n i ? d a b u t can be accurately related t o i t i f corrections are made for the energy s t r a g g l i n g (Seltzer a n d Berger, 1964). F o r protons of 10 M e V t o 1 M e V , R is less t h a n 7? '. by about 0 . 5 % t o 0 . 8 % i n a l u m i n u m , 1 % to 2 % i n copper, 2 % to 4 % i n t i n , a n d 3.5 % to 7 % i n lead (Berger and Seltzer, 1964a).
i c s c l a 11
C S

represents t h e p a t h l e n g t h t r a v e r s e d b y t h e p a r t i c l e f o r t h e t o t a l loss of t h e i n i t i a l energy, E , a n d is t e r m e d t h e continuous slowing down approximation range or csda range ( 7 ? d a has also been t e r m e d v a r i o u s l y , r e c i p r o c a l s t o p p i n g p o w e r range, average t r a j e c t o r y l e n g t h , average t r u e r a n g e ) . R d& is t h e p a t h l e n g t h a p a r t i c l e w o u l d t r a v e r s e w h e n s l o w i n g d o w n t o a stop, i f i t s r a t e of energy loss a l o n g t h e t r a c k were equal t o t h e mean rate of energy loss defined b y t h e s t o p p i n g power. Because of f l u c t u a t i o n s i n t h e energy lost, a d i s t r i b u t i o n of p a t h l e n g t h s w i l l be generated for p a r t i c l e s of i d e n t i c a l i n i t i a l energy so t h a t a range " s t r a g g l i n g " is observed. T h e m e a n of t h e p a t h l e n g t h d i s t r i b u t i o n is s o m e w h a t greater t h a n t h e csda range ( K o c h and M o t z , 1959; L e w i s , 1952; F a n o , 1953) a l t h o u g h a p p r e c i a b l y so o n l y f o r l i g h t particles.
0
C S

CS

csi

H i g h e r energy protons or heavier particles of com parable velocities w i l l generally show an even closer c o r r e l a t i o n between R and i ? < i a However, t h e cor r e l a t i o n is m u c h poorer for l i g h t particles, because b o t h large f r a c t i o n a l energy losses and large angular d e v i a t i o n s occur. Figure A l shows a p l o t of measure m e n t s of W i l l i a m s (1931) of the t r a c k l e n g t h a n d p r o j e c t e d range d i s t r i b u t i o n s shown i n integral f o r m (i.e., t h e curves represent the fractional n u m b e r of p a t h s w h i c h exceed the given distance) for 19.6 k e V electrons as measured i n a Wilson, cloud chamber.
c s

T h e figure illustrates four of the six range values n o r m a l l y referred to i n the l i t e r a t u r e : R, t h e m e a n projected range corresponds to t h e absorber thickness t h a t t r a n s m i t s 50 % of t h e p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y incident particles.
11

S, Ro,

t h e m e a n p a t h l e n g t h , corresponds to t h e j a range t o a reasonable a p p r o x i m a t i o n .

C S (

F i g . A l . T h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of p a t h l e n g t h s OS) a n d of range (R) f o r 19.6 k e V e l e c t r o n s i n o x y g e n a t 0C a n d 1 atmosphere p r e s s u r e : R = 0.32 c m = m e a n p r o j e c t e d r a n g e ; Ro 0.52 cm = e x t r a p o l a t e d p r o j e c t e d r a n g e ; S = 0.64. c m = m e a n p a t h l e n g t h ; a n d $o = 0.82 cm = e x t r a p o l a t e d p a t h l e n g t h . [From T H E A T O M I C N U C L E U S by R . D . Evans. Copy r i g h t 1955 b y M c G r a w - H i l l , I n c . Used w i t h p e r m i s s i o n of M c G r a w - H i l l B o o k Co.]

t h e extrapolated projected range, represents a n absorber thickness determined by ext r a p o l a t i o n of the slope of the number versus range curve, at R, to the range axis. (7? is sometimes defined as an extrapolation of t h e
0

F o l l o w i n g general usage, the t e r m wean, is used rather t h a n the c o r r e c t a d j e c t i v e w h i c h is median.

11

24

2.3 l i n e a r l y declining p o r t i o n of t h e curve t o t h e range a x i s ) . So , T h e e x t r a p o l a t e d p a t h l e n g t h , represents t h e distance d e t e r m i n e d b y e x t r a p o l a t i o n of t h e slope of t h e S curve, a t S, to t h e range axis.

Experimental

Determination of Ranges

25

T h e values g i v e n f o r t h e c o n s t a n t s A , a n d d e p e n d on t h e p a r t i c l e , t h e s t o p p i n g m e d i u m a n d t h e energy range considered. A2.3 Experimental Determination of Ranges

ax

, t h e ( a b s o l u t e ) projected range represents an absorber thickness j u s t sufficient t o a t t e n u a t e t h e i n c i d e n t p a r t i c l e flux t o an undetectable l e v e l . Because t h e meaning of ''undetectable level" depends on the m e a s u r i n g range system, an R m a x u s u a l l y cannot be precisely specified.

Rq ,

specified

projected

represents

G e n e r a l l y a c o l l i m a t e d b e a m is a t t e n u a t e d w i t h a series of p l a n a r absorbers a n d a p a r t i c l e c o u n t e r u t i l i z e d t o measure t h e n u m b e r of particles t r a n s m i t t e d . D i r e c t v i s u a l i z a t i o n s of p a r t i c l e t r a c k s w i t h a c l o u d chamber, p h o t o g r a p h i c e m u l s i o n , or b u b b l e c h a m b e r are a l t e r n a t i v e b u t m u c h m o r e d e m a n d i n g techniques. Gas absorbers m a y be used i n a n u m b e r of wa3^s. A p a r t i c l e c o u n t m a y be m a d e as a f u n c t i o n of t h e surface d e n s i t y of i n t e r v e n i n g gas w h i c h can be v a r i e d either b y c h a n g i n g t h e a b s o r p t i o n distance or t h e gas pressure. T h e i o n i z a t i o n p r o d u c e d i n t h e gas m a y also be used t o d e t e r m i n e t h e range, either b y collecting t h e i o n i z a t i o n p r o d u c e d b e t w e e n t w o p l a n a r electrodes of fixed separation p l a c e d a t increasing a b s o r p t i o n d i s tance, or b y c o l l e c t i n g t h e t o t a l i o n i z a t i o n p r o d u c e d between a fixed a n d a m o v a b l e electrode. B o t h m e t h o d s represent a n energy d e t e c t i o n m e t h o d r a t h e r t h a n a p a r t i c l e c o u n t m e t h o d a n d consequently w i l l y i e l d a b s o r p t i o n curves of shape d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t for a p a r t i c l e n u m b e r a b s o r p t i o n c u r v e . T h i s is t r u e for a n y m e t h o d t h a t u t i l i z e s t r a n s m i t t e d b e a m energy (as a f u n c t i o n of absorber t h i c k n e s s ) as the p a r a m e t e r measured. T h e reason is t h a t a n energy sensitive de t e c t o r takes a c c o u n t of b o t h t h e loss of particles f r o m t h e b e a m a n d t h e loss of energy of t h e t r a n s m i t t e d particles. A c c u r a t e values of Ro c a n n o t be d e t e r m i n e d f r o m such p l o t s ; h o w e v e r , f r o m these plots e i t h e r a n m a x (i.e., " c o m p l e t e " energy a b s o r p t i o n range) or a n range ( w h e r e q m a y i n d i c a t e , f o r example, 1 % energy t r a n s m i s s i o n ) can be defined.
q

absorber thickness t h a t attenuates a n i n c i d e n t b e a m t o a specified l e v e l , q ; such as 37%, sorbed 1 0 % , 1 % , etc. T h e a t t e n u a t i o n m a y abin a dose deposited by the beam refer t o p a r t i c l e n u m b e r , b e a m energy, subsequent absorber, etc. A c o m p l i c a t i o n arises i n a t t e m p t i n g t o assign a range t o -rays or positrons f r o m r a d i o a c t i v e isotopes because a s p e c t r u m of energies a n d therefore of ranges is present. Several techniques have been devised t o assign range values i n t h i s s i t u a t i o n ( K a t z and Penfold, 1952). E s s e n t i a l l y a l l of these methods a m o u n t to a scaling of t h e u n k n o w n absorption curve b y comparison w i t h a standard reference curve for the absorption of a s p e c t r u m of k n o w n m a x i m u m energy.

A2.2

Semi-Empirical

Range-Energy

Relations

Several semi-empirical range-energy (R vs E ) r e l a t i o n s have been proposed for b o t h electrons a n d h e a v y particles. These generally take on t h e f o r m R = AE
n

A2.(2)

APPENDIX 3 A3.
A3.1 General

M e a s u r e m e n t of

dE/dl

A3.4

Energy AbsorptionThin

Absorber,

Al >

One can measure dE/dl i n v a r i o u s w a y s . I n a f u n d a m e n t a l approach a p a r t i c l e detector is placed i n such a w a y as t o i n t e r c e p t a l l of t h e p r i m a r y p a r t i c l e s scattered b y a t h i n absorber. A l t e r n a t i v e l y a series of measurements can be m a d e w i t h a s m a l l detector placed at angles t o t h e p a r t i c l e b e a m , 0, f r o m 0 t o (one usually m a y assume c y l i n d r i c a l s y m m e t r y ) . T h e detector should possess h i g h energy r e s o l u t i o n a n d measure o n l y p r i m a r y particles a n d exclude or d i s c r i m i n a t e against secondary particles or p h o t o n s . I n m o s t e x p e r i m e n t a l studies, particles have been collected f o r < / 2 . T h i s usually can be j u s t i f i e d because cross sections for single s c a t t e r i n g b e y o n d /2 are s m a l l . V a r i o u s e x p e r i m e n t a l approaches are o u t l i n e d below. I n these descriptions Al is t h e absorber thickness a n d Z is a thickness such t h a t m u l t i p l e s c a t t e r i n g occurs w i t h small p r o b a b i l i t y .
0

I n t h i s m e t h o d a p l o t of E* v s absorber thickness, I, is made a n d t h e slope a t t h e o r i g i n d e t e r m i n e d . T h e slope, (AE /)+, gives t h e correct s t o p p i n g p o w e r values w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s of accuracy of t h e e x t r a p o l a t i o n and the restricted geometry.

A3.5

Slope of Energy Versus Range

Curve

A3.2

Energy

Distribution

MethodVery Thin

A b s o r b e r , Al ~ U A d i r e c t m e t h o d is t o u t i l i z e a p a r t i c l e detector of g o o d energy d i s c r i m i n a t i o n t o d e t e r m i n e t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of energy losses, AE, f o r particles passing t h r o u g h a n absorber t h a t is so t h i n t h a t m u l t i p l e i n t e r a c t i o n s r a r e l y occur.

Consider t h e case where i n c i d e n t particles of energy, E, are j u s t s t o p p e d b y a n absorber. I f t h e p a r t i c l e energy is increased s l i g h t l y b y AE*, an absorber of thickness AR m u s t be added t o j u s t stop t h e b e a m . T h u s t h e energy AE* can be said t o be absorbed i n AR. T h e slope of a p l o t of vs R, i.e. dE/dR, repre sents t h e v a l u e (AE*/ AR) *^ . T h i s is n o t a measure of s t o p p i n g power i n a rigorous sense, b u t i n practice, dE/dR values generally agree w e l l w i t h the dE/dl values d e t e r m i n e d a n a l y t i c a l l y or e x p e r i m e n t a l l y (Cole, 1969).
AE 0

A3.6

T h i n Detectors > k) or

A detector m a y be used as a t h i n (R

A3.3

Mean Energy LossVery T h i n AI ~ l

0

Absorber,

A less d i r e c t m e t h o d is t o measure t h e i n t e g r a t e d t r a n s m i t t e d energy w h i c h is p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e average i n c i d e n t energy, E; so t h a t AE = NE NE', where is t h e t o t a l n u m b e r of particles collected a n d E is t h e average t r a n s m i t t e d energy.
r

v e r y t h i n ( ~ k) absorber t o measure t h e energy expended b y i n d i v i d u a l particles or b y a k n o w n n u m b e r of particles. Such detectors w o u l d i n c l u d e : t h i n p l a n a r i o n i z a t i o n chambers or p r o p o r t i o n a l counters, t h i n p h o t o g r a p h i c emulsions ( w h i c h could be used d o w n t o thicknesses of a f r a c t i o n of a m i c r o n ) , t h i n s c i n t i l l a t i o n crystals, semi-conductor detectors w i t h t h i n sensitive regions, possibly t h i n chemical detectors or even t h i n b i o l o g i c a l systems.

