Medieval India

Delhi Sultanate Feudalism in Early Medieval India Mughal Empire Composite culture in Medieval India Art and Architectural in Medieval India Architecture under the Sultanate

Medieval India

The period from the 8th to 12th century in political life in India is particularly dominated by the presence of large number of states. The bigger ones tried to establish their supremacy in northern India and the Deccan. The main contenders in this struggle for supremacy were the Pratiharas, the Palas and the Rashtrakutas. In the south the most powerful kingdom to emerge during this period was that of the Cholas. The Cholas brought about the political unification of large parts of the country but the general political picture was that of fragmentation particularly in northern India. It was in this period that India's contact with the new religion of Islam began. The contacts began late in the 7th century through the Arab traders. Later in the early 8th century the Arabs conquered Sind. In the 10th century the Turks emerged as a powerful force in Central and West Asia and carved out kingdoms for themselves. They conquered Persia but their lives were richly influenced by Persian culture and tradition. The Turks first invaded India during the late 10th and early 11th century and Punjab came under Turkish rule. Another series of Turkish invasions in the late 12th and early 13th century led to the establishment of the Sultanate of Delhi. Within a few centauries after the rise of Islam in Arabia it became the second most popular religion in India with followers in every part of the country. The establishment of the Sultanate marked the beginning of a new phase in the history of medieval India. Politically it led to the unification of northern India and parts of the Deccan for almost a century. Its rulers almost from the time of the establishment of the Sultanate succeeded in separating it from the country from which they had originally come. The sultanate disintegrated towards the end of the 14th century leading to the emergence of a number of kingdoms in different parts of the country. Some of these like

Bahmani and Vijaynagar kingdoms became very powerful. In society new social groups -the Turks, the Persians, the Mongols and the Afghans besides the Arabs who had settled in India. There were important changes in economic life also. Trade and crafts received a stimulus and many new towns arose as centres of administration, trade and crafts. New elements of technology were also introduced during this period.

Feudalism in Early Medieval India

Administration Society Economy

Delhi Sultanate

The Slave Dynasty Khalji Dynasty Tughlaq Dynasty The Saiyyid Dynasty Lodhi Dynasty Administration of the Sultanate

Literature in Medieval Period

Importance of Sher Shah Suri and Sur Dynasty

Composite culture in Medieval India

Art and Architectural in Medieval India

Architecture under the Sultanate

1. Mughal Architecture 2. Mughal Painting 3. Music in Medieval India

Mughal Empire

Mughals Rajput policy vs Afghan policy Babur Humayun Akbar Jahangir Shah Jahan Aurangzeb Mansabdari System in Mughal Empire Land Revenue System in Mughal Empire Central Administration in Mughal Empire Provincial Administration of Mughal Empire Local Administration Aurangzebs Deccan Policy Economy in Mughal Empire Mughal Coinage Literature in Mughal Empire Education under the Mughals Mughal Society Mughal Army Decline of Mughal Empire Causes of decline of Mughal Empire

Short Question and Answers

Question and Answers

Feudalism in Early Medieval India

Administration Society Economy Feudalism became an important feature of the political system of North India between 750 and 1200 AD. This was because the authority of the rulers had been limited in many ways. The ministers were appointed on the hereditary basis and became all powerful. There were numerous feudal chiefs who had ties with ruling class. In the local and central govt these feudal chiefs had special privileges and powers which no ruler could ignore. This also led to the limited authority of the kings. The rulers were under the obligation to rule according to holy Sastras and Smirtis could not enact or amend the laws at will. Thus rulers of this period were basically feudal lords with limited overall power. The basis of the sovereignty during this period was a mixture of Divine Right theory and contract theory. On the one hand the authors of treaties on polity regarded the ruler as an incarnation of Lord Vishnu. On the other hand they also held that it the people who conferred sovereignty on the ruler. So the natural duty of the ruler was to rule in the interests of the people while the duty of the people was to be loyal to him. A king was usually succeeded by his elder son. If a king dies without an heir the kingdom passed to the head of next in kin to the ruling dynasty. There was little scope for disputed succession in this period. The powers of the king

were limited in practice due to privileges and prerogatives of the feudal lords. Since he had the theoretical ownership of all the lands, the feudal lords needed his recognition but then this prerogative of the kings was limited as the feudal lords had hereditary rights. The king was helped in the administration by a council of ministers besides crown prince. The chief priest and the court astrologer were recruited from Brahmin while all over posts were held by feudal lords. They usually belonged to Kshatriya caste.Sudras or lower caste had no place in the political set up of the king.

Administration

The kingdom was divided into a central region directly ruled by the king and many areas or fiefs were governed by feudal lords. The central region was divided into bhuktis or rashtras which were under viceroys, vishayas under vishayapatis and finally villages under grama patis. The village selfgovernment weakened during this period due to the domination of the feudal chiefs while at the same time it was best under the Cholas in the south India. The army consisted of royal retainers or the personal army of the king and the contingents supplied by feudal lords. This was the main reason for the lack of unity in the armies of the rulers of this period. The military service became the monopoly of Rajputs. Taxation during this period was heavier compared to earlier times. This was mainly due to heavy expenditure over the royal household and the court. There was also fighting all around for suzerainty. The burden was laid on the general public. There was no clear instructions for maintain justice. In the Bhuktis there was a dandanayaka who was in charge of justice, police and prison. There is no mention of any other officer. It is likely that most of the cases were settled by caste and village panchayats. Some feudal chiefs were government officers who were increasingly paid not in cash but by assigning to them revenue-bearing villages. Others were defeated kings and their supporters who continued to enjoy the revenues of limited areas. Some were tribal chiefs.Some of them were village chiefs who had dominated the entire region.

There was a definite hierarchy among these chiefs. They constantly fought against each other for supremacy.

Society

The caste system formed the basis of the society as in earlier periods but now the kshatriyas and the Brahmins were given more privileges while more and more social and religious disabilities were placed on the sudras and other lower castes. A large number of sub castes such as potters, weavers, goldsmiths, musicians etc proliferated. They were classified as jatis now. Most of the workers were classified as untouchables. Women continued to be denied the right to education. The age of marriage for girls was further lowered. They were kept in seclusion and their lives were regulated by the male relations fathers, brothers and husbands. The practice of sati seems to have spread widely and was made even obligatory at some places. The custom of sati was widespread in the higher castes. The attitude of higher classes became very rigid. They tended to isolate themselves from all scientific thought. Buddhism almost disappeared from the land of its origin. There was a marked revival and expansion of Hindusim.There was a growing popularity of Shiva and Vishnu cults. A number of popular movements arose around the worship of these gods. In the eastern India, a new form of worship arose. This was the worship of Sakti or female creator of the universe.

Economy

A very important development of the period was the rise of a self-sufficient village economy where production was according to the local requirements with little attempts at producing a surplus to be used for trade or exchange. This existing system led to accepting the standard of minimum production since the incentive to improve production was absent. As a result pressure on peasantry was increased and production stayed at a subsistence level only. The subsistence economy of the village led to decline in trade. Trade was further hampered by the emergence of wide range of local weights and measures making long distance trade more difficult. The unstable political

conditions and internal fighting in India only helped this process of decline in trade. This decline in trade affected the growth of towns. In coastal areas and Bengal towns however prospered because they continued to trade with West Asia and South East Asia. The only prosperous class in north India during this period was feudal lords. But the surplus wealth was not invested in trade or craft production. It was on the other hand used for conspicuous consumption. The huge amounts were given to temples also thus attracting outsiders.

Delhi Sultanate

The Slave Dynasty Khalji Dynasty Tughlaq Dynasty The Saiyyid Dynasty Lodhi Dynasty Administration of the Sultanate

The Slave Dynasty

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Qutub-ud-din Aibek Iltutmish Raziya Balban Rulers of the Sultanate Period

Qutub-ud-din Aibek

Qutub-ud-din Aibek laid the foundation of a new dynasty called the slave dynasty in 1206 AD. He established himself as he sultan of Delhi at Lahore. He strengthened his position through matrimonial alliances with his rivals. He gave his daughter to Iltutmish the foremost of his slaves.

Iltutmish

After Qutub-ud-din Aibek his son Aram Shah succeeded the throne. He was not able to display the skill of conquests and administration shone by his forerunners. His rule was over thrown by Iltutmish with the support of the

nobles. A battle followed in which Aram Shah was defeated and killed. In 1211 AD Iltutmish came to the throne. He was also known as Shamsuddin. He spent his days in retrieving the lost territories of Qutub-ud-din Aibek and also added Malwa and Sind. During the reign of Iltutmish he fought against the rival slave chiefs Yildiz and Qabacha. At the battlefield of Tarain Yildiz was defeated. Iltutmish also faced danger from the Mongols led by Chingiz Khan. In his diplomatic decision he avoided the conflict with the mighty Mongol by preventing Jalal-ud-din the ruler of Khawarism from coming to India. Another major threat to the power of Iltutmish was the independent Rajput rulers who in spite of their rivalry could pose a serious danger to the Sultanat. In 1226 AD he attacked Ranthambor and Mansor. He also occupied Ajmer, Jalor, Nagor. In 1229 Gwalior was occupied and the fort of Kalinjar was plundered. Kannauj, Benaras and Badaun were under his dominion. In the year 1229AD the Caliph of Baghdad recognized him as Sultan. He brought order in Rohilkhand. He suppressed the revolt of Tughril Khan, the governor of Bengal. Iltutmish was the greatest ruler of 13th century India and a wise statesman. He was generous to talented people who willingly became the pillars of the central administration.

Raziya

Raziya came to throne by overthrowing her brother Rukn-ud-din. After elevating many Tajiks to high positions Raziya appointed Jamal-ud-din Yaqut an Ethiopian slave as superintendent of the royal horses which aroused resentment in a majority of the already disgruntled Turkish nobles. Moreover sultana began to appear unveiled in public. Though the people of Delhi supported her, hostility mounted among the iqtadars. In 1239-40 she crushed some of the rebellious iqtadars but one of them Altunia killed Yakut and took Raziya prisoner. In the meanwhile Iltutmish's third son Bahram was put on the throne by the powerful Turkish nobles. Raziya married Altunia and their combined efforts to capture Delhi failed. They were killed during an attack on their convoy. The fall of Raziya made the clique of Turkish nobles dominant in the court and they started a scramble for supremacy. Raziya's successor Bahram Shah was weak and incompetent ruler and was over thrown by the nobles after a brief reign of two years. He was succeeded by Alauddin Masud Shah who also met the same fate of Bahram Shah. In 1246 Nasir-ud-din Mahmud the grandson of Iltutmish ascended the throne. He owed his throne to the

Turkish aristocracy and the latter was bound to have tremendous influence in the administration. He places all his powers in the hands of his prime minister Balban. Balban married off his daughter to Sultan and was made Naiib-i-Mamlakat with the title of Ulugh Khan. Balban became the defacto ruler of the Sultanate. In 1266 Nasiruddin Mahmud died.

