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We will consider round pipe flow, which is completely filled with the fluid.
The flow of a fluid in a pipe may be laminar flow or it may be turbulent flow. Osborne Reynolds experiment --typical dye streaks
For pipe flow the most important dimensionless parameter is the Reynolds number, Re, the rate of the inertia to viscous effect in the flow.
Re =
VD
A boundary layer in which viscous effect are important is produced along the pipe wall such that the initial velocity profile changes with distance along the pipe.
Entrance length
z
e.g.
Re = 1.0 Re = 2000
l e = 0.6 D l e = 120 D
For practical engineering problems 10 4 < Re < 105 so that 20 D < l e < 30 D
z
Calculation of the velocity profile and pressure distribution within the entrance region is quite complex.
Fully developed steady flow in a constant diameter pipe may be driven by gravity and/or pressure force. For horizontal pipe flow, gravity has no effect except for a hydrostatic pressure variation across the pipe, that is usually negligible. Viscous effects provide the restraining force that exactly balances the pressure force, allowing the fluid to flow through the pipe with no acceleration. In non-fully developed flow, the fluid accelerates or decelerates as it flows, therefore there is a balance between pressure, viscous and inertia (acceleration) flow.
The increased pressure drop in the entrance region result from two reasons: 1. flow acceleration, 2. increased wall shear stress. 1. Flow acceleration Integral momentum balance for the control volume below leads to 4 Increased momentum flow & avg mv & avg P0 Ax -sec P2 Ax -sec w dAw = mv or flow acceleration Aw 3
Pressure distribution
z
Nature of flow
z
The nature of the pipe flow is strongly dependent on whether the flow is laminar or turbulent, which is a direct consequence of the differences in the nature of the shear stress. Flow rate as a function of pressure drop in a given horizontal pipe.
p D V= 32 l
Consider a fully developed flow in long straight, constant diameter sections of a pipe. There are numerous ways to derive important results pertaining to fully developed laminar flow.
( p1 ) r 2 ( p1 p ) r 2 ( ) 2 rl = 0
p 2 = r l
Since neither p nor l are functions of the radial coordinate, r , it follows that 2 r must also be independent of r .
i.e.,
= Cr 2 w
C= where C is a constant where w is the wall shear stress
D 2 r = w D
Thus the pressure drop and wall shear stress are related by, 4l w
p = D
A small shear stress can produce a large pressure difference if the pipe is relatively long l >> 1
D
The above analysis is valid for both laminar and turbulent flow. To proceed further we must determine the relationship between shear stress and velocity. For laminar Newtonian flow,
du For pipe flow = dr ( > 0 ) p p 2 du Then = , = r l r dr 2 l
p du = 2 l rdr p 2 u = where C1 is a constant r + C1 , 2 l D pD 2 B.C.: u = 0., r = , so that C1 = 2 16 l
u = y
u ( r )2 rdr = 2 Vc
r 2 1 rdr R
R 2Vc
2
Average velocity
Q ~ D 4 , Q ~ 4 D 3 D Q 4 D = Q D
Thus instead of
p l sin 2 = l r and
p 2 = l r
p l sin ) D 2 ( , V=
u r V = 0, r u r 2 p + gk = V
z
p 1 u + g sin = r x r r r f ( x ) = g ( r ) = constant,
dimensionless groups
If we assume that the pressure drop is directly proportional to the pipe length.
D p C l = V D or , p C V p D 2 = V= 2 l l C D 4C ) p D 4
( Q = AV =
D 4 p = 128 l
l V 2 i.e., p = f D 2
(8.19)
(8.20)
Consider the energy equation for incompressible, steady flow between flow locations.
p1
z
V12 p2 V22 + 1 + z1 = + 2 + z2 + h2 2g 2g
1 = 2 , V1 = V2
p l sin 2 = l r p l sin = 2 l r
4l w , hL = D
(Recall p1 = p2 + p , z2 z1 = l sin )
Which indicates that it is the shear stress at the wall ( which is directly related to the viscosity and the shear stress throughout the fluid ) that is responsible for the head loss.
Turbulent pipe flow is actually more likely to occur than laminar flow in practical situation. Consider flow in a pipe
Turbulent processes and heat and mass transfer processes are considerably enhanced in turbulent flow compared to laminar flow. Mix a cup of coffee (turbulent flow) Mix two colors of a viscous paint (laminar flow)
V8.4 Stirring color into paint V8.5 Laminar and turbulent mixing V8.7 Turbulence in a bowl
Turbulent flow is random and chaotic and can only be characterized using stately terms.
u = u ( x, y , z , t )
Mean part
time average
1 u= T
t0 + T
t0
u ( x, y , z , t ) dt
where T is longer than the period of the longest fluctuations, but is shorter than any unsteadiness of the average velocity.