26

APPENDIX 4 A4. T h e o r e t i c a l a n d E x p e r i m e n t a l V a l u e s for R a n g e , dE/dl

A4.1 Reviews are General data on

and L E T

p a r t i c l e s i n v a r i o u s m a t e r i a l s ( K a t z a n d P e n f o l d , 1952; S t e r n h e i m e r , 1959; A l l i s o n , 1964; B a r k a s a n d B e r g e r , 1964; B e r g e r a n d Seltzer, 1964b; J a n n i , and 1966; Green

available w h i c h summarize

r a n g e a n d mass s t o p p i n g p o w e r s f o r v a r i o u s c h a r g e d

P e t e r s o n , 1 9 6 8 ) . I n t h i s section selected power for electrons in water**

b

informa-

T A B L E A I V a h l e s of range and mass stopping

/MeV

/(g/cm2) [see note c]

P

Mass Stopping Power; - ( ^ J " ) /

MeV.cmVg

1
\dl / c o l .

\dl / rad

\dl

/ tot-

\dl / l o o eV

\dl ) eV

/ , eV

1 io2 3 5 1 X 10~ 2 3 5 1 X 10" 2 3

8 1 2 4 8 1 2 5 1 3 7

4 " 2 X 10~ 55 X 10~ 85 48 00 23 X 1 0 " 20 34 64 X 1 0 22 70

8

133 139 232 303 220 215 195 130 77.5 57.8 39.2 23.2 13.5 9.88 6.75 4.20 2.84 2.39 2.06
e 4

~ 3 - -30 133 139 232 303 220 215 195 130 77. 5 57 8 39 2 23 2 13.5 9.88 6.75 4 20 0.006 0.007s 0.01
O.OI7

133 139 232 303 220 211 183 112 60 42.2 27 1 15.1 8 5 6 12 4 12 2.52 1 67 1 39 1 17 1 05 1 02 1 01 1 00 1 00 1 02 1 03 1 04 1 06 1 07 1 08 1 09 1 12 1 125 1 13 1 14 1 .17

133 139 232 303 220 215 195 130 77. 5 56.6 36.9 20.2 11 1 7.9 5.26 3 15 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 08 72 44 28 23 22 23 24 25 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 34 34 36

133 139 232 303 220 215 195 130 77.5 57.8 39.2 23.2 13.5 9.7 6.35 3.78 2.44 2.01 1.69 1.48 1.41 1.41 1.41 1.42 1.42 1.42 1.43 1.44 1.46 1.47 1.49 1.50 1.51 1.53 1.54 1.57

1 X 10~ 2 3 5 1 x lo-i 2 3 5 1 X 10 2 3 5 1 X lOi 2 3 5 1 X 10 2 3 5 1 X 10 2 3 5 1 X 10

a

2.50 X 10~ 8 33 1.71 X 10~ 4 22 1.40 X I O " 4 40 8 26 1 74 4 30 9 61 1 49 2 50 4 .88 9 18 1 .30 1 .97 3 .25 4 .96 6 .13 7 .74 1 .01

X 10-

X 10

10

X 10

1.87 I.864 1.88 1.93 2.00 2.06 2.10 2.14 2.20 2.26 2.30 2.34 2.40 2.50 2.55 2.61 2.70

0.03 0.04 0.08 0.18 0.41 0.64 1.13 2.40 5.01 7.65 12.9 26.3 49.0 72.0 117.4 230
6

2 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 4 7 9 15 28 51 74 121 233

85 40 07 89 89 93 01 18 47 74 27 61 27 95 30 7 5 5

T h i s t a b l e appears i n t h r e e sections. T h e t o p s e c t i o n is based o n e x p e r i m e n t a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n s of /dR o n l y ( A p p e n d i x 3 . 5 ) ; t h e m i d d l e section is based b o t h o n e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a a n d t h e o r e t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s a n d t h e b o t t o m s e c t i o n o n c a l c u l a t i o n s o n l y . D a t a f o r e l e c t r o n energies b e l o w 1 0 " M e V are t o be considered t e n t a t i v e a t p r e s e n t . M u l t i p l y values of mass s t o p p i n g p o w e r i n M e V - c m / g b y 0.1 i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n v a l u e s of L E T i n keV/ i n u n i t d e n s i t y m a t e r i a l , i . e . , a mass s t o p p i n g p o w e r of 10 M e V c m / g corresponds t o a n L E T of 1 keV/ i n u n i t d e n s i t y m a t e r i a l . R represents a n a p p r o x i m a t i o n t o R d& a n d is o b t a i n e d f r o m v a r i o u s t h e o r e t i c a l a n d e x p e r i m e n t a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n s as d e s c r i b e d i n A p p e n d i x 2.
4 b 2 2 c CS

27

28

A4.

Theoretical and Experimental

Values for Range, dE/dl and LET

['
5

m l

111 i l l

nil

1
-2

m l

1
1

ml

11 i n

m i l

''
2

mi

'

'

' " "

icr

icr

icr

icr

io
-7MeV

'

io

ELECTRON ENERGY;

F i g . A 2 . M a s s s t o p p i n g p o w e r f o r w a t e r f o r electrons versus e l e c t r o n e n e r g y . B e l o w 10 k e V t h e o r e t i c a l f o r m u l a e are i n a p p l i c a b l e (see t e x t ) . L i m i t e d e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a o n l y are a v a i l a b l e ; c o n s e q u e n t l y t h i s r e g i o n is s h o w n dashed. I n t h e r e g i o n b e t w e e n 10 k e V a n d 100 k e V b o t h m e a s u r e d a n d c a l c u l a t e d values are used. R e s t r i c t e d s t o p p i n g p o w e r f o r values of 100, 1000, a n d 10,000 eV are s h o w n .

t i o n of i n t e r e s t p r i m a r i l y t o t h e r a d i a t i o n biologist is presented, w i t h emphasis placed o n t h e s t o p p i n g power a n d energy transfer of electrons a n d p r o t o n s i n w a t e r . O t h e r generalized and representative information p r o v i d e s some u n d e r s t a n d i n g of energy loss b y other charged particles i n v a r i o u s m a t e r i a l s .

d e t e r m i n e d ranges i n air a n d i n c o l l o d i o n foils u t i l i z e d i n t h e energy range between

were 10

20 eV a n d

k e V . F i g u r e A 4 summarizes d a t a w h i c h i n c l u d e c l o u d chamber measurements b y W i l l i a m s ( 1 9 3 1 ) and A l p e r (1932), Zaffarano air absorption chamber measurements by Cole (1969), collodion foil a b s o r p t i o n d a t a b y Lane and (1954) and Cole (1969), and p r o t e i n l a y e r i n a c t i v a t i o n d a t a b y D a v i s (1954, 1955). Values calcu

A4.2 A4.2.1

Electrons

l a t e d b y L e a (1946) a n d Berger a n d Seltzer (1964b) are also shown. T h e d e f i n i t i o n of t h e range measured depends on t h e method utilized (see Section range) A2). However, where within overlap of methods was a v a i l a b l e i t was f o u n d t h a t Ro ( e x t r a p o l a t e d projected sion, 1% energy corresponded, 20 %, t o t h e ranges based on t h e 5 % p a r t i c l e t r a n s m i s transmission a n d R d& A l l these
CS

F a s t E l e c t r o n s (E > 10 k e V )

T h e calculations f o r energy loss a n d range for elec t r o n s based on. t h e B e t h e ( 1 9 3 3 ) a n d R o h r l i c h a n d C a r l s o n ( 1 9 5 4 ) f o r m u l a t i o n s t h a t h a v e been made b y L e a (1946), H a l p e r n and H a l l (1948), Nelms (1956), a n d Berger a n d Seltzer ( 1 9 6 4 b ) , h a v e been i n c o r p o r a t e d i n T a b l e A l a n d F i g u r e s A 2 a n d A 3 . T h e density cor r e c t i o n g i v e n b y S t e r n h e i m e r (1952, 1953, 1956, 1966) has been i n c l u d e d a n d t h e e x c i t a t i o n - i o n i z a t i o n (i.e., collision) losses are i n d i c a t e d separately f r o m r a d i a t i v e a n d / o r t o t a l energy losses. V a r i o u s e x p e r i m e n t a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n s of e l e c t r o n mass s t o p p i n g power a n d ranges agree w i t h t h e t h e o r e t i c a l values t o w i t h i n a b o u t 5 % (see K a t z a n d P e n f o l d , 1952). A d d i t i o n a l c a l c u l a t i o n s g i v e n f o r t h e c o l l i s i o n losses u s i n g m a x i m u m energy transfer l i m i t s of 10 , 10 a n d 10 eV are based o n t h e R o h r l i c h a n d C a r l s o n r e s t r i c t e d mass s t o p p i n g p o w e r f o r m u l a t i o n g i v e n i n A p p e n d i x 1.
2 3 4

ranges are u t i l i z e d i n t h e p l o t of F i g u r e A 4 . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e B e t h e f o r m u l a e t h e mass stopping power of collodion should be a b o u t 5 % greater t h a n t h a t of a i r , b u t i n a s m u c h as t h e u n c e r t a i n t i e s i n t h e d a t a are a b o u t 1 0 % , no c o r r e c t i o n has been applied. D a t a w h i c h are i n c l u d e d f r o m measurements i n other m a t e r i a l s ( p r o t e i n , H , A r , H 0 ) have been converted
2 2

t o a i r a b s o r p t i o n using a p p r o p r i a t e r e l a t i v e stopping powers d e r i v e d f r o m t h e B e t h e dependence a t and above 10 k e V energy. C o n v e r s i o n factors are indicated i n t h e c a p t i o n t o F i g u r e A 4 . A l t h o u g h t h e use of such r e l a t i v e s t o p p i n g powers i n t h e l o w energy region m a y n o t be w a r r a n t e d , reasonable agreement is f o u n d among t h e v a r i o u s d a t a except for those f r o m p r o t e i n i n a c t i v a t i o n studies. T h e c l o u d chamber v a l u e of A l p e r (1932) a t 200 eV is a n e x t r a p o l a t i o n f r o m measurements

A4.2.2

L o w E n e r g y E l e c t r o n s (E

< 10 k e V ) formulae

T h e o r e t i c a l e l e c t r o n mass s t o p p i n g p o w e r

are n o t applicable b e l o w 10 k e V , hence, e x p e r i m e n t a l l y

A4.2

Electrons

29

I0

>

, .

I J

102 10

ELECTROfv / / / / /
/ / / / /

-'
L

PROTONS

<

"

0C

10 -3
/

10 -4 10"

/SS /

"

//

10 -7
I
I I

10-5

10-4

10-3

10-2

10-1

100

'

102

I
3

10

105

ELECTRON

ENERGY

MeV

F i g . A 3 . P l o t s of range (2? da) versus energy f o r e l e c t r o n s a n d p r o t o n s absorbed i n w a t e r . T h e e l e c t r o n p l o t refers t o values f r o m e x p e r i m e n t a l m e a s u r e m e n t s b e l o w 10 k e V e n e r g y , f r o m b o t h e x p e r i m e n t a l m e a s u r e m e n t a n d t h e o r e t i c a l f o r m u l a e between 10 k e V a n d 100 k e V energies (dashed l i n e ) a n d f r o m t h e o r e t i c a l f o r m u l a e a b o v e 100 k e V e n e r g y . (Ranges of e l e c t r o n s b e y o n d ^ 1 0 M e V are n o t t r u e da ranges, because (1/P) (d2/dZ) d t h e n d o m i n a t e s t h e t o t a l s t o p p i n g power w h e r e as the jKcsda refers t o c o l l i s i o n s t o p p i n g p o w e r o n l y . ) T h e p r o t o n p l o t refers t o v a l u e s f r o m t h e o r e t i c a l f o r m u l a e below 1 k e V e n e r g y , f r o m b o t h e x p e r i m e n t a l m e a s u r e m e n t a n d t h e o r e t i c a l f o r m u l a e b e t w e e n 1 k e V a n d 1 M e V energies (dashed l i n e ) a n d f r o m t h e o r e t i c a l f o r m u l a e above 1 M e V e n e r g y .
C3 C3 ra

above 1,400 e V a n d therefore, is n o t expected t o be accurate. T h e s u r p r i s i n g l y good correspondence of Lea's calculated values w i t h t h e measured values can be considered s o m e w h a t a c c i d e n t a l since t h e n u m e r i c a l results of t h e B e t h e f o r m u l a t i o n i n t h i s energy range depend v e r y c r i t i c a l ^ o n t h e selection of t h e v a l u e of / ; hence, Lea's selection f o r I can be considered t o be fortuitous.