Balban

Balban had full control over sovereignty sat on the throne of Delhi in 1266 and he adopted the name of Ghiyasuddin Balban. With his accession the line of rulers of the family of Iltutmish ended. The most serious problem which he faced soon after his succession was the restoration of law and order in Delhi and other parts of his kingdom. Balban in his attempt to curtail the power of the nobility increased the power and prestige of the Sultan. For this purpose he introduced Persian ceremonies and etiquettes in his court and allowed no manner of levity there. He was a thorough aristocrat and he never gave office to any one except to well born men. He impressed upon the people that kingship was the vice regency of God on earth and in its dignity it was next only to prophethood. The king was the shadow of God and was the repository of divine guidance and radiance. Having consolidated his authority Balban addressed himself to the task of maintaining peace and order with his characteristic vigour. He realized that a strong army was essentially necessary to cope with the internal troubles and external dangers. Hence he reorganized his army and increased his effiency. Additional officers were appointed with higher emoluments. Alban did not try to extend his empire although he had a powerful army. He instead concentrated on consolidating the territory already in possession. He suppressed the revolts in the Doab and Oudh and tracked down recalcitrant elements in the region of Rohilkhand. Mughals invaded again in 1279 and 1285 but was defeated and driven away. In 1286 the Mongols reappeared and this time Prince Muhammad was killed. Balban could never recover from the tragedy and died in 1286

Rulers of the Sultanate Period

Slave Dynasty AD 1. Qutub-ud-din Aibak 1206-1210 2. Iltutmish 1210-1236

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Raziya Sultan 1236-1239 Bahram Shah 1240-1242 Ala-ud-din Masud 1242-1246 Nasiruddin Mahmud 1246-1266 Balban 1266-1285 Kaikubad 1286-1290

Khalji Dynasty
1. 2. 3. 4. Jalaluddin Firuz Khalji Alauddin Khalji Qutubuddin Mubarak Shah Khalji Ruler of the Khalji Dynasty

Jalaluddin Firuz Khilji

Jalaluddin Firuz Khilji was the founder of the Khilji dynasty. He came to power after the overthrow of slave dynasty. Their ascendancy is known as Khilji imperialism because with the accession of Jalaluddin on the throne of Delhi, the supremacy of the Turks ended in India. He expanded the boundaries of his empire besides his achievements include suppression of the revolt of Malik Chhaju with the governor of Oudh. He suppressed the thuggees a band of robbers and send them off peacefully to Bengal. He adopted conciliatory policy towards the Mongols. He allowed some of the Mongols to settle in India. It was during the conquest of Bhilsa that Alauddin the nephew of Jalaluddin started realising the dream of being sultan. In 1292 AD Alauddin led an expedition to Devagiri hearing of its wealth. Devagiri was forced to pay a huge war indemnity. This helped Alauddin in buying the nobles and pleasing the soldiers who were dissatisfied by the rule of Jalaluddin. Alauddin than hatched a conspiracy and got Sultan Jalaludin killed and proclaimed himself as the sultan.

Alauddin Khilji
In 1296 Alauddin became the sultan after Malika Jan the widow of Jalaluddin and her younger son Qadir Khan left Delhi. He also exterminated the old Balbani and Jalali nobles. The reign of Alauddin Khilji marks the zenith of the power of the Delhi Sultanate. In 1297 he set off for conquering Gujarat. He sent an expedition under Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan to Gujarat. On the way Ulugh Khan conquered Jaisalmer. During the plunder of the rich port of Cambay Alauddin's commander Nusrat Khan acquired a Hindu turned Muslim slave Kafur who later on rose to become a great military general and the Malik Naib of Alauddin. After the conquest of Gujarat Alauddin sent an expedition under Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan to Ranthambhore. However they were beaten by the Rajputs and Nusrat Khan died. Alauddin went to Ranthambhor and annexed it in 1301. The next expedition was sent to Mewar and after the siege of 8 months he captured Chittor in 1303. The government of Chittor was put in the hands of Khizr Khan, the eldest son of Alauddin. Chittor was renamed as Khizrabad after the name of Khizr Khan. In 1305 Alauddin sent Ain-ul-Mulk Multani for the conquest of Malwa which was placed under the governorship of the latter. By the end of 1305 the whole of Northern India fell into the hands of Alauddin and he directed his attention to the conquest of Deccan. Between 1307 and 1312 he began the southward expansion of his empire. He invaded Devagiri in 1306-07 AD. The immediate cause for this was unduly long delay in sending the annual tribute. In 1309 the Kakatiya kingdom was attacked and its ruler Pratap Rudra Deva accepted the suzerainty of Delhi and surrendered vast treasures. The next expedition was against Vir Ballala III the Hoysala ruler in 1311. His capital Dwarsamudra was captured. The whole of Deccan was forced to acknowledge the supremacy of Alauddin. His motives were to secure the immense wealth and to force the southern states to accept the suzerainty of the Sultanate. He had to face more than dozen invasions. These invasions started from the end of 1296 and continued upto 1308.The Mongols threatened not only Punjab,Multan and Sindh but even Delhi and the Ganga-Yamuna Doab. This grave crisis compelled him to take strong measures for the protection of the northwest frontier. The 20 years of his rule came to an end with his death on 2nd January 1316 AD.

Qutubuddin Mubarak Shah Khalji

A young son of the Sultan was placed on the throne and Malik Kafur acted as the regent. Malik Kafur killed other members of the Allauddin's family but he was murdered and Mubarak Khan the third son became the regent. He imprisoned Sahibuddin and ascended the throne as Qutub uddin Mubarak in the year 1316. He tried to win the good will of the people. He liberalized Alauddin's rigorous administrative policies and repealed economic regulations. All prisoners were released and harsh regulations were cancelled. The lands which were confiscated were given back to their legitimate owners. Taxes were lowered. He was under the influence of youth called Hassan who later was called Khusru Khan who conspired to kill him. Thus Khalji dynasty came to an end. Khusro tried to strike a reign of terror to control the nobles. This was resented by the nobles particularly Ghazi Malik who captured and beheaded the sultan. He ascended the throne under the title of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq Shah.

Ruler of the Khalji Dynasty

Ruler of the Khalji Dynasty AD 1. Jalaluddin Firuz Khalji 1290-1296 2. Alauddin Khalji 1296-1316 3. Qutubuddin Mubarak 1316-1320

Tughlaq Dynasty
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq Mohammad Bin Tughlaq Firoz Tughlaq Later Tughlaqs Rulers of the Tughlaq Dynasty

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq laid the foundation of the Ttughlaq Dynasty. The word Tughlaq was not the name of any tribe or clan but was the personal name of

Ghiyasuddin. He had to face enormous problems as a Sultan. There were riots in various parts of the empire and the royal treasury was empty. He pursued a policy of reconciliation with the nobles and the people who were severely restricted under Alauddin. He liberalized administration in certain respects. He gave up the practice of physical torture in case of economic offences and recovery of debts. He also discarded Alauddin's system of measurement of land for the assessment of land revenue. He attempted to improve the finances of the state and perused a policy to encourage agriculture. His twin object was to increase land under cultivation and improve economic condition of the cultivators. He took keen interest in the construction of canal for irrigation and formulated famine policy to provide relief to peasants in time of drought. The state demand of revenue was fixed between 1/5th and 1/3rd of the produce. He further instructed that the land revenue should not be enhanced more than 1/11th of the estimated produce. He continued the system of Dagh and Chehra instituted by Alauddin. He built the fortified city of Tughlaqabad and gave a new touch to the architecture of the Sultanate period. In 1321 he dispatched the crown prince Jauna Khan to re-establish Sultan's authority in the south. He annexed Warangal. Madurai and Bengal.

Mohammad Bin Tughlaq

Jauna Khan ascended the throne in 1325 AD with the title of Mohammad Bin Tughlaq. He ruled up to 1351. He was a profound scholar of Persian, a penetrating critic, a litterateur of repute. He was a great scholar of Persian and Arabic. He faced many revolts and rebellions. The first of these revolts included his attempt to consolidate his empire by curbing the rebellions of 1327 by his cousin Bahauddin Garsharp in the Deccan and other of Kishulu Khan the governor of Multan and Sind in 1328. One of the much condemned experiments of the Sultan was the transfer of capital from Delhi to Devagiri (1327). The transfer was attempted primarily due to two reasons -for its central location and secondly its close proximity to the south which was a newly conquered region. The transfer of capital involved the shifting of the army, officials, servants, tradesmen, court and shift of population. There was a widespread resentment against the Sultan who decided to retransfer the capital to Delhi. The order of going back to the old capital caused much distress to the people. Another of his novel and daring experiments was the introduction of the token currency of bronze coins in place of silver tanka in 1329-30. The value of the token coins was deemed to be equal to a silver coin. The main reason for this measure was the scarcity of silver. This

measure proved useful in the beginning but later on it caused serious problems. People soon began to manufacture counterfeits of bronze in large numbers. There was a surfeit of coins in circulation. This naturally led to its depreciation and most people began to prefer copper tankas for payments and silver or gold issues for receipts. The Sultan was compelled to withdraw the token currency. He offered to exchange all the token coins for the silver coins resulting in huge losses to the treasury. He planned an expedition for the conquest of Khurasan and Iraq. He raised an army of 3,70,000 soldiers and gave it a whole year's salary in advance. But the army did not leave for the expedition and was disbanded. The scheme was abandoned when the Sultan learnt that the conditions in Iraq had improved and was not conducive to an expedition. Towards the end of his reign the sultan increased the land revenue in the doab. He decided to enhance the land tax in the doab because of richness of its soil. Doab was facing total famine which was followed by plague. The Sultan raised the tax from 5 to 10%. Therefore the peasants instead of paying the taxes abandoned their lands and adopted highway robbery. The tax collectors continued to collect taxes by oppression. It resulted in extensive revolts. Mohammad Bin Tughlaq died in 1351. The whole of south India became independent during his life time and three major independent states- the empire of Vijaynagar, the Brahmani kingdom and the Sultanate of Madura were founded in the territories of the sultanate of the south.