Turbulence intensity
z
Fluctuating part
u = u + u or u = u u t0 + T 1 t0 + T 1 t0 + T u = ( u u ) dt = u dt u dt t0 t0 T t0 T 1 = (Tu Tu ) = 0 T 1 t0 +T 2 2 u = u dt > 0 T t0
Turbulence intensity
1 u 2 T I= = u
t0 + T
t0
u 2 dt u
12
u p u u u 2 + u + u w = + gx + x x x y y z z p +u + +w u + 2 + w = + gy + x y z y x x y y t z z w w w w w p w w 2 +u + +w = + + + + g u w w w z x y z z x x y y t z z u u u u +u + +w x y z t
The shear stress for turbulent flow can not be evaluated as for laminar flow, i.e.,
u t y
z
Total stress
z
Total stress
=
du u = lam + turb dy
u = = 0 , u = 0
u ( w, K) --Reynolds stresses
z
Typically the value of turb is 100 to 1000 times greater than lam in the outer region, while the converse is true in the in the viscous sublayer. The viscous sublayer is usually a very thin layer. (cf. Ex. 8.4)
An alternate way of expressing turbulent shear stress
turb =
du dy
where : eddy viscosity which is a function of both the fluid and flow conditions.
z
turb
du = l dy
2 m
lm = ?
of the wall
u yu * = u*
u yu * = 2.5 ln + 5.0 u*
friction velocity
is often used
2 =
w / =
yu *
V8.8 Laminar to turbulent flow from a pipe V8.9 Laminar/turbulent velocity profiles
X next = rX (1 X )
r=3
z z
Most turbulent pipe flow analyses are based on experimental data and semi-empirical formulas. hL=hLmajor+hLminor Major losses : loss associated with the straight portion of the pipe p = F (V , D, l, , , ) pressure drop and head loss in a pipe
z
For laminar flow the pressure drop is found to be independent of the roughness of the pipe. For turbulent flow, the pressure drop is expected to be a function of the roughness.
Pressure drop
z
For turbulent flow, the pressure drop is expected to be a function of the roughness.
We will consider
k r = 73 = 4 p % VD , l , = 2 1 V D D 2
0 D 0.05
pD Re , = 2 1 V D l 2
friction factor
Friction coefficient
z
independent of
f = Re , D
Moody chart
f =
64 Re
Energy Equation
p1 V12 p2 V22 + 1 + z1 = + 2 + z2 + hL 2g 2g
equation valid for fully developed steady incompressible pipe flow horizontal or on a hill.
In general with
l V 2 p1 p2 = ( z2 z1 ) + hL = ( z2 z1 ) + f D 2
V1 = V2
Part of the pressure change is due to the elevation change and part is due to the heat loss associated with friction effects.
z
Major losses : loss associated with the straight portion of the pipe Minor losses : loss associated with valves, bends, tees,..
Minor losses
The head loss information for essentially all components is given in dimensionless form and based on experimental data. loss coefficient
KL =
hL p = 2 1 V V 2 2g 2
2 so that p = K L 1 V 2
or V2 hL = K L 2g K L = ( geometry, Re )
V 2
Equivalent length
l eq V 2 V2 hL = K L = f 2g D 2g K D or l eq = L f
loss coefficients An obvious way to reduce loss is to round the entrance region.
Pressure loss
z
The majority of the loss is due to inertia effects that are eventually dissipated by the shear stresses within the fluid. Only a small portion of the loss is due to the wall shear stress within the entrance region.
Loss coefficient
z
Loss coefficients
Loss coefficient
z
Loss coefficients
Loss coefficient
z
Loss coefficients
Loss coefficient
z
pa = pb = pc = p1 A2 = A3
V8.11 Separated flow in a diffuser
hL A1 = 1 KL = 2 V1 2 g A2
Loss coefficient
Loss coefficient
Loss coefficient
f =
C Re h
where Re h =
VDh 4A , Dh = P
Dh
l V2 , hL = f Dh 2 g
relative roughness,
Noncircular Conduits
z z
C l V2 f = , hL = f , relative roughness, Re h Dh 2 g Dh