T h e s m o o t h e d p l o t of energy versus range i n a i r a n d c o l l o d i o n was c o n v e r t e d t o a corresponding p l o t f o r w a t e r b y d i v i d i n g b y t h e mass s t o p p i n g power of w a t e r r e l a t i v e t o a i r w h i c h is e q u a l t o 1.165. T h e l a t t e r p l o t , i n c l u d e d i n F i g u r e A 3 , coincides w i t h calculated range values i n t h e r e g i o n of o v e r l a p f r o m 10 t o 100 k e V . H o w e v e r , b e l o w 10 k e V t h e accuracy is u n c e r t a i n because t h e use of t h e r e l a t i v e s t o p p i n g power is n o t f u l l y j u s t i f i e d i n t h i s range. T h e s t o p p i n g power r a t i o

30

A4,

Theoretical and Experimental

Values for Range, /dl and LET

lO 'I
1

' I 1 I I I 11 __1 1 1 I I 1 I ll
I0"
6

I 1 I I IIII1
5

I I 1 1 1 ,1 111
4

1 1 I 1 1111,
I0"
2

I0"

I0"

I0"
^-JT g.cm"^

I0"

RANGE:

F i g . A 4 . E n e r g y versus range f o r l o w - e n e r g y e l e c t r o n s f o r a i r a n d c o l l o d i o n . ( V a r i o u s range d e f i n i t i o n s , see t e x t , were used i n t h i s p l o t . ) + , C o l l o d i o n L a n e a n d Z a f f a r a n o (1954); X , P r o t e i n i n a c t i v a t i o n ( X 1.15)Davis (1954, 1955); V , A i r : c l o u d c h a m b e r A l p e r (1932); , C o l l o d i o n C o l e (1969); O , A r g o n : c l o u d c h a m b e r W i l l i a m s (1931); H t , O x y g e n : cloud c h a m b e r W i l l i a m s (1931); 0, H y d r o g e n : c l o u d c h a m b e r ( X 2 . 6 2 ) W i l l i a m s (1931); O , A i r : i o n c h a m b e r C o l e (1969); , W a t e r : c a l c u l a t e d ( X 1.165)Lea (1946); A i r : c a l c u l a t e d B e r g e r a n d Seltzer (1964b).

is expected t o increase as t h e electron energy decreases ( C o l e , 1969). D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of t h e vs R r e l a t i o n yields f o r w a t e r a n d (1/p) (dE/dR) This (1/p) plot (dE/dl) also coincides w i t h calculated dE/dR of is p l o t t e d i n F i g u r e A 2 . values

m e t a l l i c foils (see Cosslet a n d T h o m a s , 1964a, 1965). I n general, the measured correlate well aluminum Figure A4. Detailed computations f o r positrons (considering

1964b, in in

electron ranges differences

Z , A , a n d range d e f i n i t i o n s ) w i t h the ranges shown i n are n o t pre

i n t h e r e g i o n of o v e r l a p . A s s t a t e d i n can be t a k e n as a reason (dE/dl). t h e r e s t r i c t e d mass is i d e n t i c a l l y hence t h e plots of

A p p e n d i x 3, (1/p) (dE/dR) able a p p r o x i m a t i o n f o r (1/p)

sented. H o w e v e r , calculated r e s t r i c t e d and t o t a l mass s t o p p i n g powers are generally w i t h i n about 3 % of those f o r electrons of t h e same energy, except a t lower energies where, f o r 10 k e V f o r example, the r a t i o dE/dl
+

F o r a n electron of energy E,

s t o p p i n g power f o r a cut-off of = E/2 calculated r e s t r i c t e d mass s t o p p i n g

e q u a l t o t h e t o t a l mass s t o p p i n g p o w e r , power

F i g u r e A 2 were a l l e x t r a p o l a t e d t o m e e t t h e t o t a l mass s t o p p i n g power p l o t a t values of = 2 . Because of t h e u n c e r t a i n t i e s i n t h e d a t a a n d calcula t i o n s a t l o w electron energies, t h e graphs a n d plots s h o u l d be considered accurate t o no b e t t e r t h a n a b o u t 1 0 % f r o m 10 k e V t o 1 k e V ; a n d 2 0 % f r o m 1 k e V t o 100 eV. O t h e r recent s e m i - e m p i r i c a l f o r m u l a e z u m d e r a n d M a g e e , 1966; Green a n d Peterson, (Mo1968) becomes 1.10 i n w a t e r .

dE/dl-

A s defined here, (l/p)(dE/dl),

refers t o t h e average energy

r a t e of energy deposited, for a d i s t r i b u t i o n of

exchanges f r o m 0 t o , along a v e r y short or infinitesimal p a t h l e n g t h . T h e p a t h of a l o w energy electron is v e r y tortuous and convoluted, v a l u e f o r (1/p) (dE/dl) t h u s a considerably larger m a y be determined i f the rate of

f o r t h e s t o p p i n g of l o w energy ( < 1 k e V ) electrons i n w a t e r y i e l d values w h i c h are i n t h e one case larger, a n d i n t h e o t h e r smaller, t h a n those g i v e n i n T a b l e A l a n d Figures A 2 and A 3 . A n u m b e r of studies h a v e been m a d e of energy loss a n d range of r e l a t i v e l y l o w energ}^ electrons i n v a r i o u s

energy d e p o s i t i o n includes energy expended w i t h i n a s m a l l b u t finite distance ( 1 - 1 0 0 n m ) surrounding the i n i t i a l s h o r t e l e c t r o n t r a c k . T h i s l a t t e r evaluation ac t u a l l y represents a distance cut-off L value (i.e. L
R

r a t h e r t h a n an energy cut-off L value (i.e. L A ) (see Section 3.3). F o r electron energies below 1 k e V , such

A4.3 Lr values m a y be some f o u r times l a r g e r t h a n t h e e s t i mates presented i n t h i s r e p o r t ( C o l e , 1 9 6 9 ) . These p o i n t s are r e l e v a n t t o t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of r a d i a t i o n effects d u e t o l o w energy electrons ( o r electron " t r a c k e n d s " ) f o r , i f r a d i a t i o n effectiveness depends on t h e t o t a l energy deposited w i t h i n a r e g i o n of dimensions 1 t o 100 n m , t h e r e l a t i v e effect for such electrons m a y be c o m p a r a b l e t o t h a t for energetic h e a v y p a r t i c l e s w h i c h h a v e L values a p p r o a c h i n g 1000 M e V c m g " .
2 1

Heavy Particles

31

t i o n i n w a t e r , d a t a for o t h e r heavy ions can be d e r i v e d f r o m t h e m , as w i l l be discussed later. T h e values f o r t h e t o t a l mass s t o p p i n g powers a n d ranges for energies between 1 a n d 500 M e V are t a k e n f r o m t h e calculations of B a r k a s a n d Berger ( 1 9 6 4 ) . T h e d e n s i t y effect correction is i n c l u d e d , b u t h i g h energy nuclear collision losses are n o t i n c l u d e d . I n a d d i t i o n , separate calculations u s i n g t h e B e t h e f o r m u l a f o r r e s t r i c t e d mass s t o p p i n g power were made f o r t h e energy transfer cut-off values = 100, 1000, a n d 10,000 eV. T h e r e s t r i c t e d mass s t o p p i n g powers become i d e n t i c a l l y equal t o t h e t o t a l mass s t o p p i n g power a t a p r o t o n energy 458 , because t h e m a x i m u m a l l o w e d energy transfer f o r ( n o n - r e l a t i v i s t i c ) p r o t o n s s t r i k i n g electrons is g i v e n b y

A4.3

Heavy Particles

A4.3.1

Moderate a n d High Energy Heavy Particles

H e a v y particles are particles w i t h rest mass large c o m p a r e d w i t h t h a t of an electron. E x a m p l e s are mesons, kaons, p r o t o n s , hyperons, -particles, a n d accelerated nuclei. A l t h o u g h t h e d a t a presented i n T a b l e A 2 a n d Figures A 5 and A 3 refer t o p r o t o n absorp

Amax ( Qmax)
I f we define 1 d_ dl

4m i
0

0 2

458

(m

+ Mo)

A4.3.(l)

1 dl z
2

A4.3.(2)

32

Theoretical and Experimental

Values for Range, dE/dl and LET

b c

T A B L E A2 Values of range and mass stopping power for protons in water*' Mass Stopping Power; /MeV
p/(g/cm)

- p ( f ) /

P \di /nucl.
102 5 1 x 102 5 1 x 102 1 " 2 5 1 " 2 5 1 X 10 2 4 6 1 x 101 3 5 1 X 10 1.5 3 5 1 10 3 5 1 X 10 3 5 1 10
a 2 5

- ( \dl /coi.
18 26 41 58 82 130 180 260 410 580 730 910 915 750 437 268 170 100 71.4 46.8 19.2 12.7 7.42 5.54 3.58 2.79 2.24 2.03 2.07 2.17 2.37 2.46 2.58

\di

/ tot.

1 (dE\ \dl / 100

eV

\ dl /1000

cV

p \dl J 10,000 V
e

9 " 1.68 " 3.85 7.2

7

96 100 99 90 78 58 43 29 14.7 7.5 4.5

114 126 140 148 160 188 223 289 425 587 734 910 915 750 437 268 170 100 71.4 46.8 19.2 12.7 7.42 5.54 3.58 2.79 2.24 2.03 2.07 2.17 2.37 2.46 2.58

114 126 140 148 160 188 223 289 425 587 734 910 715 488 254 147 91.8 54 38.5 25.3 10.3 6.88 4.00 3.00 1.93 1.50 1.23 1.13 1.18 1.29 1.41 1.46 1.54

114 126 140 148 160 188 223 289 425 587 734 910 915 750 433 240 141 78 54.2 34.2 13.4 8.76 5.04 3.77 2.46 1.90 1.52 1.39 1.42 1.54 1.68 1.74 1.83

114 126 140 148 160 188 223 289 425 587 734 910 915 750 437 268 170 100 69.2 43.0 16.5 10.8 6.08 4.55 2.90 2.25 1.81 1.63 1.67 1.78 1.94 2.02 2.12

1.37 X 10~ 3.14

3

5.58 9.43 1 .80 " 2.79 4.22 7.3 1.25 " 2.42 8.0 2.25 " 7.13 2.30 X 1 0 " 4.71 1.18 8.64 2.18 7.57 1.55 5.06 1.15 3.21 X 10X 10 X 10 X 10
1 4

1.29 X 10 2.26 4.62 1 .335 X 10 2.162 4.142

T h i s t a b l e appears i n t h r e e s e c t i o n s . T h e t o p s e c t i o n a n d t h e b o t t o m s e c t i o n d e p e n d u p o n t h e o r e t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s o n l y , t h e m i d d l e s e c t i o n is based b o t h o n e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a a n d t h e o r e t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s . M u l t i p l y values of mass s t o p p i n g power i n M e V - c m / g b y 0.1 i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n values of L E T i n keV/jum i n u n i t d e n s i t y m a t e r i a l , i . e . , a mass s t o p p i n g p o w e r of 10 M e V - c m / g corresponds t o a n L E T of 1 keV/ i n u n i t d e n s i t y m a t e r i a l . A b o v e c e r t a i n l i m i t s (see T a b l e A 3 ) t h i s t a b l e m a y also be used f o r p a r t i c l e s o t h e r t h a n p r o t o n s i f t h e f i r s t c o l u m n is t r e a t e d as a l i s t i n g of values of M ( M e V / a m u ) a n d t h e second c o l u m n is c o n s i d e r e d t o be a l i s t i n g of values of n o r m a l i z e d range (z /Md-Rp a n d t h e s t o p p i n g powers considered t o be a l i s t i n g of t h e n o r m a l i z e d f o r m , (1/p) (dE/dl) ( 1 / z ) .
b 2 2 c 2 f 2

and e = jjf A4.3.(3)

radiative

losses

are negligible.

( A n additional dis

crepancy occurs a t extreme velocities d u e t o differences

M

i n t h e m a x i m u m energy transfer f o r different particles.) G i v e n these same restrictions, i t c a n be shown t h a t a n o r m a l i z e d range, (z /Mi)
2

where is n o r m a l l y i n M e V a n d w r i t e t h e B e t h e mass stopping power f o r m u l a i n the f o r m i ^ = z /(/3,...) p at

2 r

R, is also a p p r o x i m a t e l y
M

t h e same f o r a l l h e a v y particles of equal e . T h u s i f t h e energy, range, a n d s t o p p i n g power values given i n A4.3.(4) T a b l e A 2 a n d Figures A 5 a n d A 3 f o r protons (2 = 1, Mi = 1) are considered as e
M

, (//)

R and (1/p)

w here is a f u n c t i o n of /Mi o n l y , t h e n a l l heav}' particles of a g i v e n e

M

(de/dZ) values, these d a t a can be applied t o other h e a v y particles over a suitable range i n d i c a t e d i n T a b l e A3. " At energies b e l o w t h e range of a p p l i c a b i l i t y , t h e

( M e V / a m u ) v a l u e h a v e t h e same provided ( t o be discussed l a t e r ) or

n o r m a l i z e d mass s t o p p i n g p o w e r ( l / p ) ( d e / d ) charge exchange effects

A4.3 T A B L E A 3 Range of applicability of data in Table A2 for heavy particles other than protons
Incident Particle Energy Range Applicable* for MeV/amu

Heavy Particles

33

Muons Pions Kaons Protons > Hyperons Deuterons Tritons -Particles, N u c l e i \vith <
a