Mohammad Bin Tughlaq

Jauna Khan ascended the throne in 1325 AD with the title of Mohammad Bin Tughlaq. He ruled up to 1351. He was a profound scholar of Persian, a penetrating critic, a litterateur of repute. He was a great scholar of Persian and Arabic. He faced many revolts and rebellions. The first of these revolts included his attempt to consolidate his empire by curbing the rebellions of 1327 by his cousin Bahauddin Garsharp in the Deccan and other of Kishulu Khan the governor of Multan and Sind in 1328. One of the much condemned experiments of the Sultan was the transfer of capital from Delhi to Devagiri (1327). The transfer was attempted primarily due to two reasons -for its central location and secondly its close proximity to the south which was a newly conquered region. The transfer of capital involved the shifting of the army, officials, servants, tradesmen, court and shift of population. There was a widespread resentment against the Sultan who decided to retransfer the capital to Delhi. The order of going back to the old capital caused much distress to the people. Another of his novel and daring experiments was the introduction of the token currency of bronze coins in place of silver tanka in

1329-30. The value of the token coins was deemed to be equal to a silver coin. The main reason for this measure was the scarcity of silver. This measure proved useful in the beginning but later on it caused serious problems. People soon began to manufacture counterfeits of bronze in large numbers. There was a surfeit of coins in circulation. This naturally led to its depreciation and most people began to prefer copper tankas for payments and silver or gold issues for receipts. The Sultan was compelled to withdraw the token currency. He offered to exchange all the token coins for the silver coins resulting in huge losses to the treasury. He planned an expedition for the conquest of Khurasan and Iraq. He raised an army of 3,70,000 soldiers and gave it a whole year's salary in advance. But the army did not leave for the expedition and was disbanded. The scheme was abandoned when the Sultan learnt that the conditions in Iraq had improved and was not conducive to an expedition. Towards the end of his reign the sultan increased the land revenue in the doab. He decided to enhance the land tax in the doab because of richness of its soil. Doab was facing total famine which was followed by plague. The Sultan raised the tax from 5 to 10%. Therefore the peasants instead of paying the taxes abandoned their lands and adopted highway robbery. The tax collectors continued to collect taxes by oppression. It resulted in extensive revolts. Mohammad Bin Tughlaq died in 1351. The whole of south India became independent during his life time and three major independent states- the empire of Vijaynagar, the Brahmani kingdom and the Sultanate of Madura were founded in the territories of the sultanate of the south.

Later Tughlaqs
Firoz Tughlaq was succeeded by his grandson who took up the title of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq Shah II. Within a year of his accession he fell victim to intrigue and was beheaded in early 1389. For the next five years Sultans- Abu Bakr, Muhammad Shah and Alauddin Sikandar Shah ruled. In 1390 Nasiruddin entered Delhi and enthroned himself. He was the last sultan of the dynasty and ruled from 1390-1412. During his reign Timur the Mongol leader of Central Asia invaded India. After plundering Delhi he returned to Samarkand. On his way back he plundered Firozabad, Kangra, Meerut and Jammu. Khizr Khan was appointed governor of Multan, Lahore and Dipalpur. Timur's invasion dealt a fatal blow to the Tughlaq dynasty and the Sultanate of Delhi. In 15th century the Sultanate completely disintegrated and numerous provincial kingdoms emerged in various parts of the country.

Rulers of the Tughlaq Dynasty

Rulers of the Tughlaq Dynasty AD 1. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq Shah 1320-1325 2. Mohammad Bin Tughlaq 1325-1351 3. Firuz Tughlaq 1351-1388 4. Later Tughlaq 1388-1414

The Saiyyid Dynasty

Khizr Khan was not only the founder of the Saiyyid Dynasty but also its ablest ruler. Khizr Khan did not rule as a sovereign ruler but professed to rule as the deputy of Timur's son and successor. He assumed the title of Shah and got the Khutba read in his name. In 1412 he conquered Gujarat, Gwalior and Jaunpur. In 1416 he defeated Bayana and in 1421 he attacked Mewat. Due to the illness he died in the year 1421. He was succeeded by his son Mubarak Shah in 1421 who ruled till 1434. He was succeeded by his son Muhammad Shah in 1434 who ruled till 1445 AD. He remained in his capital sunk in indolence and pleasure. He was succeeded by his son Alauddin Alam Shah 1445-51. He was the weakest ruler of the Saiyyid Dynasty. He was deposed by Bahlol Lodhi, the powerful governor of Lahore and Sirhind who founded the Lodhi dynasty.

Rulers of the Saiyyid Dynasty

Rulers of the Saiyyid Dynasty

Rulers of the Saiyyid Dynasty AD 1. Khizr Khan 1414-1421 2. Mubarak Shah 1421-1434

3. Muhammad Shah 4. Alauddin Alam Shah

1434-1445 1445-1450

Lodhi Dynasty
Bahlol Lodhi was the founder of Lodhi dynasty. He ruled for 39 years. His links were with a famous Afghan clan known as Shahurbel. He established his suzerainty by defeating and capturing the jagirdar of Mewat, Sambha, Koel, Khari, Bhogaon, Etawah and Gwalior. He annexed the Jaunpur kingdom in his empire. In the last years of his life he invaded Gwalior and obtained 80 lakh tankas from the ruler. He was succeeded by his son Nizam Shah who ascended the throne with the title of Sikandar Shah. He was ablest of three Lodhi rulers. In 1504 he established the city of Agra. He conquered south Bihar in 1494-95 and concluded a treaty of friendship with Alauddin Husain Shah the ruler of Bengal. He introduced the measurement of land and started a measurement known as Sikandar Gaz. He tried to propagate Islam and crush Hinduism. He died at Agra in 1517. The last Lodhi ruler was Ibrahim Lodhi. In 1526 Ibrahim Lodhi fought with Babur the battle of Panipat. In this fierce battle Ibrahim Lodhi was defeated. The Sultanate came to an end and a new power Mughals came to rule India. Rulers of the Lodhi DynastyRulers

of the Lodhi Dynasty

Rulers of the Lodhi Dynasty AD 1. Bahlol Lodhi 1451-1489 2. Sikander Lodhi 1489-1517 3. Ibrahim Lodhi 1517-1526

Administration of the Sultanate

The government established by the Turks was a compromise between Islamic political ideas and institutions on the one hand and the existing Rajput system of government on the other. Consequently many elements of the Rajput political system with or without changes became part and parcel of the Turkish administration in India. Most of the Sultans kept up the pretence of regarding the caliph as the legal sovereign while they themselves were the caliph's representatives. Most of them included the

name of the caliph in the Khutba and the Sikka and adopted titles indicative of their subordination to the caliph. Three rulers emphasised their own importance. Balban used to say that after the Prophet the most important office was that of the sovereign and called himself the Shadow of God. Muhmmad bin Tughlaq assumed this style during the early years of his reign and although Balban had retained the name of the caliph in the Khutba and Sikka, he made no mention of caliph anywhere. Despite all this neither of them had the power to call himself the caliph. The only person who had done this was Qutubuddin Mubarak Khalji. Only three Sultans sought and secured a mansur or letter of investiture from the caliph. The first among them was Iltutmish. Next Muhmmad bin Tughlaq tried to pacify the ulema by securing an investiture from the Abbasid Caliph in Egypt. After him Firoz also sought and secured it twice. According to Islamic ideals essential attributes of a sovereign required that he should be a male adult suffering from no physical disability, a freeborn Muslim having faith in Islam and acquainted with its doctrines and he should be elected by the people. There were several violations of the prescribed criteria as Raziya was raised to throne despite her being a woman. Minority proved no bar in the case of Mohammad bin Tughluq. Alauddin Khalji admitted his ignorance of the Sharia but nobody questioned him. In the framing of new rules and regulations the authority of the Sultan was circumscribed and every ruler could not govern the kingdom in complete disregard of the advice of the ulema or theologians as Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq had been able to do. The power of the nobility also blunted their authority to some extent. When there was a weak ruler on the throne the nobles and the ulema particularly dominated him but during the reign of Balban, Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq these checks proved ineffective. The sultans were not powerful enough to rule the land in complete disregard of the sentiments of the Hindus. The Sultan dominated the central government as he was the legal head of the state and acted as the chief executive and the highest court of appeal. The Sultan was assisted by number of ministers. The slave dynasty sultans constituted four ministers at the top level these were held by Wazir, Ariz I mamalik, the diwan -i-insha and the diwan-i-risalat. After sometime an extraordinary officer of the state styled as naib-ul-mulk or malik naib the regent came into existence. When the sultanate was well established two more departmental heads were raised to the status of central ministers sadrus-sadur and the diwan-i-qaza. The commander of the royal army next after the sultan, the crown prince and above mentioned ministers constituted the nucleus of the council of advisers called majilis-i-am or majilis-i-khawat which comprised the most trusted and the highest officers of the state. The wazir also styled as vakil was the prime minister and his department was called the diwan-i-wizarat. He was head of the finance dept and usually held

overall charge of the entire administrative set up. The head of the army establishment or the ministry of defence was the diwan -i-arz. He was responsible for the organization and maintenance of the royal army and exercised disciplinary control over it. The department of correspondence and records of the royal court was called diwan-i-insha; it was held under the charge of central minister known as dabir-i-mamlik, dabir-i-khas or amir munshi. The diwan-i-risalat constituted the fourth pillar of the imperial administration of the sultanate. Under slave dynasty the head of the dept was sadr-us-sadur who was primarily a minister for ecclesiastical affairs. During the time of Alauddin Khalji diwan-i-risalat dept was taken out of the hand of the sadr and renamed diwan-i-riyasat. Its primary function was to implement the economic regulations issued by the sultan and control the markets and prices. Barid-i-mamalik; vakil -i-dar, amir-i-barbak, amir-ihajib, amir-i-majlis, amir-i-shikar, kotwal etc were other important officials of the time.

Local Administration
Local administration was vague and undefined and basically traditional system. The provinces were divided into 6 parts headed by shiqdars with main functions to maintain law and order and protect people against oppression of zamindars and had to perform military obligation. The shiqs were further divided into parganas and had different officials1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Amil- collected land revenue and other taxes Mushrif Hazamdars- treasurer Qazi-Civil officials Shiqdar-Criminal official Kotwal-Police head under shiqdar Faujdar-Military official in charge of fort along with their adjoining territories 8. Amin-Measure land 9. Qanungo-Maintained previous records of produce and assessment 10. Patwari-Village record keeper At panchayat level khuts,muqaddam,chaudhary collected taxes and in lieu of their services they were exempted from the taxes. 1.Provincial System 2.Judicial System 3.Military organization 4.Iqtadari System

Provincial Government

The provincial government of the sultanate was not well developed. The provincial governors of the region were usually called walis or muqtas. The provincial government was an exact replica of the central government. In some provinces the sultan appointed an imperial officer called sahib-i-diwan for controlling the provincial revenues and he exercised a sort of check on the powers and activities of the governor. The provinces were further divided into shiqs or districts which were governed by shiqdars. Each shiq comprised a few parganas which was an aggregate of villages. At the lowest ladder were the villages which were governed by their local panchayats.

Judicial System
The sultans implemented shariat or the Islamic law of crime and punishment the main sources of which were the Quran, the Hadis and Ijma. The ecclesiastical cases were separated from the criminal and civil suits. The durbar of the sultan constituted the highest civil and criminal court of justice which took original as well as appellate cases. Below the sultan there was the court of qazi-i-quzat or the chief justice of the empire. Muhtasib the censor of public morals acted as police cum judge in the observance of the canon law by the Muslims. The village panchayats enjoyed the sanction of the state to administer justice according to the local tradition, customs and the personal law of the populace. The penal code was severe, physical torture and capital punishment constituted an essential part of it.

Military organization
The sultanate was military dictatorship; it owed its genesis to the military victory of the Turks over the Indian rulers in the 12th and 13th centuries and its strength and stability depended primarily on its strong and efficient army. The army organization of the sultans was based on feudal principles which carried all the inherent defects of the system with it.

Iqtadari System

Iqtadari System was a combined distribution of these revenues to the assignment which was Collection Maintenance of army

mechanism of expropriating tax and ruling class. It was a kind of territorial guided by three factorsof revenue,

Maintenance of the traditional system in order to prevent any untoward reaction. The term Iqtadari system was coined by Nizamul Mulk to maintain smooth administration of the Abbassid Empire. The sultans of Delhi Sultanate like Balban,Iltutmish,Allauddin Khilji etc effectively used the Iqtadari system for their centralization of power. The Iqtadari system did not confer any ownership in land and it was subject to transfer. The iqtadar had two functions to collect the revenues and distribution among the soldiers.It was a unique blend of expansion and consolidation. The Iqtas were of 4 types: 1. 2. 3. 4. Iqta- It was administrative cum military grants Iqta-i-Tamlik- Iqta for collection of revenue Iqta-i-Istighatal-An Iqta of stipends Iqta-i-Waqf-Iqta for charitable purposes.

Literature in Medieval Period

In the early medieval period in northern India, Sanskrit continued to be the language of literature. This is the period of the works of two writers in Kashmir-Somadevas Katha-sarit sagar and Kalhanas Rajataringini.Rajataringini is a work of great importance as this is first historical work in India. Another famous work of this period is Gitagovinda by Jayadeva.It is one of the finest poems in Sanskrit literature.

One of the earliest works in an early form of Hindi was Prithviraj Raso by Chandbardai.It is a work on heroic deeds of Prithviraj Chauhan. Another important Sanskrit work of this period is Bilhanas VikramankadevaCharita a biography of the Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI. This period also saw development in Dravidian languages.Nripatunga wrote a great work of poetry in Kannada called the Kavirajamarga.Pampa wrote the Adipurana and Vikramarjuna- Vijaya with the former dealing with the life of the first Jain tirthankara and latter based on the Mahabharata.Ponna wrote the Shantipurana, a legendary history of the 16th tirthankara.Another great Kannada writer was Ranna a contemporary of Pampa and Ponna. Two of the famous works are the Ajitapurana and Gadayuddha.Kamban wrote the Rama a contemporary of Pampa and Ponna.Two of the famous works are the Ajitapurana and Gadayuddha.Kamban wrote the Ramayanam in Tamil.This was the period of the composition of the great hymns of the Alvars and the Nayanars. The hymns of the Alvars are collected into the Nalayira- Divyanam in Tamil. This was the period of the composition of the great hymns of the Alvars and the Nayanars. The hymns of the Alvars are collected into the Nalayira- Divya Prabandham. Some of the Nayanar works are the Thiruvasagam,the Thirumanairam and Thiruttondattogai. The Delhi Sultanate saw great advancement in the growth of Indian languages and literature.Braj Bhasha and Khari Boli began to be used in literary compositions.The famous Rajasthani ballad Alha Udal and the Vishaldeo Raso belong to this period.Mulla Daud wrote the oldest poem in Awadhi language called Chandayana. Persian was the court language of the Sultanate.A very notable contribution of the Turks was in the field of historical literature in Persian.There were many historians in this period.Ziauddin Barani wrote the Tarikh-i- Firozshahi which gives a detailed account of Khaljis and Tughlaqs. He also wrote a work on political theory called the Fatawa-i- Jahandari. The most outstanding literary figure in this period was Amir Khusrau.He was a poet,historian,mystic and composer of music. He was also a disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya.He wrote the Ashiqa,the Nuh Siphir ,the QiranalSadayan,the Khazain-ul- Futuh and several works of poetry. The regional kingdoms provided a great stimulus to regional languages and literature.There were two main forms of Hindi in this period- Bhojpuri and Awadhi.Kabir wrote in Bhojpuri and his dohas or couplets have become a part of the folklore.Malik Muhammad Jayasi wrote the Padmavat in

Awadhi.The famous Ramacharitmanas by Tulsidas was also written in Awadhi in this period.Qutban a disciple of the sufi saint Shaikh Burhan wrote the Mrigavati. In Bengali the Ramayana by Krittivasa and the hundreds of lyrics by the famous poet Chandidas were written under the patronage of the rulers. With Chaitanya the tradition of writing devotional songs began.Narasi Mehta wrote devotional songs in Gujarati and Namdev and Eknath in Marathi. Under king Krishnadeva Raya,telugu literature reached new heights.He was Telugu and Sanskrit writer.He wrote the Vishnuchittiya.The other famous poets in his court were Allasani Peddana who wrote the Manucharita.Dhurjati wrote the Kalahasti Mahatamya. In Mughal India,Babbar was one of the pioneers of Turkish poetry and also author of biography in Turkish Babar nama.Gulbadan Begum sister of Humayun wrote the Humayun Nama.Jahangir wrote his autobiography the Tuzuk-i- Jahangiri.Aurangzeb also was a prolific writer and the last Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar was a notable Urdu poet. Hindi literature made a significant progress during Akbars reign.Tulsidas ,Keshavdas wrote on themes of love.Rahims dohas or couplets are extremely popular to this day.This was a period of many writings in Persian language.Abu Fazl wrote the Ain-i- Akbari and the Akbar Nama.Akbar had started a whole department for translation of works like Mahabharata,the Ramayana the Atharva veda,the Bhagvad Gita and the Panchtantra.Some of the historians of this period were Abdul Hamid Lahori,Khafi Khan,Muhammad Kazim amd Sujan Rai Bandhari. One of the most significant developments during the medieval period was the birth of the Urdu language. This new language soon developed one of the richest literatures in the world.It produced great poets like Wali, Mir Dard,Mir Taqi Mir,Nazir Akbarabadi,Asadullah Khan Ghalib etc.Urdu prose also developed early in the 18th century when the translation of most of the historical works from Persian and Sanskrit into Urdu began.At the same time many original works in Urdu were written like Muhammad Hussain Azads Darbar-i- Akbari.The Urdu novel was one of the earliest to develop in the Indian languages.

Importance of Sher Shah Suri and Sur Dynasty

Surs had founded the Second Afghan Empire in India. They introduced a new concept of sovereignty and effected a reorientation of a political institution.

But the importance of Surs lies principally in having produced SherShah who by virtue of his conquests and administrative reforms earned for himself a place of honor among the rulers and empire-builders of India. His administrative machinery with slight modifications was adopted by Akbar and his successors as the basis of their government. Shershah was the first Muslim sovereign who placed before himself the ideal of promoting public welfare without distinction of caste or creed. Secondly he sought to organize the Afghans in such a manner that their defects might gradually wear off and their sovereignty might acquire permanence. He wanted to strengthen the defence of the frontiers so effectively that the restoration of the Mughals by invasion from without or by rebellion within should become possible. Sher Shahs government was as autocratic as that of Balban or Alauddin but he got it approved by the Afghan assembly itself. Thus his despotism rested on a democratic foundation. Besides his versatile genius and indefatigable industry enabled him not only to lay down the general policy of all departments but also to superintend and control its execution in detail in day to day administration. He seems to have begun with the last rung of the administrative ladder the village and had worked up to the pargana and the sarkar level but failed to find time for touching up the provincial and central government. But he could not make much headway in provincial or central government. Sher Shahs land revenue policy protected the interests both of th e peasant and the landlord. He tried to prevent exploitation of the peasant but at the same time he did not completely abolish the traditional rights of the muqaddams and the assignees.He seems to have been conscious of the evils of the jagirdari system and yet he could not dispense with it everywhere lest it might cause discontent among the Afghan leaders. Merits of Sher Shah lies in introducing a permanent schedule of rates defining the mutual rights and obligations of the peasant and the state through patta and qabuliyat adopting measurement as the normal method of assessment and in harmonious adjustment of the interests of all parties concerned. To improve means of communication in the Empire,old roads were repaired and new ones laid out. At intervals of four miles sarais were built which soon became the nuclei of new market towns. Sher Shah made separate provision for supplying food and water to Hindu and Muslim wayfarers. Sher Shah planned these roads to connect the capital with the various provinces of the empire so that in case of necessity troops might be rapidly rushed to the affected region. The sarais served as convenient camping grounds for the military forces especially when a market town grew up around it. The sarais was used as dak-chaukis where harkaras and mounted news carriers were posted for carrying news to the next sarais both up and down the road. The Afghans dominated politics from 1451 to 1555 and during this period they did a number of remarkable things. They put an end to the anarchy

which had come in the wake of the weak rule of the later Tughlaqs and the Sayyads and strove to build up a strong centralised government. Independent kingdoms of Malwa, Jaunpur and Bengal had ended and nobles of the central region were made amenable to discipline and obedience. The Afghans introduced a new ideal of government and instead of autocratic domination of the nobles they tried to govern in collaboration with them. In cooperation with the Hindus they tried to found a government based on national solidarity. They were patrons of men of learning and piety. They made administration of justice more efficient and improved the lot of the peasantry. In establishing internal peace and security they made the people shoulder a part of the responsibility which made them self-reliant and imparted stability to the government.