1 < e

<

10

15

10 < 6M <

10

ticles, a n d 10 M e V / a m u for heavier particles, electrons are c a p t u r e d b y t h e m o v i n g p a r t i c l e a n d t h e n e t charge is reduced. T h e mass s t o p p i n g powers b e l o w 0.02 M e V g i v e n i n T a b l e A 2 a n d p l o t t e d i n F i g u r e A 5 are p a r t l y based o n t h e L i n d h a r d a n d Scharff (1960) e q u a t i o n (see A p p e n d i x 1) for electronic collision losses w h i c h takes i n t o account charge r e d u c t i o n . T h e dashed l i n e m a r k e d " e l e c t r o n i c " i n F i g u r e A 5 indicates t h e L i n d h a r d Scharff r e l a t i o n . B e l o w a b o u t 0.002 M e V t h e d a t a are based o n t h e L i n d h a r d a n d Scharff a n d B o h r f o r m u l a e ( A p p e n d i x 1) f o r " n u c l e a r " i n t e r a c t i o n s . T h e solid c u r v e represents t h e s u m of b o t h electronic a n d nuclear collision losses. T h e ranges f o r p r o t o n s g i v e n i n T a b l e A 2 a n d F i g u r e A 3 for energies below 1 M e V were based o n a n a p p r o x i m a t e n u m e r i c a l i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e reciprocal of t h e s t o p p i n g power p l o t t e d i n F i g u r e A 5 . A l t h o u g h there are v a r i o u s d a t a on mass s t o p p i n g powers f o r heavy particles of energies above 4 k e V ( A l l i s o n , 1964; T e p l o v a et a l . , 1962; P h i l l i p s , 1953) there are few d a t a o n range d e t e r m i n a t i o n s i n t h e lower energy region ( T e p l o v a et a l . , 1962) a n d there is a p a r t i c u l a r scarcity of d a t a for w a t e r (either as gas, l i q u i d , or s o l i d ) . H e n c e t h e lower energy range d a t a m u s t be considered t e n t a t i v e . F u r t h e r m o r e , a r a t h e r large discrepancy arises w h e n these d a t a are compared w i t h range measurements f o r l o w energy protons ( 2 - 7 5 k e V ) i n p r o t e i n (Person et a l . , 1963). Some of t h e measurements (Glass a n d S a m s k y , 1967) i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e m a x i m u m L E T of t h e p r o t o n m a y be i n excess of 1000

I n t h i s range charge exchange a n d nuclear a n d r a d i a t i o n

losses are n e g l i g i b l e .

( 1 / p ) (cU/dZ) p l o t s for v a r i o u s ions diverge as is i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e A 6 , w h i c h is t a k e n f r o m a r e v i e w Northcliffe (1964). A4.3.2 L o w Energy Heavy Particles of

T h e mass s t o p p i n g power a n d range i n f o r m a t i o n presented i n T a b l e A 2 a n d i n Figures A 5 a n d A 3 f o r p r o t o n energies between 0.003 a n d 1 M e V is based o n s i m i l a r smoothed d a t a t a k e n f r o m N o r t h c l i f f e ' s r e v i e w paper ( N o r t h c l i f f e , 1964) a n d d a t a of A l l i s o n a n d Warshaw (1953), V a n Wijngaarden and D u c k w o r t h ( 1 9 6 2 ) a n d Glass a n d Samsky ( 1 9 6 7 ) . F o r values of e,i/ b e l o w a b o u t 1 M e V / a m u f o r protons and alpha p a r

MeV-cmVg.
1

NORMALIZED ENERGY; '

MeV/amu

F i g . A6. Smoothed d a t a s t o p p i n g - p o w e r curves f o r v a r i o u s i o n s f o r a l u m i n u m . (Dashed l i n e s , t h e o r e t i c a l r e s u l t of L i n d h a r d a n d Scharff, 1960; solid l i n e s , e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a , N o r t h c l i f f e , 1964.) [ B y c o u r t e s y of the a u t h o r s , P h y s i c a l R e v i e w , A n n u a l R e v i e w s , I n c . and the N a t i o n a l A c a d e m y of S c i e n c e s N a t i o n a l Research C o u n c i l . ]

APPENDIX 5 A5. M e a s u r e m e n t of L E T D i s t r i b u t i o n s

T h e L E T , as opposed t o L E T d i s t r i b u t i o n s , can be measured b y a n y of t h e methods o u t l i n e d i n A p p e n d i x 3. H o w e v e r , t h e measurement of L E T distributions entails t w o k i n d s of difficulties. F i r s t , t h e thickness of t h e detector m u s t be v e r y s m a l l , a n d second, as d i s cussed i n Section 7, t h e q u a n t i t y measured is energy deposition ( o r i t is p r o p o r t i o n a l t o energy deposition) rather than L E T . A m e t h o d w h i c h was designed specifically t o evaluate L E T d i s t r i b u t i o n s was developed b y Rossi a n d Rosenzweig (1955a, 1955b). A spherical p r o p o r t i o n a l c o u n t e r ( o r more s t r i c t l y a spherical i o n i z a t i o n chamber t h a t is gas-coupled t o a c y l i n d r i c a l p r o p o r t i o n a l c o u n t e r ) is employed. T h i s counter has a w a l l of tissuee q u i v a l e n t c o n d u c t i n g plastic a n d is filled w i t h tissuee q u i v a l e n t c o u n t i n g gas i n order t o o b t a i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n a p p r o p r i a t e for tissue. T h e r e d u c t i o n of t h e pulse h e i g h t d a t a o b t a i n e d w i t h t h i s counter t o L E T spectra depends u p o n t h e p a t h l e n g t h d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e i o n i z i n g particles i n t r a v e r s i n g t h e sphere. T h e p r o b a b i l i t y of a t r a v e r s a l w i t h a p a t h l e n g t h i n t h e i n t e r v a l I t o I + dl w h e n t h e sphere is u n i f o r m l y i r r a d i a t e d is d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o I. Possible p a t h lengths lie between zero a n d t w i c e t h e sphere radius. I f t h e c o n d i t i o n s set o u t below are m e t , t h e L E T d i s t r i b u t i o n m a y be calculated f r o m t h e f o r m u l a t ( L ) = k [() h

p a r t i c l e t r a v e r s a l . I t is assumed t h a t particles suffer negligible change i n L E T i n t r a v e r s i n g t h e c o u n t e r a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r no p a r t i c l e either begins or ends i t s t r a c k i n t h e counter gas. H o w w e l l t h i s assumption c a n be m e t i n p r a c t i c e for any g i v e n r a d i a t i o n depends o n r. A s r is increased, changes i n L E T become i m p o r t a n t a n d i f i t is sufficiently large, a significant n u m b e r of d i r e c t l y i o n i z i n g particles w i l l be created i n t h e gas a n d an equal n u m b e r of t h e particles formed i n t h e w a l l w i l l be stopped. T h e occurrence of such particles interferes w i t h t h e proper analysis of t h e experimental d a t a ( C a s w e l l , 1966). Decrease of the gas pressure t o reduce t h e m a g n i t u d e of t h i s d i s t o r t i o n causes an a d d i t i o n a l problem. W h e n t h e energy loss of a particle i n traversing t h e sphere is s m a l l , t h e s t a t i s t i c a l fluctuations i n energy loss are large. These fluctuations again prevent proper analysis i n t e r m s of L E T w h i c h is a concept dealing w i t h average energy loss. T h u s , there is no pressure range where t h e shape of t h e pulse height s p e c t r u m is independent of pressure. W h i l e such energy fluctuations lessen t h e accuracy of t h e measurement technique, t h e y i l l u s t r a t e l i m i t a t i o n s of t h e L E T concept as a measure of r a d i a t i o n q u a l i t y as discussed i n Section 7. I n general, the combined effect of these sources of error is d i f f i c u l t t o assess. W h e r e scattering is significant, t h e s p e c t r u m derived w i l l be biased towards the h i g h L E T region whereas the influence of incomplete t r a versal is i n t h e opposite d i r e c t i o n . S t a t i s t i c a l f l u c t u a t i o n s for h i g h energy losses i n a d d i t i o n t o being s m a l l , are also s y m m e t r i c a l , t h u s s i m u l a t i n g poor counter r e s o l u t i o n . F o r s m a l l energy losses, however, the dis t r i b u t i o n is a s y m m e t r i c a l a n d t h u s distorts t h e calcu l a t e d d i s t r i b u t i o n i n a less definite fashion. However, i n a l l cases, t h e device broadens t h e L E T d i s t r i b u t i o n . Rossi a n d Rosenzweig (1955b) have used this i n s t r u m e n t t o d e t e r m i n e t h e L E T d i s t r i b u t i o n of absorbed dose i n tissue w h e n t h e counter was i r r a d i a t e d b y monoenergetic neutrons i n t h e energy range of 0.2 to 8 M e V . I n comparisons of these experimental results w i t h t h e o r e t i c a l calculations the l i m i t a t i o n s of t h e l a t t e r m u s t be k e p t i n m i n d . S t o p p i n g power values chosen f o r these calculations were n o t of h i g h accuracy. Nevertheless, t h e discrepancies between theory and e x p e r i m e n t were f o u n d t o be m i n o r and should be u n i m p o r t a n t i n most applications related to theoretical radiobiolog}'. 34

-^P]

A5.(l)

H e r e t(L) is t h e t r a c k d i s t r i b u t e d i n L E T , k is a con s t a n t , a n d n(h) t h e n u m b e r of pulses of h e i g h t ( o r energy) h per u n i t pulse h e i g h t i n t e r v a l . L is related t o h b y L = h/2r where r is t h e radius of t h e e q u i v a l e n t tissue sphere a n d is g i v e n b y t h e p r o d u c t of counter r a d i u s a n d t h e density of t h e counter gas r e l a t i v e t o tissue. T h i s conversion of t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a t o L E T d i s t r i b u t i o n s is based o n several assumptions w h i c h are m e t t o a v a r y i n g degree of exactness i n a c t u a l practice. T h e most l i m i t i n g a s s u m p t i o n is t h a t of s t r a i g h t l i n e traversals of t h e sphere b y t h e charged particles. T h i s r e q u i r e m e n t makes t h e conversion of t h e d a t a f r o m x - or g a m m a - r a y fields d i f f i c u l t as electron scatter u s u a l l y c a n n o t be ignored. I n t h e case of heavier d i r e c t l y i o n i z i n g particles, t h e a s s u m p t i o n is u s u a l l y j u s t i f i e d . A n o t h e r assumption i m p l i c i t i n t h e use of t h i s counter f o r o b t a i n i n g L E T spectra is also connected w i t h

APPENDIX 6 A6. D i s t r i b u t i o n of I o n s i n C l u s t e r s

A l t h o u g h t h e cross sections for energy transfers above several h u n d r e d eV can be calculated accurately, t h e o r y becomes u n r e l i a b l e w h e n t h e energy transfers are s m a l l a n d t h e n u m b e r of i o n pairs per cluster is i n t h e region of 1 t o 5. U s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n for gases has been o b t a i n e d i n cloud c h a m b e r studies, but, unfortunately, marked discrepancies exist between t h e t w o p r i n c i p a l sets of a v a i l a b l e d a t a , those of W i l s o n (1923) a n d t h e higher r e s o l u t i o n d a t a of B e e k m a n ( 1 9 4 9 ) . These results are listed i n Table A4. According observations t o Ore and Larsen (1964) m u c h of t h e w h i c h gives rise t o cluster o v e r l a p . d a t a are Ore sub discrepancy arises f r o m t h e poor resolution of W i l s o n ' s a n d Larsen conclude t h a t Beekman's f o r cluster overlap. I t m u s t be realized t h a t no precise d e f i n i t i o n of a cluster can be p r o v i d e d . F u r t h e r m o r e , i t should be

emphasized t h a t t h e d a t a i n T a b l e A 4 p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e ions produced i n t h e gaseous state. F o r t h e condensed state (e.g. i n biological m a t e r i a l ) d i s t r i b u t i o n s are n o t necessaril\
r

similar. of clusters
Beekman (1949)

T A B L E A4 Relative frequencies
Number of Ion Pairs per Cluster Wilson (1923) "0-Rays"
a

154 keV electrons

322 keV electrons

%
1 2 3 4 >4 >5
a

%
60 23 8 4

%
62 20 9 4

43 22 12 10 13

s t a n t i a l l y reliable a l t h o u g h these were also uncorrected

2 3

2 3

T h e "jo-rays'' e m p l o y e d b y W i l s o n i n t h i s e x p e r i m e n t were electrons generated b y r a y s . T h e e l e c t r o n energies appear t o h a v e been i n t h e range 9-36 k e V ( W i l s o n , 1923).

35

APPENDIX 7 A7. Mean Excitation Energy

A7.1

General

Academy

of S c i e n c e s N a t i o n a l

Research C o u n c i l has suffi de

p u b l i s h e d ( T u r n e r , 1964) a l i s t of suggested I values. T h e formulae for stopping power contain the p a r a m eter, 7, t h e m e a n e x c i t a t i o n energy a n d equations A l . ( 7 ) t o A l . ( 1 2 ) ) . 7 is defined, (see e q u a t i o n A l . ( 7 ) ) In / w h e r e I and E where f
n

These represent a consensus of o p i n i o n a n d are I t m u s t be r e m e m b e r e d t h a t the s t o p p i n g p o w e r

(See A p p e n d i x 1 as: A7.(l)

c i e n t l y accurate for m o s t s t o p p i n g p o w e r c a l c u l a t i o n s . pends u p o n t h e l o g a r i t h m of I and is therefore a s l o w l y v a r y i n g f u n c t i o n of I . O t h e r c o m p i l a t i o n s of 7 values have been made b y t h e N C R P (1961) a n d b y D a l t o n and Turner (1967).

/1#

are i n t h e same u n i t s , n o r m a l l y eV, a n d

is the o p t i c a l d i p o l e o s c i l l a t o r s t r e n g t h for t h e A7.4 Mixtures and Compounds . B l o c h ( 1 9 3 3 ) has s h o w n t h a t I s h o u l d O n t h e basis of t h e B r a g g a d d i t i v i t y r u l e , t h e m e a n e x c i t a t i o n - i o n i z a t i o n p o t e n t i a l can be calculated ap p r o x i m a t e l y for a c o m p o u n d or m i x t u r e , p r o v i d e d t h e I values of t h e c o n s t i t u e n t atoms are k n o w n . T h u s : , ZNiZi In 7 =
T R

e x c i t a t i o n of t h e a t o m f r o m i t s g r o u n d state, t o t h e excited level E

n

be a p p r o x i m a t e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e a t o m i c n u m b e r of the medium, and t h a t the p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y constant s h o u l d a p p r o x i m a t e t h e R y d b e r g energy 13.5 eV. T h u s , / ~ 13.5Z-eV A7.(2)

Because of t h e i n e x a c t n a t u r e of t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p , a n d t h e d i f f i c u l t y of d e r i v i n g m o r e accurate t h e o r e t i c a l values, estimates of I h a v e been o b t a i n e d f r o m measure m e n t s of the s t o p p i n g - p o w e r shell corrections equation A l . ( 8 ) ) . or range of heavy (1933) equation par (see ticles. I n such d e r i v a t i o n s , i t is necessary t o evaluate t h e i n the Bethe

I n Ii
r /

where A \ is t h e r e l a t i v e n u m b e r of atoms of n u m b e r Z j i n the m e d i u m .

atomic

Values of 7 for a fe\v substances of interest to r a d i a t i o n biologists a n d r a d i a t i o n chemists have been c a l c u l a t e d b y t h i s r u l e . T a b l e A 5 lists these values along w i t h t h e assumed elemental 7 values a n d compositions.

A7.2

Empirical Relations

T A B L E A5 Mean excitation
Substance

energies for

selected
//eV
a

substances

Several e m p i r i c a l f o r m u l a e h a v e been proposed w h i c h relate I more e x a c t l y t o t h e a t o m i c n u m b e r . these is one g i v e n b y Jensen ( 1 9 3 7 ) = ' (

Z

Among

+ w )

A7.(3)

Water Methane Lithium Air Muscle Bone

b b b a

fluoride

65.1 44.1 87.2 80.8 65.9 85.1

a n d another b y D a l t o n a n d T u r n e r ( 1 9 6 8 ) I / = = (11.2 + (52.8 + 11.7Z)eV 8.71Z)eV < > 13 13 A7.(4)

A l t h o u g h such r e l a t i o n s give reasonable agreement w i t h m o s t e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a , discrepancies can be large for c e r t a i n elements.

A7.3

Recommended Values

T h e S u b c o m m i t t e e o n P e n e t r a t i o n of C h a r g e d P a r ticles of t h e C o m m i t t e e o n N u c l e a r Science, N a t i o n a l 36

E l e m e n t a l I v a l u e s (eV) are as f o l l o w s : H y d r o g e n 1 8 . 7 , L i t h i u m 3 8 . 0 , C a r b o n 7 8 . 0 , N i t r o g e n 8 5 . 0 , Oxygen89.0, F l u o r i n e 1 1 5 . 0 , Sodium140, M a g n e s i u m 1 5 2 , Phosphorus 183, S u l f u r 1 9 2 , A r g o n 2 1 0 , Potassium218 and C a l c i u m 287. C o m p o s i t i o n f r o m I C R U R e p o r t 10b ( I C R U , 1962b). B y w e i g h t these are as f o l l o w s : A i r : N i t r o g e n 7 5 . 5 % , O x y g e n 2 3 . 2 % and A r g o n 1 . 3 % . Muscle: Hydrogen10.2%, Carbon12.3%, Nitrogen 3.5%, O x y g e n 7 2 . 9 % , S o d i u m . 0 8 % , M a g n e s i u m . 0 2 % , P h o s p h o r u s 0 . 2 % , S u l f u r 0 . 5 % , P o t a s s i u m 0 . 3 % , and C a l cium.007%. Bone: Hydrogen6.4%, Carbon27.8%, Nitrogen2.7%, Oxygen41.0%, M a g n e s i u m 0 . 2 % , Phosphorus7.0%, Sul f u r 0 . 2 % and Calcium14.7%.
b

APPENDIX 8 A8. A p p l i c a t i o n of L E T i n R a d i o b i o l o g y a n d C h e m i c a l D o s i m e t r y

A8.1

Direct and Indirect Action

and

size of t h e t a r g e t , a n d t h e a m o u n t a n d f o r m of t h a t e x p o n e n t i a l s u r v i v a l curves are

energy t h a t m u s t be d e p o s i t e d w i t h i n t h e t a r g e t zone. M a n y r a d i o b i o l o g i c a l theories have been based o n the a s s u m p t i o n t h a t c e r t a i n r a d i a t i o n - i n d u c e d b i o l o g i c a l changes such as gene m u t a t i o n s , c h r o m a t i d a n d c h r o m o somal a b e r r a t i o n s , a n d cell d e a t h , depend upon apA8.3 Simple Target Theory (1922) Lea are p r o p r i a t e energy transfers t o one or more specific s u b c e l l u l a r t a r g e t s . T h e effectiveness of a g i v e n r a d i a t i o n per p a r t i c l e , or per u n i t absorbed dose, w i l l therefore depend upon the probability that the appropriate T a r g e t t h e o r y was i n t r o d u c e d b y Dessauer and (1946). energy transfers w i l l be made t o t h e specific t a r g e t or t a r g e t s . T h i s mechanism is called direct action a n d target theory seeks t o e x p l a i n i t . H o w e v e r , s h o r t - l i v e d chemical species generated b y the r a d i a t i o n m a y m i g r a t e t o t h e t a r g e t r e g i o n t o produce chemical a n d biological change. I n t h i s s i t u a t i o n , biological or chemical change w o u l d e x h i b i t t h e k i n e t i c s of d i r e c t a c t i o n a l t h o u g h s t r i c t l y , the m e c h a n i s m of change is i n d i r e c t ( L e a , 1946). I n of r a d i a t i o n a c t i o n is e n t i r e l y , or almost some systems, a n d n o t a b l y i n chemical dosimeters, t h e mechanism e n t i r e l y , t h a t of indirect action. T h e o x i d a t i o n of ferrous Crowther (1926) and developed m a i n l y b y L e a showed t h a t w h e n b i o l o g i c a l effects [ N o t e , however, n o t necessarily t h e r e s u l t of single h i t k i n e t i c s o n l y

( H a l l , 1953, Z i m m e r , 1961).]

a t t r i b u t a b l e t o a single i o n i z i n g e v e n t o c c u r r i n g w i t h i n the t a r g e t s t r u c t u r e ( t h e size of w h i c h is s m a l l c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e spacing b e t w e e n i o n i z a t i o n s ) , t h e v o l u m e of the t a r g e t can be d e d u c e d f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t t h e m e a n i n a c t i v a t i o n dose corresponds t o one e v e n t per t a r g e t volume. A8.(l) where D Thus, if the s u r v i v a l k i n e t i c s of i n ionizations (or equation = l/D
0

a p p l y , t h e v o l u m e of t h e t a r g e t , V
0

, of

is measured

clusters

i o n i z a t i o n ) r a n d o m l y d i s t r i b u t e d per u n i t v o l u m e . I f m o r e t h a n one i o n i z a t i o n is p r o d u c e d i n t h e t a r g e t v o l u m e w h e n o n l y one is sufficient f o r i n a c t i v a t i o n , t h e e x t r a i o n i z a t i o n s are " w a s t e d " a n d t h e r a d i a t i o n is this used i n e f f e c t i v e l y . Because i o n i z a t i o n s are more closely spaced along t h e t r a c k of h i g h L E T p a r t i c l e s , t e n d e n c y t o w a r d ineffectiveness becomes more m a r k e d w i t h h i g h L E T r a d i a t i o n . T h u s s i m p l e t a r g e t theorypredicts a decline i n efficiency w i t h increasing L E T (cf. the c u r v e f o r T - l p h a g e i n F i g u r e 1 1 ) , a s i t u a t i o n f o r

or f e r r i c ions i n t h e F r i c k e dosimeter depends u p o n t h e i n i t i a l f o r m a t i o n of o x i d i z i n g species such as O H , H O 2 , a n d H2O2 w i t h i n , or close t o t h e t r a c k , a n d t h e i r subseq u e n t diffusion, a n d chemical t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s , before a ferrous i o n is encountered. T h e dependence of t h e d i r e c t a n d i n d i r e c t actions of r a d i a t i o n o n L E T is generally complex, a n d i t differs f r o m one system t o another.

A8.2

Exponential Absorbed Dose-Survival Curves

w h i c h a t r a c k average L^

)T

is a p p l i c a b l e .

T h i s simple a p p r o a c h m u s t be m o d i f i e d w i t h l a r g e r I n some radiobiological studies, t h e r e l a t i o n between the i n a c t i v a t i o n , or t h e s u r v i v i n g f r a c t i o n ( S

D

targets a n d Lea devised a m e t h o d , t h e associated v o l u m e m e t h o d , t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e f a c t t h a t clusters are, i n general, n o t r a n d o m l y d i s t r i b u t e d . L e a was able t o show t h a t for t h e i n a c t i v a t i o n of s m a l l viruses, themselves ( m e a s u r e d by o t h e r m e t h o d s ) response declined with increasing LET i n c l u d e d ) as p r e d i c t e d . S i m p l e t a r g e t t h e o r y i n special further (1960). supported by the work P o l l a r d et a l . ( 1 9 5 5 ) circumstances of Pollard was (1953), weights with the i n f e r r e d t a r g e t sizes c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e size of t h e viruses

) of, f o r

example, c e r t a i n enzymes, viruses, spores a n d cells, a n d the absorbed dose ( D ) , is a n e g a t i v e e x p o n e n t i a l of t h e form: SD = e~

D/Do

A8.(l)

and t h a t the (delta rays

where Do is called t h e mean i n a c t i v a t i o n absorbed dose. This relation, when taken i n conjunction w i t h various other considerations, suggests t h a t i n a c t i v a t i o n depends u p o n the r a n d o m deposition of a discrete a m o u n t of r a d i a t i o n energy (called a hit) (called a target) i n a defined region 1946). of the biological e n t i t y ( L e a ,

and D o l p h i n and Hutchinson

These w o r k e r s e s t i m a t e d m o l e c u l a r

f r o m t h e t a r g e t sizes of i r r a d i a t e d d r y enzymes s u c h as t r y p s i n a n d t h e y f o u n d t h e m t o agree closely those d e t e r m i n e d b y p l ^ s i c o c h e m i c a l 37 methods.

T h e efficiency w i t h w h i c h a g i v e n q u a l i t y of r a d i a t i o n produces i n a c t i v a t i o n depends u p o n t h e effective shape

38

A8.4

A8.