Composite culture in Medieval India

Culturally medieval period marks the beginning of new stage in the growth of India's composite culture. It saw the introduction of new features in art and architecture of India and their diffusion to all parts of the country. The architecture that developed during this period was the result of the synthesis of the traditions of Central Asia and Persia with the pre-existing Indian styles. During the 15th and 16th centauries distinctive styles of art and architecture also developed in the regional kingdoms which had emerged with the disintegration of the Sultanate. During this time notable advances were made in the development of languages and literature. Two new languages-Arabic and Persian became a part of India's linguistic heritage. Historical writings for the first time became an important component of Indian literature. Under the influence of Persian, new forms of literature such as the ghazal were introduced. The period saw two great religious movements. The Bhakti movement spread throughout the country. It disapproved religious narrow-mindedness, superstitions and observance of formal rituals. The Bhakti saints condemned caste inequalities and laid stress on human brotherhood. The other was Sufi movement. The Sufis or the Muslim mystics preached the message of love and human brotherhood. These two movements played a leading role in combating religious exclusiveness and narrow -mindedness and in bringing the people of all communities together. Sikhism began to emerge as a new religion based on the teachings of Guru Nanak and other saints. The growth of a composite culture reached its highest point under the Great Mughals in the 16th and

17th centuries. The Mughals built an empire which once again brought about the political unification of a large part of the country. Akbar the greatest Mughal Emperor followed the policy of Sulhkul (peace with all). Some of the finest specimen of Indian architecture and literature belong to this period. A new significant art form was painting which flourished under the patronage of the Mughal court. Influenced by the Persian traditions the Mughal painting developed into a distinct Indian style. It later spread to other parts of the country in various regional styles. Another significant development was the emergence of a new language Urdu which became the lingua franca of the people of the towns in many parts of the country.

Art and Architectural in Medieval India

The coming of the Turks inaugurated a new era in the history of Indian architecture, the Turks brought with them architectural ideas developed in Persia, Arabia and Central Asia. They came into contact with the traditions that had already been developed in India. The interaction of these two traditions resulted in a new synthesis of architectural styles. The rulers of the Sultanate were great patrons of architecture and under them the process of synthesis started. It continued with many regional variations in the different kingdoms. During the Mughal period the flowering of this synthesis took place and some of the greatest monuments of India were built. Based on the interaction of the two traditions a unique Indian style of architecture was developed in this period.

Main features of Islamic architecture

The Mosque consisted of a large rectangular open courtyard surrounded by arcades on all four sides. The mehrab which faces Mecca indicates the direction to the prayer. The call to the worship was made from a tall tower or minaret. In some mosques there were many minerats. Another characteristic feature was the arch in the gateway and other places. The dome was another prominent feature of the mosque and the mausoleum. The chief decorative element was sculpturing the building with geometrical designs and lettering in calligraphic style. Some of these features were new to Indian architecture. The ancient Indian buildings were decorated with beautiful carving and sculpture while the Muslim buildings were

marked by simplicity and lack of adornment. When the new buildings began to be erected the two styles were gradually synthesized into a new and unique style.

Architecture under the Sultanate

The Turkish rulers utilized the services of the local designers and craftsmen who were among the most skilful in the world. The new fusion that started to take place avoided the extreme simplicity of the Islamic architecture and the lavish decoration of the earlier Indian architecture. Among the first buildings to be erected were the mosques at Delhi and Ajmer by Qutbddin Aibak. The mosque built in Delhi was called the Quwwatul Islam mosque. It measured about 70x30 meters. The central arch of this mosque which is decorated with beautiful sculptured calligraphy still stands and is about 17 meters high and about 7 metres wide. The successor of Qutbuddin Iltutmish was a great builder. He further extended the mosque. He also completed the building of the Qutb Minar which had been started by Qutbuddin and now stood in the extended courtyard of the mosque. This is a tower rising to a height of about 70 meters and is one of the most renowned monuments of India. The next important buildings belong to the reign of Alauddin Khalji. He enlarged the Quwwatul Islam mosque still further and built a gateway to the enclosure of the mosque, the Alai Darwaza. Decorative element was introduced to beautify the building. He also started building a minar which was designed to be double the height of Qutb Minar but the project remained unfulfilled. The Tughlaqs concentrated on the building of new cities in Delhi like Tughlaqabad, Jahanpanah and Ferozabad. A number of buildings was erected which differed in their style from the earlier buildings. Massive and strong structures like the tomb of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq and the walls of Tughlaqabad were built. The buildings of the Tughlaq period were significant from the point of view of the development of architecture. They were not beautiful but massive and very impressive. 1. Mughal Architecture 2. Mughal Painting 3. Music in Medieval India

Mughal Architecture
The process of synthesis was completed under the Mughals and the new architecture which had started taking shape with the

establishment of the Sultanate reached the pinnacle of glory. Babar and Humayun the first two Mughal kings erected a number of buildings with the help of Persian architects and these now in ruins are not very impressive. Humayun had to flee the country in the face of the rising power of the Afghan ruler Sher Shah Suri. There was a short Afghan rule before Humayun recovered the Indian territories for the Mughals. The most important buildings is the mausoleum of Sher Shah at Sasaram. It is well-proportioned building and stands in the middle of a tank. The Mughal architecture began in the reign of Akbar. The first important building of Akbar's reign is Humayun's tomb at Delhi. In this magnificent tomb the Persian influence is very strong particularly in the construction of the dome. Indian builders used stone and marble. The two significant features of the Mughal architecture are the large gateways and the placement of the building in the midst of the large park. The tomb provided many architectural ideas for the building of the Taj Mahal later. Akbar also built the forts of Agra and Lahore. He built his palace within the Agra fort. Many new buildings were constructed in the fort and old ones altered by his successors. For the first time living beings -elephants, lions, peacocks and other birds were sculptured in the brackets. The crowning achievement of the reign of Akbar was the building of his new capital at Fatehpur Sikri about 40 kms from Agra. The buildings at Fatehpur Sikri have been built in a variety of styles making it one of the most magnificent capitals in the world. It had a circumference of over 10 kms. The arch of the Buland Darwaza is about 41 meters high and is perhaps the most important gateway in the world. The tomb of Salim Chishti built in white marble is exquisite in its beauty. Another notable building is the Ibadat Khana or the House of Worship where learned people belonging to various religions gathered together and discussed questions of philosophy and theology in the presence of Emperor. Then there is the Panch Mahal a five storeyed building modelled on the Buddhist viharas. During the reign of Jahangir the mausoleum of Akbar was constructed at Sikandara. This is a magnificent monument as after a long time minar became architecturally significant. It has beautiful arches and domes. But the whole structure is inspired by the Buddhist viharas. Jahangir also extended the palace buildings in the Agra fort and built the beautiful tomb of Itmad-ud-daula the father of NurJahan. The tomb was built in marble and is notable for its beautiful coloured inlay work. NurJahan built a beautiful mausoleum for her husband at Shahdara near Lahore.

The greatest of the Mughal builders was Shah Jahan. His reign marks the highest development of Muhgal architecture. Some of the finest monuments of our country were built during his reign. Under him there was an exceedingly liberal use of marble, delicate decorative designs, variety of arches and beautiful minarets. The list of buildings built by ShahJahan is long with city of Shahjahanbad, Redfort, Jama Masjid, TajMahal and many others. The most magnificent of Shah Jahan's buildings is the Taj Mahal built in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal. It represents India's culture at its best and has been aptly described as the dream in marble. It is remarkably well conceived and all its parts the gateways, central dome, elegant minars, the delicate decoration, the inlay work in coloured marbles an precious stones, the lovely gardens surrounding it and the fountains in front have been perfectly executed. The only notable buildings of the reign of Aurangzeb the last of the Mughals are the Badshahi mosque at Lahore and the Moti Masjid at Delhi. The period after him is one of the general decline. The new style of architecture had a significant influence on the construction of Hindu temples and the secular buildings of the Rajputs during this period.

Mughal Paintings

The great era of in the art of painting was ushered by the Mughals. the great painter Behzad. They came into contact with their counterparts in India and under Akbar the synthesis of two styles was encouraged. He gathered together a number of painters from Persia, Kashmir and Gujarat. The Ain-iAkhbari mentions a number of artists-Abdus Samad, Mir Saiyid Ali, Miskin, Daswant, Basawan, Mukand and many others. They illustrated manuscripts like the Dastan-i-Amir Hamza and Babarnama. Individual pieces were also painted. By the end of Akbar's reign an independent Mughal style of painting had been developed. Jahangir was a poet and patron of painting. Under him the Mughal School of painting was fully developed and made remarkable progress. The painting was no longer confined to book illumination. Portrait painting and depiction of subjects drawn from life and nature became popular. Some of the finest painters in this period were Nadir, Murad, Bishan Das, Manohar, Goverdhan, Mansur and Farrukh Beg. The competence and skill of the Indian artists are evident from the incident which Sir Thomas Roe who came to the court of Jahangir mentions. The artists of Jahangir's court made several

copies of a painting which Roe had presented to the emperor on the same day. The copies were so perfect that Roe found it difficult to spot the original. In the course of few decades fine works of paintings were created. The development continued under Shah Jahan. Dara Shikoh son of Shah Jahan was a great patron of paintings. With Aurangzeb the art declined in the Mughal courts. With the withdrawal of court patronage many artists went to different parts of the country and influenced the development of new schools of painting. Two of the most important schools of painting that emerged were the Rajasthani and the Pahari schools. The subjects of the paintings of these schools were drawn from the epics, myths and legends and love themes.

Music in Medieval India

The medieval period witnessed development in Music in India. Music was not a part of the original Islamic tradition but it developed under the influence of the Sufis and became a part of court life. Many new forms and instruments were developed. Mir Khusrau who had contributed to literature and historical writings is believed to have invented some of these musical instruments. He developed the early form of the popular musical style known as Qawwali. Khayal one of the important forms of Indian classical music is also believed to be his contribution. The legendary figures of Baz Bahadur, the ruler of Malwa and his queen Rupmati were accomplished musicians and also introduced many new ragas. The most notable figure in music in Medieval India as Tansen the court musician of Akbar. His attainments in music have become a legend. The patronage of music continued at the courts of rulers in the 18th century and the traditions evolved through the centuries were kept alive. The contributions of the Bhakti and Sufi saints in the development and promotion of music is very important. The growth of Indian classical music has been a major force of India's cultural unity. Apart from Hindu elements some of the greatest masters of music have been Muslims. The Kitab-i- Nauras a collection of songs in praise of Hindu deities and Muslim saints was written by a 17th century ruler Ibrahim Adil Shah II. Both in vocal and instrumental music two main classical styles evolved -Hindustani and Carnatic. Some of the greatest figures in Carnatic music were Purandaradasa, Thyagraja, Muthuswami, Dikshitar and Syamasastri.