Application of LET in Radiobiology

and Chemical Dosimetry of t h e t a r g e t region relative to w a t e r ) . I n Viciafaba l l ' results f r o m 2 0 - 3 0 ions and R " f r o m more t h a n 30 ions w i t h i n 50 n m . B r u s t a d ( 1 9 6 2 ) applied H o w a r d - F l a n d e r s ' s ( 1 9 5 8 ) track-segment t h e o r y to the analysis of d a t a o b t a i n e d w i t h heavy i o n beams. Some of the d a t a are s h o w n i n F i g u r e 1 1 . L sing f u r t h e r refinements i n t h e analysis he d e r i v e d results s i m i l a r to those of H o w a r d - F l a n d e r s b u t w i t h somewhat different n u m e r i c a l values. F o r t h e cases i n w h i c h t h e R B E first increases w i t h increasing L E T , a n d t h e n decreases ( F i g u r e 11), is always greater t h a n u n i t y . F o r the i n h i b i t i o n of the c o l o n y - f o r m i n g a b i l i t y of h a p l o i d Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Brustad e s t i m a t e d t h a t = 10 and t = 6.9/p n m , and f o r t h e i n d u c t i o n of d o m i n a n t lethals i n haploid Saccharomyces cerevisiae he f o u n d = 10 and t = 4/p n m .
T

T a r g e t T h e o r y a n d I n a c t i v a t i o n by Multiple Ionizations

I n m a n y biological systems, t h e effectiveness of different r a d i a t i o n s differs f r o m t h a t described i n t h e preceding p a r a g r a p h and, as i n d i c a t e d earlier i n F i g u r e 1 1 , R B E rises w i t h increasing L E T t o a peak a n d t h e n declines. F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e f o r m of t h e s u r v i v a l curves is o f t e n more c o m p l i c a t e d : c o m m o n l y a n i n i t i a l shoulder is f o l l o w e d b y a n a p p r o x i m a t e l y e x p o n e n t i a l p o r t i o n . S i m p l e t a r g e t t h e o r y is i n a p p l i c a b l e i n such cases b u t t a r g e t concepts m a y s t i l l be r e l e v a n t . F o r example, i f biological change requires m u l t i p l e i o n i z a t i o n s w i t h i n a t a r g e t , t h e size of w h i c h is l a r g e r t h a n t h e t y p i c a l spacing between successive p r i m a r y i o n i z a t i o n s along t h e t r a c k s of, say, -particles, t h e influence of r a d i a t i o n q u a l i t y can be accounted for, a t least i n b r o a d t e r m s . T h e s u r v i v a l of i r r a d i a t e d h a p l o i d yeast, b a c t e r i a l spores, a n d cells c u l t u r e d f r o m m a n y h i g h e r organisms s h o w t h i s f o r m of dependence o n r a d i a t i o n q u a l i t y . T h e peak response for these systems is u s u a l l y f o u n d a t a n L , of a b o u t 100 k e V / , f o l l o w e d b y a decline i n effectiveness a t higher L E T ( H o w a r d - F l a n d e r s , 1958; Barendsen, 1964a, b , 1967), see F i g u r e 11. F o r c h r o m a t i d aberrations i n Tradescantia, R a n d o l p h (1964) d e m o n s t r a t e d a m a r k e d peak i n s e n s i t i v i t y a t an Lioo,r> of 65 keV/. Llsing accelerated h e a v y ions t o i r r a d i a t e m a m m a l i a n cells, T o d d (1967) f o u n d a peak for l e t h a l damage ( f a i l u r e t o f o r m colonies) t o h u m a n k i d n e y cells a t L ~ 220 k e V / ; S k a r s g a r d et a l . (1967) compared chromosome damage a n d colony f o r m i n g a b i l i t y i n Chinese hamster cells a n d f o u n d b o t h end p o i n t s t o have a peak response a t a n of ^ 1 5 0 k e V / .
X D

Barendsen (1964b, 1967) extended the t r a c k - s e g m e n t f o r m of analysis t o the i n a c t i v a t i o n of m a m m a l i a n cells. H e concluded t h a t between 10 and 15 ionizations are r e q u i r e d w i t h i n a distance of between 6.6 and 9.9 n m , t o produce i m p a i r m e n t of the p r o l i f e r a t i v e capacity of m a m m a l i a n ( h u m a n k i d n e y ) cells. N e a r y ( 1 9 6 5 ) has proposed t h a t observable biological effects i n a cell usually require a single energy-loss event i n a macromolecule, and a chromosome a b e r r a t i o n ( a n d possibly c e l l - k i l l i n g ) is said to result f r o m an exchange between two such damaged macromolecules. H e ana lysed the L E T - d e p e n d e n c e of aberrations produced b y one-track a n d t w o - t r a c k mechanisms and has o b t a i n e d satisfactory agreement between t h e o r y a n d observation ( N e a r y a n d Savage, 1966; N e a r y , Preston and Savage, 1967).'

H o w a r d - F l a n d e r s (1958) analysed t h e mechanism of r a d i a t i o n action b y t h e t r a c k - s e g m e n t m e t h o d , i n an a t t e m p t t o account for t h i s quality-dependence of r a d i o s e n s i t i v i t y . H e p o s t u l a t e d t w o basic types of r a d i a t i o n i n j u r y , one of w h i c h , R , is oxygen-dependent, w h i l e t h e other, R " , is i n d e p e n d e n t of oxygen tension. H e proposed t h a t R ' is t h e r e s u l t of 1 or more, b u t fewer t h a n ions, f o r m e d w i t h i n a distance t along t h e t r a c k of t h e i o n i z i n g p a r t i c l e , w h i l e R " is t h e result of or m o r e ions w i t h i n t h i s distance t. T h e n , u s i n g calculated L E T spectra, he adjusted values of a n d t t o give t h e best f i t t o t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a f o r t h e dependence of t h e 37 % s u r v i v a l absorbed dose o n r a d i a t i o n q u a l i t y .
7

A8.5

Target Theory, Complex Target

T h e track-segment f o r m of analysis assumes t h a t w h e n more t h a n one i o n i z a t i o n is needed t o produce an R " f o r m of i n j u r y , the required m u l t i p l e ionizations (n or more) m a y be formed anywhere w i t h i n a distance t. H o w e v e r , i n complex biological targets, i t is more l i k e l y t h a t specific m u l t i p l e regions w i t h i n t h e sensitive region have t o be affected concurrently ( B u r c h , 1967). T o b i a s a n d M a n n e } ' (1964) considered t h e i n a c t i v a t i o n cross-section ( ) for bacterial spores, h a p l o i d yeast, a n d h u m a n k i d n e y cells, as a f u n c t i o n of the L E T for heav}^ i o n i r r a d i a t i o n s . Because the L E T d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r heavy i o n i r r a d i a t i o n s are generally q u i t e n a r r o w (see Figures 8 a n d 9 ) , curves r e l a t i n g biological effect t o average L E T are suitable for theoretical analysis. M o s t of t h e curves show a linear relation between and , r a t l o w L E T , followed b y a n i n t e r m e d i a t e rising section between 10 and 100 keV/, a n d finally a p l a t e a u a t a b o u t 200 keV/. F o r t h e i n a c t i v a t i o n of h u m a n k i d n e y cells i r r a d i a t e d i n nitrogen, Tobias and

H e concluded t h a t t h e d a t a f o r p l a n t viruses, a n d bacteriophage T l , are consistent w i t h t h e v i e w t h a t i n a c t i v a t i o n is t h e r e s u l t of o n l y one or t w o ionizations, w h i c h act i n d e p e n d e n t l y i f spaced a b o u t 0.5-1.0 n m a p a r t for phage a n d 2.5-5.0 n m a p a r t f o r tobacco mosaic v i r u s i n v a c u u m . F o r b a c t e r i a l spores i r r a d i a t e d i n v a c u u m , i n a c t i v a t i o n requires 8 or m o r e ions f o r m e d w i t h i n a distance of 3/p n m (p is t h e effective density

A8.6

Indirect Action and Application to Chemical Dosimeters

39

a m icy e s t i m a t e d t h a t increased a p p r o x i m a t e l y w i t h ( L ^ . T ) i n the i n t e r m e d i a t e region. T h e y proposed t h a t t h i s corresponds t o irreversible l e t h a l i t y a n d indicates i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h i n t h e nucleus of t w o p a r t s of t h e same i o n i z i n g t r a c k . F o r lysozyme, however, t h e dependence of on , is sub-linear between a b o u t 20 a n d 500 keV/, a n d even a t the l a t t e r L E T , no p l a t e a u is reached. B u r c h (1967) f o u n d t h a t a t h i g h L E T (above L ~ 40 keV/ or L ~ 60 keV/) the e x p e r i m e n t a l results for t h e heavy i o n i r r a d i a t i o n of m a m m a l i a n cells ( D e e r i n g a n d Rice, 1962; Barendsen, 1964b) are described b y t h e e q u a t i o n :
2 m w

problems. O u t s t a n d i n g among these is the d i f f i c u l t y of assessing t h e b e h a v i o r of l o w energy electrons i n aqueous media. G r a y (1955) t r i e d t o account for t h e molecular y i e l d i n aqueous m e d i a b y assuming t h a t electrons whose energy lies between 60 a n d 500 eV y i e l d o n l y m o l e c u l a r h y d r o g e n a n d h y d r o g e n peroxide, a n d t h a t o n l y h y d r o g e n a t o m s a n d h y d r o x y l radicals. B u r c h (1959) t r i e d t o e x p l a i n t h e effect of r a d i a t i o n q u a l i t y o n y i e l d i n t h e ferrous a n d eerie sulfate d o s i m eters o n t h e basis of a m o d e l w h i c h , a l t h o u g h m u c h m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d t h a n G r a y ' s (1955) events. T h e e x p e r i m e n t a l results f o r chemical yields
60

electrons

w i t h energy less t h a n 60 eV or greater t h a n 500 eV y i e l d

model, s t i l l f e l l f a r

= (1 for

e"

k L 3

A8.(2)

s h o r t , as he p o i n t e d o u t , of t h e c o m p l e x i t y of a c t u a l with

a n d t h e r e l a t i o n holds for a cut-off value of 200 e V a n d . H e r e is t h e i n a c t i v a t i o n cross-section, is t h e

l i m i t i n g i n a c t i v a t i o n cross-section f o u n d i n t h e p l a t e a u a t v e r y h i g h L E T , a n d k is a constant. I n other w o r d s , a t h i g h L E T a n d before s a t u r a t i o n effects i n t e r v e n e , is p r o p o r t i o n a l t o (L oo) or ( L ) . W h e t h e r or n o t analyses of the t y p e described above w i l l u l t i m a t e l y become established remains for f u t u r e experiment t o decide. T h e y are presented here t o i n d i cate the m a n n e r i n w h i c h the d i s t r i b u t i o n of energy transfer as described b y L E T can be used t o i n t e r p r e t t h e mechanism of r a d i a t i o n action.
2 3 x 3

C o y r a y s a n d p l u t o n i u m a particles were used t o

derive t h e u n k n o w n parameters i n t h e Jaffe c o l u m n a r r e - c o m b i n a t i o n f o r m u l a e (Jaffe, 1913). C h e m i c a l y i e l d s f o r other q u a l i t i e s of r a d i a t i o n were t h e n p r e d i c t e d . D e s p i t e t h e a p p r o x i m a t e n a t u r e of several of t h e as s u m p t i o n s i n t h e m o d e l , i t gives good agreement w i t h e x p e r i m e n t a l results ( C o l l i n s o n et a l . , 1960; 1967). Fregene (1967)
r

Fregene, (the

finds

that when G

F e + + +

y i e l d of ferric ions per 100 e V ) is p l o t t e d against t h e m e a n i n i t i a l energ3 of electrons f r o m x, y and r a y s , a l l t h e d a t a lie o n t h e same s m o o t h curve. I t is i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t (?Fe+++ is s t i l l rising a t t h e lowest mean L E T i n v e s t i g a t e d ( f o r 15 M e V r a y s ) . F o r p r a c t i c a l p u r poses, G ++
Fe+

A8.6

I n d i r e c t A c t i o n a n d A p p l i c a t i o n to Chemical Dosimeters

values can be i n t e r p o l a t e d f r o m such a

Analysis of t h e q u a l i t y dependence of i n d i r e c t a c t i o n presents some f o r m i d a b l e and at present insoluble

graph, for m o s t sources of x, y, a n d rays, p r o v i d e d t h e i r dose-weighted m e a n L E T can be calculated.

APPENDIX 9 A9. L i s t of S y m b o l s
1

A9.1

General

s = cross section = a(Q)

/ ^. / moc = i n a c t i v a t i o n cross section.

27 9 0 2 2

21 38 7 38 2 21 37 21 21

a Aa e h d I
PI

cross sectional area. element of cross sectional area. v/c where c v e l o c i t y of l i g h t . electronic charge. pulse h e i g h t . d i a m e t e r of sphere. distance. surface d e n s i t y measured i n m a s s / u n i t area.

4 4 21 21 34 3 21 21 26 in

t V

= angle of deflection of i n c i d e n t p a r ticle. = distance a l o n g a t r a c k = total track length. = v e l o c i t y of t h e p a r t i c l e . = v o l u m e of t a r g e t . = nuclear charge n u m b e r of t h e p a r ticle. = a t o m i c n u m b e r of absorber. A9.2 Absorbed Dose AE /Am.
D

k
dl Al m Am Mo Mi m

distance such t h a t m u l t i p l e s c a t t e r i n g occurs w i t h s m a l l p r o b a b i l i t y , distance travelled by particle losing energy dE. s m a l l element of distance i n w h i c h p a r t i c l e loses energy AE. mass ( g e n e r a l l y ) . s m a l l element of mass. rest mass of i n c i d e n t p a r t i c l e . relative particle). a t o m i c mass (of incident 21 5 21 21 21 21 21 4 UA{E) = d(E) = d*{L) Doo(L) = = DA(L) = 4 4 4 dta(L) = D(L) =

D d(L)

= =

absorbed dose = respect t o L .

4 2,8 2,8 8

d i s t r i b u t i o n of absorbed dose w i t h c u m u l a t i v e d i s t r i b u t i o n of absorbed dose w i t h respect t o L . d i s t r i b u t i o n of absorbed dose w i t h respect t o L w i t h cut-off energy A . c u m u l a t i v e d i s t r i b u t i o n of absorbed dose w i t h respect t o L w i t h cut-off energy A . d i s t r i b u t i o n of absorbed dose w i t h respect t o L ( n o cut-off ). c u m u l a t i v e d i s t r i b u t i o n of absorbed dose w i t h respect t o L ( n o cut-off A ) . d i s t r i b u t i o n of absorbed dose w i t h re spect t o p a r t i c l e energy (=()). d i s t r i b u t i o n of absorbed dose w i t h respect t o p a r t i c l e energy w i t h c u t off (={)). * 11

rest mass of s t r u c k p a r t i c l e . (ra

0

= mass of recoil e l e c t r o n ) = mass of recoil n u c l e u s ) . = rest mass energy of recoil

8 8 8 9

(vio moc M M
2

electron.
a

= r e l a t i v e a t o m i c mass ( o f a b s o r b e r ) . = m o l a r mass ( o f a b s o r b e r ) . = Avogadro's number. = n u m b e r of particles e n t e r i n g Aa. = n u m b e r of particles w i t h energy per u n i t energy i n t e r v a l . = n u m b e r of particles of L E T L per unit L E T interval.

AN An{E) An(L) n(h)

d>{E) 4 34 21 7 5 QF 21 DE

d i s t r i b u t i o n of absorbed dose w i t h respect t o p a r t i c l e energy w i t h no cut-off (= ()).

0

= n u m b e r of pulses of h e i g h t h. = density. r = geometric cut-off distance, = collision cross-section,

9 16 37

= = =

dose e q u i v a l e n t . m e a n i n a c t i v a t i o n absorbed dose. r e c i p r o c a l of t h e final slope of the l o g s u r v i v a l vs. absorbed dose curve. quality factor.

Do =

a(Q)dQ

= p r o b a b i l i t y for collisions i n v o l v i n g energ}^ transfers between Q a n d Q + dQ.

16

A9.3
T h i s l i s t of s}'mbols is i n c l u d e d to f a c i l i t a t e t h e r e a d i n g of t h i s r e p o r t a n d n o t t o propose these s y m b o l s f o r general use. F i r s t use or d e f i n i t i o n .
12 13

Energy

dE

m e a n energy loss due t o collisions w i t h energy transfers less t h a n some

40

A9.6 specified value . ( I C R U , 1968). = AEA also ( w h i c h is the average of a d i s t r i b u t i o n , i n O, U a n d q o n l y , Figure 3 ) . dE

L

Linear Energy Transfer A9.4 Fluence

41

Page

13

= mean energy loss due t o collisions i n t r a v e r s i n g dl ( I C R U , 1962a). = incident (' particle kinetic energy. 4 9 = average i n c i d e n t energy.) = average i n i t i a l k i n e t i c e n e r g y ) . average t r a n s m i t t e d energy.) transferred b y p a r t i c l e of y(E ,
0

Eo ' AE

= i n i t i a l p a r t i c l e k i n e t i c energy. (E
0

()

2
(/)

Aa _ n u m b e r of i n c i d e n t particles i n c i d e n t area = charged p a r t i c l e fluence d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h respect t o energy = An(E)/ Aa. = charged p a r t i c l e d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h respect t o Loo = An(L)/Aa = ()/ (dL/dL). electron fluence spectrum which results i f one p a r t i c l e of i n i t i a l energy E is generated p e r u n i t volume.
0

= p a r t i c l e fluence =

AN

41

= t r a n s m i t t e d p a r t i c l e k i n e t i c energy. (E = energy

energy i n m o v i n g t h r o u g h a dis tance AL AE AE

f

E)

= average of d i s t r i b u t i o n of AE's f o r particles of i n c i d e n t energy E. = average energy loss p e r scattering center per u n i t area. 21 26 E
N

10

AE* AE

= energy lost b y a p a r t i c l e of energy i n t r a v e l l i n g a thickness AR. = energy absorbed f r o m a p a r t i c l e of energy i n a s m a l l element of mass Am.

A9.5

Ionization

AEr

= energy absorbed w i t h i n a c y l i n d e r of radius r a b o u t t h e i n t e r a c t i o n site (includes d i s t r i b u t i o n s i n 0 , U q, Q

} f

and 7 ' , Figure 3 ) . JI/ = normalized energy = A E/Mi energy transfer, i.e. energy transfers less t h a n are considered p a r t of the m a i n t r a c k , those greater t h a n A c o n s t i t u t e a separate d e l t a track. Q = energy transferred b y a p a r t i c l e of energy d u r i n g a single tion. Qmax = m a x i m u m possible value of Q. Q' = a n energy transfer greater than A(qi, of A(Qi\ Qz', QZ ). q = a n energy transfer less t h a n
)

23

= e x c i t a t i o n or i o n i z a t i o n levels i n absorber atoms. f = oscillator strengths. I = mean e x c i t a t i o n - i o n i z a t i o n energy for absorber atoms. W = average energy expended per i o n p a i r i n a gas. = density correction d u e t o p o l a r i z a tion.
n

21 21 21

22

= cut-off

A9.6 2,7 L =

Linear Energy Transfer

interac

LA

L i n e a r energy transfer ( o r s t o p p i n g p o w e r ) , of a p a r t i c l e of energy i n m o v i n g dl or Al = dE/dl = E/AI [= dE /dl, 1962 I C R U d e f i n i t i o n ] . = L i n e a r energy transfer w i t h cut-off
L

energy
L100

\AIJA

\/

2,7

()

fluence

spectrum

of

particles

energy E( = An(E) n(Eo)dEo

An(E)/Aa

per u n i t

energy i n t e r v a l ) . d i s t r i b u t i o n i n energy of particles entering . = number dEo, U 7 of particles with initial

0

kinetic energies between Eo a n d E per u n i t v o l u m e . = energy transferred t o a local site.

+ 9 6

linear energy transfer w i t h set a t 100 e V . linear energy transfer w i t h n o cut-off Lea , i.e. a l l transfers of energy u p t o a m a x i m u m possible considered p a r t of t h e m a i n t r a c k = dE/dl. () particle fluence distribution i n L E T = An(L)/Aa where An(L) i s t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n i n L E T of particles entering Aa. L
r

= energy transferred t o p h o t o n s ( 7 1 ,
Y2 , 7 3 )

= A E / ~ where A E is t h e energy deposited w i t h i n a c y l i n d e r of r a d i u s r f r o m t h e i n t e r a c t i o n site a n d i n cludes 0 , U, q, Q', a n d y.

R R

42

A9.

List of Symbols
Page
13

t(L) T(L) IA(L) TA(L)

= = =

distribution cumulative distribution

of

track

length of

with track

L cU/d/

= =

dE/dR,

an approximation for

dE/dl 26 23

respect t o L E T . distribution l e n g t h w i t h respect t o L E T . of t r a c k lengths w i t h distribution of track respect t o L E T w i t h energy cut-off . cumulative lengths w i t h respect t o L E T w i t h

w h e n R is v e r y s m a l l . normalized stopping power [= LET-Averages

/.oo

(l/* ).(dE/dZ)].
2

LT

t r a c k average L E T =

t(L)LdL.

2,8

energy cut-off . tao(L) = distribution of t r a c k lengths w i t h 8 respect t o L E T ( n o c u t - o f f ) .

LA, =
Loo,r =

' U(L)LdL t r a c k average L E T w i t h c u t - o f f .

/ too(L)LdL

/CO

A9.7 A]

Range

= LD =

t r a c k average L E T w i t h n o c u t - o f f . absorbed dose average LET

8 3

constants equation
---

of

particle

range-energy 25 25 absorber 24

d(L)LdL

nj
R R

LA,

J
= /

range m e a n p r o j e c t e d range = thickness t r a n s m i t t i n g 5 0 % of t h e

/oo

dA(L)Ldl absorbed dose

average

L E T with

8 Rcsoa

p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y i n c i d e n t particles, t h e " c o n t i n u o u s slowing d o w n a p proximation" RE range = total track length traversed b y a particle,
0

cut-off .
Loo.D

doo(L)LdL

24

absorbed dose average L E T w i t h n o cut-off.

range of particles of average i n c i d e n t energy E .

0

Rmux LET-Distributions
d(L)

absolute level).

p r o j e c t e d range to an

(reduces 25 24
1%

transmission with 2 2 with

SQ

undetectable

d i s t r i b u t i o n of a b s o r b e d dose respect t o L E T .

7?o

= e x t r a p o l a t e d projected range,

D ( L )

c u m u l a t i v e d i s t r i b u t i o n of a b s o r b e d dose w i t h respect t o L E T . d i s t r i b u t i o n of a b s o r b e d dose

s=

specified projected range, e.g. R csda a p p r o x i m a t e l y .

. to

25 24 25

m e a n p a t h l e n g t h , corresponds

ML)

= extrapolated p a t h length.

respect t o L E T w i t h cut-off energy

= (d/Vd^r
DA(L)

S
A9.8 8,11 Y Microclosimetr v

c u m u l a t i v e d i s t r i b u t i o n of absorbed dose w i t h respect t o L E T w i t h c u t - o f f energy .

doo(L) Dco(L)

d i s t r i b u t i o n of a b s o r b e d dose respect t o L E T ( n o c u t - o f f ) .

with 8

= i n d i v i d u a l e v e n t size. = t h e a m o u n t of energy deposited i n a sphere d i v i d e d b y i t s d i a m e t e r d. = p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n of a l l events i n Y. 19 3 3 local energy d e n s i t y , i n c r e m e n t a l l o c a l energy d e n s i t y , probability distribution of local energy d e n s i t y .

c u m u l a t i v e d i s t r i b u t i o n of absorbed dose w i t h respect t o L E T ( n o c u t - o f f ) v a r i a n c e of t & ( L ) LA,T)> = LA,T(LA,D 11 11

P(F) AZ
P(Z)

13

F i r s t use o r d e f i n i t i o n .

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reference t o a 14 M e V electron beam a n d 10 M e V per nucleon i o n b e a m s . " P h y s . M e d . B i o l . 4 , 148. H O W A R D - F L A N D E R S , P . (1958). " P h y s i c a l a n d c h e m i c a l mechanisms i n the i n j u r y of cells b y i o n i z i n g r a d i a t i o n s , " i n Adv. Biol. Med. Phys. Vol. 6 , Academic DNA Press, N e w Y o r k , p . 553. H U T C H I N S O N , F . (1965). " T h e i n Cellular Radiation Biology, i n a c t i v a t i o n of a n d other biological molecules b y i o n i z i n g r a d i a t i o n , " Williams and W i l k i n s Protection International 1965. ICRP C o m p a n y , B a l t i m o r e , p. 86. I n t e r n a t i o n a l Commission Commission on Radiological of the Protection ( I C R P ) (1966). Recommendations on Radiological

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E n . Agency Tech. R e p o r t 5 8 , I n t . A t o m . E n . Agency, V i e n n a , p. 1 5 5 . LEWIS, H . W . (1952). " R a n g e s t r a g g l i n g of a nonrelativistic charged p a r t i c l e . " Phys. Rev. 8 5 , 2 0 . LINDHARD, J . and SCHARFF, M . ( 1 9 6 0 ) . " R e c e n t devel o p m e n t s i n t h e theor}^ of s t o p p i n g p o w e r . I . P r i n c i p l e s of t h e S t a t i s t i c a l M e t h o d , " i n Penetration Particles in Matter.
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13

$3.00 $2.75 $2.50

* Prices s u b j e c t t o change w i t h o u t n o t i c e . t These r e p o r t s are also a v a i l a b l e f r o m t h e S u p e r i n t e n d e n t of D o c u m e n t s , U . S . G o v e r n m e n t P r i n t i n g Office, W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . 20402, U . S . A . at t h e f o l l o w i n g p r i c e s : N B S H a n d b o o k 85, U . S . $0.70; N B S H a n d b o o k 86, U . S . $0.65; N B S H a n d b o o k 87, U . S . $0.45; N B S H a n d b o o k 88, U . S . $0.40. These G o v e r n m e n t P r i n t i n g Office prices do n o t a p p l y w h e n t h e r e p o r t s are o r d e r e d f r o m t h e I C R U P u b l i c a t i o n s office because t h e I C R U , as a n o n p r o f i t o r g a n i z a t i o n , has no means of m e e t i n g t h e h a n d l i n g costs i n v o l v e d i n d i s t r i b u t i o n of these r e p o r t s f r o m i t s P u b l i c a t i o n s office.

48

ICRU
ICRU Report No.

Reports

Title

Price* ( U . S. Dollars)

14

Radiation

Dosimetry:

X Rays

and Gamma

Rays 0.6 2.50 $2.25 $2,00

with Maximum Photon Energies between and 50 MeV (1969) 1 t h r o u g h 9 copies, each c o p y 10 t h r o u g h 99 copies, each c o p y 15 Cameras

100 or m o r e copies, each c o p y for Image Intensifier Fluorography 1 t h r o u g h 9 copies, each c o p y 10 t h r o u g h 99 copies, each c o p y 100 or m o r e copies, each c o p y Energy Transfer (1970) 1 t h r o u g h 9 copies, each c o p y 10 t h r o u g h 99 copies, each c o p y 100 or m o r e copies, each c o p y

(1969) $2.50 2.25 S2.00 S3.00 $2.75 $2.50

16

Linear

T h e f o l l o w i n g I C R U R e p o r t s were superseded b y subsequent R e p o r t s a n d are no\v o u t of p r i n t :

ICRU Report No.