Mughal Empire
The Muhgals were the descendents of Mongols and Turks. Zahiruddin Muhmammad Babar the founder of Mughal Empire in India was related to Timur from his fathers side and to Changez Khan through his mother. The rule of Mughal starting from 1526 to 1857 has greatly contributed to the history of India. Mughals Rajput policy vs Afghan policy

Babur Humayun Akbar Jahangir Shah Jahan Aurangzeb Mansabdari System in Mughal Empire Land Revenue System in Mughal Empire Central Administration in Mughal Empire Provincial Administration of Mughal Empire Local Administration Aurangzebs Deccan Policy Economy in Mughal Empire Mughal Coinage Literature in Mughal Empire Education under the Mughals Mughal Society Mughal Army Decline of Mughal Empire Causes of decline of Mughal Empire

Mughals Rajput policy vs Afghan policy

Akbar and his successors were not in favour of ending Rajput ruling families. They aimed at converting them into subordinate allies. They opposed if ever individuals rather than ruling houses and in case of rebellion or intransigence on the part of a Rajput family. They seemed to have decided to retain Rajput ruling families as an integral part of their political system. But the Afghans were treated differently. Towards them the Mughals were more stiff and unrelenting. Under stress of circumstances an Afghan prince might be temporarily tolerated as vassal but this was never a part of their general policy. In Malwa Bihar, Bengal and Orissa a uniform policy was followed deposition of the ruling Afghan family occupation of as much of their territory as possible and securing the submission of subordinate Afghan nobles by the lure of office and jagir but insisting on the imperial right to transfer them to other jagirs or fresh jobs. The difference in the policy was due to the fact that the Rajputs were true to their word and once they had submitted they regarded rebellion or treachery unworthy of their honour and family pride. But the Afghans being essentially selfish could not always be relied upon. Secondly the Rajputs might have kept the possibility of the establishment of an all India Empire as a cherished goal in the realm of thought but in practice they were satisfied with mere local autonomy. The Afghans on the other hand had been the masters of an extensive northIndian empire and could not wholly divest their political ambition of it. Consequently it was far more difficult for them to become sincerely loyal to their dispossessors. Akbar was conscious of the fact that he had seized sovereignty from the Afghans towards whom strong sections of the people had some tenderness of feeling. Hence continuance of their ruling dynasties was fraught with serious danger to the security of the empire. Akbar never accorded to any non-Rajput ruling family whether Hindu or Muslim the generous treatment reserved exclusively for the Rajputs. Destruction of their ruling families was as essential for the expansion and security of the empire as the continuance of subordinate Rajput states had

been fruitful in building up an buttressing the newly rising empire. It was thus an inevitable necessity that the Afghan policy of Akbar had to be different and distinct from his policy towards the Rajputs.

Babur(1526-30)

Originally Babar was the ruler of Farghana.In the first Battle of Panipat fought on 21April, 1526 between Babur and Lodhi Emperor Ibrahim Lodhi in which victory of Babur over the Lodhi laid the foundation of Mughal Empire in India.In 1527 Babur defeated Rana Sanga in the Battle of Khanwa.Afghans under Muhmmad Lodhi were defeated by Babur at the Battle of Ghagara in 1529.Babur died at Agra in 1530 but according to his will his body was taken to Kabul and buried there.Babur was a prolific writer as well as poet has written his autobiography Tuzuk-i- Baburi in Chaghatay Turki.

Humayun(1530-56)

Humayun was the eldest son of Babur .Sher Shah Suri an ambitious ruler of Bengal had fought Humayun in the Battle of Chausa in 1539 in which Humayun was defeated and Mughal force was almost destroyed. In the beginning Humayun was helped by the ruler of Amarkot Rana Virsal where Hamida Banu gave birth to Akbar in 1542. Humayun finally got shelter in the court of Emperor Shah Tahmasp of Persia. Humayun reconquered his Indian empire with the help of Shah of Iran in 1555 by defeating Afghans. He died in 1556. Humayun was passionately devoted to the study of astronomy, loved painting and wrote Persian poetry.

Akbar (1556-1605)

Akbar was born at Amarkot in 1542.At the age of 14 he became the emperor after the death of his father Humayun.Bairam Khan was the regent up to 1560. In 1556 second Battle of Panipat was fought between the Hemu and Mughals which Muhgals won under the generalship of Bairam Khan.Raja

Bharmal the Kuchchhwaha King of Amber married his eldest daughter to Akbar and subsequently Raja Bhagwan Das and Man Singh were inducted into the Imperial Mughal service. Almost all Rajput states were subjugated and they submitted to Akbar but the Rana of Mewar continued to defy Mughal suzerainty. In the battle of Haldighati in 1576, Rana Pratap was defeated by the Mughals under Man Singh.In 1562 Akbar discontinued the practice of enslaving the defeated soldiers in the battles. In 1563 pilgrimage tax was abolished. In 1564 the discriminatory jaziya tax was abolished. In 1575 Ibadatkhana was built at Fetahpur Sekri for religious discussions. Initially only Sunni were allowed later all religious groups such as Shias, Hindus, Christians and Zorastrians were allowed to participate. In 1579 Akbar read the Khutba composed by Faizi in his own name. In September 1579 Mahzar was proclaimed by Akbar which made him the Imam-i-Adil.In 1582 Din-iIllahi or Tauhid-i-IIahi was started by Akbar which is considered by some historians a new religion started by Akbar.Akbar died in 1605.He was buried at Sikandra.

Jahangir (1605-27)

Prince Salim ascended the throne in 1695.He assumed the title of Jahangir.He issued 12 ordinances after becoming emperor. In 1611 he married Mehrunnissa who was later on called Nur Jahan, her father Gyas Beg was given the title of Itmaduddaulah. During Jahangirs time relations with Rajput of Mewar improved and Amar Singh submitted in 1615 to the Mughal.The practice of enrolling Marathas into the Mughal army and nobility was started.

In 1606 Jahangirs son Khusrau revolted but defeated and imprisoned. Guru Arjun Dev 5th Guru of Sikhs was beheaded on the charge of blessing Khusaru.In 1625 Mahabat Khan imprisoned Jahangir and Nurjahan.Jahangir wrote Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri in Persian. During his time painting reached to its zenith in Mughal court.Jahangir died in 1627 at Bhimbar in Kashmir. He is buried at Dilkush garden in Lahore.

Shah Jahan (1627-58)

Prince Khurram succeeded Jahangir and adopted the title of Shah Jahan in 1627. In 1607 Jahangir had granted him a Mansab of 800 zat. In 1632 Portuguese were defeated by him near Hugli.In 1612 Shahjahan married Anjumand Bano Begum who later became famous as Mumtaz Mahal.In 1636 Ahmadnagar was annexed by Shahjahan.His reign is described by French travelor Bernier and Taverier and the Italian traveler Manucci.

In 1638 Ali Mardan Khan the Persian governor of Khandhar surrendered the port to the Mughal government of Kabul. Bundelas under Jujhar Singh rebelled during the Shahjahan reign.In the end of his reign there was a bloody war of succession among his sons in which Aurangzeb become successful due to Shahjahan; favour to Dara Shikoh to the throne.Aurangzeb imprisoned Shahjahan at Agra Fort and he died in captivity in 1666.He was buried besides his wifes grave in Taj Mahal.

Aurangzeb (1658-1707)

Aurangzeb ruled for almost 50 years. During his long reign the Mughal Empire reached its territorial climax. At its height it stretched from Kashmir in the north to Jinji in the south and from the Hindukush in the west to Chittagong in the east. But much of the Aurangzebs time was spent in trying to put down revolts in different parts of the empire.Aurangzeb sent his army to the Deccan to curtail the rising Maratha power and to prevent them from overpowering the kingdoms of Bijapur and Golconda.

Mansabdari System in Mughal Empire

Akbar organized the nobility and his army by means of the Mansabdari system. Every officer was assigned a rank valued in terms of a certain number of mounted soldiers. The ranks normally given to top officers and nobles were valued from 10 to 5000 later raised to 7000.The ranks were divided into two: zat and sawar.Zat means personal where by the status and salary of the individual was fixed. Out of this salary in addition to meeting his own personal expenses, he had to maintain a stipulated quota of horses, elephants, camels, mules and carts. The other rank indicated the number of cavalrymen (sawar) a mansabdar was required to maintain. For every sawar, a mansabdar was paid at a rate of Rs 240 per annum over and above his salary. A person was required to maintain as many sawars as his zat rank was placed in the first category of that rank; if he maintained less than half then in the third category. Thus there were three categories in every rank.No one could have a higher quota of sawars than his zat rank.The mansab was not hereditary. The sawar rank was distinguished by two special features: For every 10 cavalrymen the mansabdar had to maintain 20 horses and a provision was made that the contingents of the nobles should be mixed ones that is drawn from all the groups- Mughal, Pathan, Hindustani and Rajput.This was intended to weaken the spirit of tribal and ethnic exclusiveness. The mansabdars were assigned a jagir in lieu of cash payment. Although modifications in the system were made from time to time this remained the basic structure as long as the Empire held together. The number of mansabdars rose from 2069 at the time of Jahangirs accession in 1605 to 8000 in 1637 during Shah Jahans reign and to 11,546 during the latter half of the Aurangzebs reign.

Land Revenue System in Mughal Empire

Initially Akbar adopted Sher Shahs system. But in 1580 Akbar instituted a new system called Dahsala.Under this the average produce of different crops and their average prices prevailing over the last 10 years were calculated and 1/3rd the average produce fixed in rupees per bigha was demanded as the states share. Later a further improvement was made. Not only were local prices taken into account,parganas which were the largest fiscal and administration having the same type of productivity were grouped into separate assessment circles. Thus the peasant was required to pay on the basis of local produce

as well as local prices. This system continued till the end of the 17th century.

Central Administration in Mughal Empire

In Islam the real sovereign of the world in Allah and Khalifh is his representative on the earth. Muslim rulers in India prior to Akbar recognized the authority of Khalifa but the institution of Kingship as mentioned by Abul Fazl in Aziz-i- Akbari that the Padshah or Shahansha is the vice-regent of god on earth,Farr-i-Izadi has given new dimension to the theory Kingship in India. Emperor- The form of Mughal government was despotic,monarchy,the emperor was the head of the executive,legislature,judiciary and the Army,the only limits on the autocracy of the King were the mobility and the Ulema. Vakil- Vakil was the representative of king and hence exercises all powers on behalf and in the name of king.Bairam Khan was the Vakil during Akbars time. Wazir or Diwan- In his capacity as Diman-i-kulk he was the head of the revenue dept when there was no vakil,he acted as the PM as well and hence called the wazir. Mir Bakshi- Head of the military dept and also the pay master general after the introduction of the mansabdari system. Sudr us Sadar- Head of the ecclesiastical dept regulation of religion and charitable works was his prime concern. Khan-i- Saman- Head of Royal household and karkhans. Qazi-ul-Quzat- Head of the justice dept.

Provincial Administration of Mughal Empire

The Empire under the Mughals was divided into provinces which were known as Subhas. In the beginning Akbars reign total number of subhas were 12 later on at the time of his death it were 15.During Shah Jahan s time there were 19 subhas.During the Aurangzebs reign Mughal Empire had 21 subhas. Some of the important officials were: Subedar or Sipalibalar- He was the governor, his function were the maintenance of law and order, enforcement of imperial decrees and administration of criminal justice in the subha.He was appointed by the Emperor. Diwan-He was in charge of revenue

administration of the province. Bakshi-Discharged the duties as Mir Bakshi at the central level. Qazi, sadr, Muhtasib were other official in the provinces.

Local Administration

The Subhas were further divided into sarkars which was headed by Shiqdar.Sarkar was divided into Parganas which was a group of villages. Village was the lowest unit of administration and Patwari and Qanuongo were the financial officials. Mahals were the group of villages combined for fiscal purposes.

Aurangzebs Deccan Policy

Aurangzebs Deccan policy was influenced partly by imperial interests and partly by the religious considerations. In Deccan Aurangzeb failed to assess the situation realistically hence unable to take actions.Shivaji had carved out an independent Maratha state in the territories north and south of Konkan. To contain the Marathas Aurangzeb invaded Bijapur under Sikandar Adil Shah and annexed it in 1686.This brought an end to Adil Shahi dynasty. Bijapur became the seat of the Mughal provincial governor. Aurangzeb ordered attack against Abul Hassan Qutub Shah of Golconda. In 1687 the Mughal army entered the fort and Golconda was annexed to Mughal Empire. After the downfall of Bijapur and Golconda Aurangzeb concentrated all his forces against the Marathas. In 1689 Sambhaji was taken captive and executed and his son Sahu was captured. Aurangzeb gave Sahu the mansab of 7000 and treated him well. But he misjudged the strength of Marathas. The Marathas recovered themselves and commenced a peoples war which exhausted Aurangzebs treasury and compelled him to be on the defensive. The war booty from Golconda and Bijapur was insufficient to cover the cost of the last phase of the Deccan wars. The reputation of the Mughal army was undermined by continuous rebellions and attacks from the Marathas in the Deccan. Aurangzebs death in 1707 finally brought to an end on the Deccan. What caused the real breakdown of the Mughal Empire was his faulty Deccan policy.

Aurangzebs Phase-I

Deccan

policy

can

be

divided

into

four phases (1658-68)

It was led by Jai Singh.The Mughals failed to lay siege on Bijapur in 1665 and Jai Singh died in 1667. Phase-II (1668-84)

It was unsuccessful because of a tripartite alliance between Golconda,Shivaji and Bijapur in which Madanna and Akanna played a crucial role. Phase-III This phase saw the capture of Bijapur (1686) and Golconda (1687). Phase-IV In this phase Sambhaji the son and successor of Shivaji was captured and executed.

Economy in Mughal Empire

Agriculture has been mainstay of economy in India since time immemorial. During Mughal time also it was not only the largest source of income to state but it was also the source of livelihood to the large majority of people in India. Main crops that were grown were cereals, millets, oilseeds, sugarcane, cotton, hemp, chilli, indigo and betel. Tobacco and potato were introduced by Portuguese in India during Jahangirs reign. Ajmer was famous for the best quality of sugar cane. Gujarat and Agra was famous for indigo cultivation.Babur introduced many central Asian fruits to India. During Akbars reign Firoz Shahs Yamuna canal was repaired for the first time. In the reign of Shah Jahan,Nahr-i-Bihisht was built by opening the canal at Khizrabad for irrigation purposes. The Muslim ruling class preferred to settle in the towns and cities. The artistic life style of Mughal ruling clan encouraged handicrafts, art and architecture and trade in India. The merchants and trader class was divided into big business magnates owing hundreds of ships, rich merchants and traders and petty shopkeepers. Hundi system was developed by shroffs for carrying out large transactions. Trade both intra country and outside India

grew tremendously during the Mughal period particularly because of the following factors: The political and economic unification of India under the Mughal rule and establishment of law and order over extensive areas created the favorable environment for trade and commerce. The improvement of transport and communications by the Mughals.Encouragement given by the Mughals to the monetization of economy. Arrival of European traders from the beginning of 17th century onwards and the growth of the European trade. Decca was the famous centre of muslin and textiles. Agra, Fatehpur Sikri and Lahore were the main centers of silk weaving. Surat, Cambay, Braoch in Gujarat was the main ports for foreign trade.

Mughal Coinage

The Mughals attached a great importance to the coinage as Akbar started to practice of issuing coins and established royal mint with Abdus Samad the famous painter being the head of it. The Mughal coinage was mainly based on the rupee and dam issued by Sher Shah Suri.The rupee was the most famous of all Mughal coins. Muhar was the standard gold coin of about 170-175 grain and it was very popular. Jalali was a silver coin in square shape issued by Akbar. Nisar,Nur Afshan and Khair qasul were the smaller silver coins issued by Jahangir. Daun was the copper coin used by the common people in day to day transactions. The copper Daun also known as falus, sikah falus, Nisfi, damra and damri.

Literature in Mughal Empire

The Mughal period saw great developments in the field of literature. Many Mughal emperors and members of the royal family were great men of letters. Babar the first Mughal emperor was one of the pioneers of Turkish poetry and also the author of a very valuable autobiography in Turkish BabarNama which was later translated into Persian.Gulbadan Begum sister of Humayun wrote the Humayun Nama.Jahangir the great connoisseur of painting wrote his autobiography the Tuzuk-i- Jahangiri.Aurangzeb also was

a prolific writer and the last Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar was a notable Urdu poet. Hindi literature made significant progress during Akbars reign.Tulsidas and the Surdas wrote in this period.Keshavdas a great poet wrote on themes of love.Rahims dohas or couplets are extremely popular. It was also in Akbars time that the great Sanskrit work on styles of writing, the Alankarashekhara by Keshava Misra appeared. This was the period of many notable writings in the Persian language.Abul Fazl wrote the Ain-i-Akbari and Akbar Nama.Abul Fazls brother Faizi was a great poet of Persian and was responsible for the translation of many Sanskrit works into Persian.Akbar had started a whole dept for translation of works like Mahabharata, the Ramayana, the Atharva Veda, the Bhagvad Gita and the Panchatantra. Many important historical works were produced under the emperors after Akbar.Some of the important historians were Abdul Hamid Lahori,Khafi Khan,Muhammad Kazim and Sujan Rai Bhandari.Literature in modern Indian languages also continued to grow. The famous book of Bihari called the Satsai in Hindi belongs to this period. One of the most significant developments during the medieval period was the birth of the Urdu language. This new language soon developed one of the richest literatures as a modern Indian language. It produced great poets like Wali,Mir Dard,Mir Taqi Mir,Nazir Akbarabadi,Asadullah Khan Ghalib. Many original prose works in Urdu were written like Muhammad Hussain Azads Darbar-i-Akbari.The Urdu novel was one of the earliest development in the Indian languages. Urdu became the language of the urban people of northern India and the Deccan.

Education under the Mughals

Under the Mughal rule special attention was given to education. During the Akbars reign important changes were introduced in the syllabus of education through the efforts of Shah Fathullah Shirazi.Islamic schools were attached to mosques, Khanqah of the Sufis and tombs. Special buildings were also constructed for imparting education. Their expenses were met from endowments. During the Mughal period the principal centres of learning were at Lahore,Delhi,Ajmer,Sialkot,Multan,Ahmadabad,Allahabad,Lucknow,Murshida bad,Dacca.Many scholars were attracted to these institutions from Persia

and Central Asia. Students received education free of cost. Famous scholars received fixed stipends from the royal treasury. Provisions were made for the teaching of Persian; the official language of the government in the Maktabs.Nizamiyah system of education became popular during the later days of the Mughals. The aim of this system was to create such ability in the scholar so that he is able to acquire perfection in any branch of learning through self-study and personal efforts. While Muslims received education in Maktabs,Hindus had their pathsalas for imparting religious instructions.

Mughal Society
Society in Mughal times was organized on a feudal basis and the head of the social system was Emperor. He enjoyed an unparallel status. He was the ultimate authority in everything. Next in rank were the nobility along the zamindars.The Mughal nobles monopolized most of the jobs in the country. Socially and economically the Mughal nobility formed a privileged class. There were men of every type and nationality among the Mughal nobles. Clan or family links were the most important considerations for recruitment and admission to the aristocratic class of the society.Zamindars or the chieftains also constituted the nobility. They had their own armed forces and generally lived in forts or garhis which was both a place of refuge and a status symbol. There was a large class of merchants and traders. They had their own rights based on tradition and protection of life and property. They also maintained a high standard of living. During Mughal period the Indian society was in the process of developing into a common society for the religious groups of Hindus and Muslims.Intermixing and adaptation of each others culture was fairly common. Among the prevalent social practices the purdah system was one of that but it was practiced more by the women of upper classes. The child marriage was prevalent. Though polygamy was prevalent in upper sections of society the common people followed monogamy. Dowry system was common in Hindu society. The sati was prevalent though Akbar tried to discourage sati by issuing orders but he could not forbid it altogether.Aurangzeb was the only Mughal who issued definite orders in 1664 forbidding sati. The Muslim society was also divided based on the place of origination. The widow remarriage was prevalent in the society. Economically Muslim woman was entitled to a share in the inheritance.