Title and

Reference**

1 2 3 4 5 6

Discussion on International Units and Standards X-ray Work, B r i t . J . R a d i o l . 23, 64 (1927) International X-ray Unit of Intensity, (new series) 1, 363 (1928) Report of Committee on Standardization urements, R a d i o l o g y 22, 289 (1934) Recommendations of the International

for

B r i t . J . Radiol. of X-ray Committee Measfor for

Radiological Units, R a d i o l o g y 23, 580 (1934) Recommendations of the International Committee

Radiological Units, R a d i o l o g y 29, 634 (1937) Report of International Commission on Radiological Protection and International Commission on Radiological Units, N a t i o n a l B u r e a u of S t a n d a r d s H a n d b o o k 47 ( U . S . G o v e r n m e n t P r i n t i n g Office, W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . , 1951) Recommendations of the International Commission for Radiological Units, R a d i o l o g y 62, 106 (1954) Report of the International Commission on Radiological Units and Measurements (ICRU) 1956, N a t i o n a l B u r e a u of S t a n d a r d s H a n d b o o k 62 ( U . S . G o v e r n m e n t P r i n t i n g Office, W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . , 1957) Report of the International Commission on Radiological Units and Measurements (ICRU) 1959, N a t i o n a l B u r e a u of Standards H a n d b o o k 78 ( U . S . G o v e r n m e n t P r i n t i n g Office, W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . , 1961) Radiation Quantities and Units, N a t i o n a l B u r e a u of S t a n d a r d s H a n d b o o k 84 ( U . S . G o v e r n m e n t P r i n t i n g Office, W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . , 1962)

7 8

10a

* Prices s u b j e c t to change w i t h o u t notice. ** References g i v e n are i n E n g l i s h . M a n y of t h e R e p o r t s were also p u b l i s h e d i n o t h e r languages.

Index
A b s o r b e d dose, 1, 2, 4, 9, 16, 40 Average of d i s t r i b u t i o n i n L E T , 8 , 1 4 , 1 7 , 1 8 , 1 9 , 42 C a l c u l a t i o n s of d i s t r i b u t i o n s i n L E T f o r w a t e r , 8-14 D i s t r i b u t i o n i n L E T , 2, 8-14, 16,17, 18 19, 20, 40, 42 M e a n i n a c t i v a t i o n (Z> ), 37, 38, 40 A b s o r b e r t h i c k n e s s , 6, 7, 18, 24, 25, 26 A t t e n u a t i o n , 25
0

B i o l o g i c a l effect, 1, 15, 16, 18, 19, 37, 38, 39 B o r n a p p r o x i m a t i o n , 22 B r e m s s t r a h l u n g , 10, 22 C a v i t y i o n i z a t i o n , t h e o r y , 10 Charge exchange, 32, 33 C h e m i c a l d o s i m e t r y , 1, 37, 39 C h e m i c a l y i e l d , 1, 39 Chromosome a b e r r a t i o n s , 37, 38 C l o u d chamber, 18, 24, 25, 35, 37 C l u s t e r , of ions, 4, 5, 6, 35, 37 f r e q u e n c y , 35 o v e r l a p , 35 C o l l i s i o n , cross-section, 5, 2 1 , 35, 40 p r o b a b i l i t y , 2 1 , 40 t h e o r y , classical, 5 C o l u m n a r r e c o m b i n a t i o n , 17 C o m p e n s a t i o n (of energy loss), 7 Compton scattering, 3 Concepts of L E T , 6, 17, 18, 34, 41 C o n t i n u o u s s l o w i n g d o w n a p p r o x i m a t i o n (csda), 9, 10 c a l c u l a t i o n s , 9, 10 csda m o d e l , 10 csda range ( R d a ) , 24, 28, 29, 42 Cross section, d i f f e r e n t i a l , 2 1 , 40 C u m u l a t i v e d i s t r i b u t i o n s (of absorbed dose i n L E T ) , 11, 12, 13, 40 C u t - o f f , energy, 2, 3, 6, 8, 9, 10, 1 1 , 14, 18, 30, 3 1 , 32, 33, 39, 41 distance or range, 2, 6, 7, 18, 30, 40
c s

E n e r g y p e r c o l l i s i o n ( e l e c t r o n s ) , 6, 18, 41 E n e r g y t r a n s f e r (Q), 5, 7, 22, 23, 41 Equilibrium, radiation, 9 E v e n t size, i n d i v i d u a l ( F ) , 3, 19, 42 E x c i t a t i o n e n e r g y levels (E ) 2 1 , 22, 36, 41 E x c i t a t i o n e n e r g y (mean) / , 2 1 , 36, 41 elements a n d c o m p o u n d s , 36 r e l a t i o n t o Z, 36 E x c i t a t i o n v s . i o n i z a t i o n , 2, 3, 4, 7, 10, 22
n t

F l u e n c e d i s t r i b u t i o n i n energy, 8, 10, 18, 41 F e r r o u s - f e r r i c ( F r i c k e ) d o s i m e t e r , 1, 15, 37, 39 H e a v y c h a r g e d p a r t i c l e s or i o n s , 5, 14 effects, 38, 39 h i g h e n e r g y , 31 l o w energ}', 33 H i t , s i n g l e , 37 m u l t i p l e , 38 I o n c l u s t e r , 4, 5, 6, 35, 37 I o n i z a t i o n c h a m b e r , 17, 25 I n a c t i v a t i o n , of b a c t e r i a a n d y e a s t , 15, 38, 39 e n z y m e s , 15, 37, 39 m a m m a l i a n cells, 15, 38, 39 t r a n s f o r m i n g D N A , 15 v i r u s e s , 15, 37 I n a c t i v a t i o n cross s e c t i o n , 38, 39, 40 I n a c t i v a t i o n , m e a n dose, 37, 38, 40 I n d i r e c t a c t i o n , 37 I n t e r a c t i o n of r a d i a t i o n w i t h m a t t e r , 1, 3, 4, 2 1 , 22, 23 L i n d h a r d - S c h a r f f r e l a t i o n , 33 L i n e a r energ}^ t r a n s f e r , L E T a p p l i c a t i o n s , 15 c o n c e p t s , 6, 17, 18, 34, 41 d e f i n i t i o n , 2, 6, 41 l i m i t a t i o n s , 6, 17, 34 m e a s u r e m e n t , 26 L i n e a r e n e r g y t r a n s f e r d i s t r i b u t i o n s , 2, 3, 8-14, 18, 20, 42 absorbed dose average, 3, 8, 9 , 1 4 , 1 6 , 1 7 , 1 8 , 1 9 , 20, 42 at a d e p t h , 14 averages, 2, 3, 8, 17, 18, 19, 20, 42 i n w a t e r , 11-13, 42 m e a s u r e m e n t , 34 t r a c k average, 3, 8, 14, 18, 19, 42 L i n e a r s t o p p i n g power, 2, 7, 8, 22 L o c a l e n e r g y d e n s i t y (Z), 3, 19, 42 i n c r e m e n t a l ( ) , 3, 19, 42 L o c a l e n e r g y t r a n s f e r , 2, 6, 8, 22 M a s s s t o p p i n g power, 22-24, 27-33 M e a n l i n e a r i o n d e n s i t y , 2, 3 Microdosimeter, 8 M i c r o d o s i m e t r y , 3, 19, 42

D e l t a t r a c k s (or r a y s ) , 2, 4, 5, 6, 9 , 1 0 , 1 4 , 18,19, 37 distribution, 5 D e n s i t y c o r r e c t i o n (for p o l a r i z a t i o n ) , 22, 28, 3 1 , 41 D e t e c t o r s , 18, 24, 25, 26, 28, 34, 35 D i r e c t a c t i o n , 37 D i s t a n c e (or range) cut-off, 2, 6, 7, 18, 30, 40 Dose e q u i v a l e n t , 15, 16, 17, 40 E l e c t r o n fluence s p e c t r u m , 2, 10, 41 E l e c t r o n s , l o w energ} , 8, 11-14, 30 E n e r g y cut-off ( ) , 2, 3, 6, 8, 9 , 1 0 , 1 1 , 1 4 , 1 8 , 30, 3 1 , 32, 33, 41 Energy density, 3 i n c r e m e n t a l l o c a l , 3, 19, 42 l o c a l , 3, 19, 42 E n e r g y loss, 2, 3, 6, 7, 18, 19, 2 1 , 24, 27, 28, 29, 30, 3 1 , 41 s p e c t r u m , for electrons, 5, 6, 41
r

Index
M i x e d r a d i a t i o n field, 16, 19 M o d e l s of t r a c k s t r u c t u r e , M o n o e n e r g e t i c charged p a r t i c l e s , 18 N e u t r o n s , 4, 13, 14, 16, 17, 34 N u c l e a r i n t e r a c t i o n s , 3, 23, 3 1 , 33 O s c i l l a t o r s t r e n g t h ( / ) , 2 1 , 36, 41
n

R e a d u , 24,

29,

42

specified p r o j e c t e d range, 25, 42 R a n g e E n e r g y r e l a t i o n s , 25, 29, 30, 42 R e c o i l angle, 5, 6 R e c o i l p a r t i c l e s , 5, 22 R e l a t i v e B i o l o g i c a l Effectiveness ( R B E ) , 4, 15, 38 R B E v s . L E T , 15, 16, 38 R e s t r i c t e d s t o p p i n g p o w e r , 7, 8, 9, 3 1 , 41 Second m o m e n t (of d i s t r i b u t i o n ) , 14 Secondary electrons, 6, 10, 18 Shell c o r r e c t i o n s , 22, 36 S p a t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n , 1, 4 Step-wise m e t h o d (of c a l c u l a t i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n s ) , 10 S t o c h a s t i c features, 1, 18, 19, 34 S t o p p i n g p o w e r , 1, 2 1 , 24, 41 electrons, 22 h e a v y p a r t i c l e s , 22 measurement, 26 r e s t r i c t e d , 7, 8, 9, 3 1 , 41 t h e o r e t i c a l and e x p e r i m e n t a l values, electrons, 27 p r o t o n , etc., 3 1 , 32 S t r a g g l i n g (range), 24 ( e n e r g y ) , 24 S u r v i v a l curves, e x p o n e n t i a l , 37 m u l t i - h i t or t a r g e t , 38 T a r g e t r e g i o n , 1, 18, 37, 38 T a r g e t t h e o r y , 18, 37 m u l t i p l e i o n i z a t i o n s , 38 s i m p l e , 37 Tissue e q u i v a l e n t gas, 34 c o u n t e r , 34 i o n c h a m b e r , 17 p l a s t i c , 34 T r a c k average L E T , 2, 8, 14, 18, 19, 37, 42 T r a c k " c o r e " , 5, 14 T r a c k l e n g t h , 2, 8, 18, 19, 24, 40 T r a c k segment m e t h o d , 14, 15, 18, 38 T r a n s i t i o n p r o b a b i l i t i e s , 21 T r a n s m i t t e d b e a m energy, 25 V a r i a n c e ( ) of d i s t r i b u t i o n , 14
2

Pair production, 3 P a t h l e n g t h , 24, 34, 42 d i s t r i b u t i o n , 34 m e a n , 24 P a r t i c l e fluence, 4, 8, 9, 10, 11, 41 s p e c t r u m , 4, 8, 11, 41 P h o t o e l e c t r i c effect, 3 P o l a r i z a t i o n effect, 22, 41 P o s i t r o n , s t o p p i n g p o w e r , 30 P r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n 3, 19, 42 P r o p o r t i o n a l c o u n t e r , 17, 34 P r o p o r t i o n a l i o n i z a t i o n c h a m b e r , 34 Pulse h e i g h t s p e c t r u m , 17, 34, 40 Q u a l i t y f a c t o r , 16, 17, 18, 20, 40 R a d i a t i o n b i o l o g y , 1 , 15, 16, 34, 37, 38, 39 R a d i a t i o n effectiveness, 31 R a d i a t i o n hazards, 16, 17 R a d i a t i o n p r o t e c t i o n , 1, 15, 16, 17, 20 R a d i a t i o n q u a l i t y , 1 , 3, 14, 18, 19, 20, 34, 38 (methods other t h a n L E T ) , 3, 19, 42 R a d i a t i o n , u n k n o w n c o m p o s i t i o n , 17 R a d i a t i v e loss, 3, 22, 32 R a n g e . 2, 5, 24 absolute p r o j e c t e d range, 25, 42 d a t a , electrons, 28-32 d a t a , p r o t o n s , 29, 32 d e f i n i t i o n s , 24-25 e x t r a p o l a t e d p a t h l e n g t h , 25, 42 e x t r a p o l a t e d p r o j e c t e d range, 24, 28, 42 mean p a t h l e n g t h , 24, 42 mean p r o j e c t e d range, 24, 42 measurement, 24-25 n o r m a l i z e d range, 32

Y c o n c e p t , 3, 19, 42 d i s t r i b u t i o n s 3, 19, 42