The Hindu society was divided into four castes. The coming of Muslims and their constant condemnation of the caste system made the system more rigid. The Hindu society in order to strengthen itself recasted the Smritis and tried to bring back from the Islamic fold those Muslims who were converts from Hinduism. It was a common practice to maintain a large contingent of slaves both males and females. The prisoners of war were generally the main constituent of this system. They were supposed to perform every task free of cost. But they were not subject to torture. The lower class comprised of the cultivators,artisans,small traders, shopkeepers ,household servants, slaves etc.Most of them were condemned to live a hard life. Their lives were simple and their belongings were meagre.

Mughal Army

The Mughal government was military in origin and it retained its military character. The emperor was the head of the army and its commander-inchief. All the govt officials were enrolled in the army and were commanders of a specified number of horsemen. The Mughal force consisted of five branches of infantry, cavalry, fire-arms, elephants and war boats. The cavalry was the most important and was regarded as the flower of the army. Infantry was the largest branch of the army but it was ill paid and rugged branch. The firearms men consisted of gunners and musketeers. The Mughals had no navy of their own. They delegated the navel defense of the western coast to the Abysinians and Sidis of Janjira. In lower Bengal the govt maintained a flotilla of boats of various types. These boats were placed under a darogha and were equipped with artillery. There was no regimental drill or discipline and no real training. The actual number of troops was only a fraction of the normal strength as recorded in Mir Bakshis register. There was no contract between the commander-in-chief and the individual troops who looked upon the Mansabdars as their immediate chiefs. The pay of the troops was generally in arrears. During the time of the later Mughals sometimes their salaries for three years or more were not paid. Originally the strength of the Mughal army depended upon the mobility of the cavalry. This mobility was lost in the hills and deserts of Rajputana and Maharashtra.During the later days of

Aurangzebs reign it became a prey to Marathas and in the 18th century it proved hopeless against the European trained battalions.

Decline of Mughal Empire

Aurangzebs death in 1706 set off the rapid decline of the Mughal Empire. His successors were weak and increasingly became mere tools in the hands of the nobles. Taking advantage of this the Rajputs, Sikhs and the Afghans openly defied the authority of Mughal emperor. Even more disturbing was the fact that the assertion of independence had spread to other parts of the empire. The governors of Hyderabad, Bengal and Avadh established independent kingdoms and the Marathas reorganized under a new system of government that of the Brahman ministers the Peshwas.They were gradually extending their control towards north India. At the time of foreign invasions such as those of Nadir Shah (1729) and Ahmad Shah Abdali (1747-61) further weakened the empire. The rising power of the Marathas was temporarily checked by their defeat at the hands of Ahmad Shah Abdali in the third battle of Panipat in 1761. The Mughals were now reduced to the area around Delhi. They continued to rule in name until 1857.Real political power was shifted to the hands of the new kingdoms.

Causes of decline of Mughal Empire

Although the Mughal Empire began breaking up in the 18th century, the causes of its decline can be traced back much earlier.Aurangzebs long reign of constant and uninterrupted fighting was not only a big drain on the exchequer but it also led to the negligence of administration. Politically he made number of mistakes which undermined the strength of the Mughal Empire. The empire was also met with financial troubles. There was neither enough money nor jagirs to assign to various officers. This led to rivalry among the nobles for the possessing the existing jagirs.They tried to extort the maximum income from their jagirs at the cost of the peasantry. Attempts were made to transform existing offices and jagirs into hereditary ones.

The officers invariably reduced their expenditure by not maintaining their full quota of troops thus weakening the empires armed strength. The condition of the peasant had also gradually worsened. Higher revenue demands, a greater level of exploitation by jagirdars because of frequent transfers tried to extract as much as possible during their tenure as Jagirdar. The practice of farming the land revenue to the highest bidder after the death of Aurangzeb increased peasant discontentment. The rebellions of the Satnamis, Jats, and the Sikhs were indicative of this. The Zamindars too became rebellious and withheld revenue. The Mughal Empire might have continued to exist for a long time if its administration and armed power had not broken down.

Short Question and Answers

1. What was Jalauddin Khilji before he came to power in 1290? Warden of marches in the north-west 2. Who ended the Turkish monopoly of high offices in the Delhi sultanate? The Khiljis 3. Who was the first ruler of the Delhi Sultanate to put forward the view that the state should be based on the willing support of the governed? Iltutmish 4. Which ruler gave the idea that the state could not be a truly Islamic state? Jalaluddin Khilji 5. How did Jalaluddin Khilji try to gain the goodwill of the nobility? Tolerance and avoiding harsh punishment 6. Who was the Delhi Sultan to start the policy of giving harsh punishment even to the wives and children of rebels? Alauddin Khilji 7. When did Timur invade India? 1398 AD

8. Why did Turkish sultans want to annex Malwa and Gujarat? These were fertile and trade routes near the sea 9. When did Alauddin Khiji launch an attack on Gujarat? 1299 against Rai Karan 10. Where did Alauddin captain Malik Kafur? Cambay during the Gujarat Expedition 11. What was the first state against which Alauddin launched an attack? Ranthambhor 12. Who was the famous poet who accompanied Alauddin in the Ranthambhore campaign? Amir Khusrau 13. The Padmini legend is associated with which place? Chittor 14. Malik Kafur led campaign against which two places in south India? Warangal and Malabar 15. Which was the Deccan state against which Muhammad bin Taghlaq had to suffer reverses initially? Warangal 16. Alauddin Khilji brought reforms in market control after which campaign? Chittor Campaign 17. How many markets did Alauddin establish? Three 18. Under which officer markets of Alauddin functioned? Shahna 19. Which medieval historian wrote about Alauddins market control? Ziauddin Barni 20. What was the price of a first grade horse fixed by Alauddin? 100-120 tanks

21. Who brought fine quality cloth to Delhi from various parts of the country? The Multani traders 22. Why did Alauddin realise the land revenue in cash? To pay his soldiers in cash 23. Who was the first Delhi Sultan to introduce the payment of soldiers in cash? Alauddin Khilji 24. What was a major objective of Alauddins market control according to Barauni? To punish the traders 25. Who was the first Delhi sultan to insist that in the doab,land revenue would be assessed on the basis of measurement of land? Alauddin Khilji 26. Who was the Delhi Sultan who conversed with Muslim mystics along with Hindu yogis? Muhammad Bin Tughlaq 27. Which ruler opened offices on the basis of merit? Muhammad Bin Tughlaq 28. Who was the famous sufi saint whom Muhammad Tughlaq threatened to punish? Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya 29. Which was Muhammad Bin Tughlaqs first expedition? Khorasan expedition 30. In which metal was the token currency introduced during Muhammad bin Tughlaqs time? Bronze 31. With whom did Muhammad tughlaq fight the battle of Jhelum? Tarmashrin the Mongol leader 32. Where did peasant rebellion take place during Muhammad

Bin Tughlaqs reign? Gangetic Doab 33. Where did Muhammad Bin Tughlaq live after leaving Delhi? Swargadwari 34. Where was Swargadwari located? Ganges near Kanauj 35. Who was the Delhi sultan to set up the department of diwan-i-amir-i-kohi? Muhammad bin Tughlaq 36. Who succeeded Muhammad Bin Tughlaq on the throne of Delhi? Firoz Shah Tughlaq 37.Firoz Shah Tughlaqs longest campain were against which states? Gujarat 38. Which Sultan abolished the practice of torturing nobles? Firoz Shah Tughlaq 39. Which sultan prohibited the practice of Muslim women going to worship at the graves of saints? Firoz Shah Tughlaq 40. Who were exempted from paying the jiziya during Firoz Shah Tughlaqs reign? Women,the disabled 41. Which sultan opened the employment bureau? Firoz Shah Tughlaq 42. Which was the longest canal during Firoz Shah Tughlaqs period? From Sutlej to Hansi 43. What were the new towns built by Firoz Shah Tughlaq? Jodhpur,Jaunpur and Hissar 44. How many slaves did Firoz Tughlaq had? 1, 80,000

45. What did Amiran- i- sada mean? Foreign nobles who were amirs of hundred villages. 46. Which medieval chronicler commented on the plague during Muhammad bin Tughlaqs reign? Isami 47. Which were the two groups that rose to prominence during Alauddins reign? Afghans and Indian slaves 48. Who was the first Delhi Sultan first to introduce the practices of Dagh and chehra? Alauddin Khilji 49. Who was the First Delhi sultan to provide for a permanent standing army? Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq 50. What was sarai-i- adl? A separate bazaar dealing with cloth,sugar,herbs,dry fruits etc. 51. What was the rate of taxation in the pre-Islamic India? 1/6 of the produce 52. What was Kharaj? Islamic land tax 53. Which school of Islamic law was permitted in the Sultanate period? Hanafi 54. Rani- Padmini was immortalized in the Padmavat by which poet? Malik Mohammd Jaisi 55. Who was the ruler of Warangal when it was invaded by the Sultanate forces? Pratap Rudra Deva 56. When did the Turkish army first intrude into southern India? In 1295 led by Alauddin Khilji 57. What was the most well known architectural project of Nur

Jahan? White marble mausoleum she built near Agra for her father Itimad ud-Daula 58. Where was Shaikh Salim buried? Jami Mosque 59. Where did Akbar make 14 pilgrimages on foot ? To the dargah of Muinuddin Chisthi 60. How long did Akbar live in Fatehpur Sikri? 15 years 61. Who has given an account of the Agra Fort? Abul Fazl 62. When was the Agra fort completed? 1571 63. Where were the fort palaces built by Akbar? Agra,Lahore and Allahabad 64. Who was the most renowned figure in the Muslim orthodox and revivalist movement of the Mughal period? Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi 65. Who was considered to be the most influential writer on the Dharmashastras during the medieval period? Raghunandan of Navadwipa 66. Who was the saint poet born in Gujarat lived mostly in Rajasthan and preached a non-sectarian path? Dadu 67. Who was the Sikh Guru who completed the compilation of Adi Granth ? Guru Arjan Das 68. Which Mughal Emperor was an accomplished veena player? Aurangzeb 69. From which Mughal Emperors reign did Hindi poets begin to be attached to the Mughal court? Akbar

70. Which provincial style of painting combined the themes of western India or Jain school of painting with the Mughal style? The Rajasthani style 71. Who introduced European paintings at Akbars court? Portuguese priests 72. Who were Jaswant and Dasawan? Two famous painters in Akbars court 73. Moti Masjid is built in which stone? Marble 74. Who was Abu Fazls brother who helped in the translation department? Faizi 75. Who was the great artist of portrait painting in Mughal court? Mansur