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Slowly, BC has been torn away from its easy-money roots as an exploiter of
resources in a world that desperately wanted them; increasingly, it is a province
that has to scrabble to earn a living in a world whose needs and wants are much
different (Markey, 2005, p. 363).
based planning initiatives, specifically in the fields of tourism and education. The
concepts of tourism and education will be coupled with the notion of social,
environmental, and economic sustainability. The insight gleaned from the pre-
existing research in this field will then be applied to case studies of small, formerly
resource-dependent communities in BC, in an attempt to illustrate how and what
works in terms of community reinvention in the face of resource depletion or
industry collapse. From our meta-analysis of these community case studies, it
became clear that community planning, community based tourism, and community
based education were the central pillars around which our case study communities
adapted. We will explore each of these three themes through a close examination of
four specific communities. We will also compile a list of general recommendations
designed for towns facing the task of self-reinvention.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Community planning
Community planning must represent the community members, their needs, values,
goals, and shared culture (Drapper, 2000; Hanna, 2005). For the Canadian town of
Ucluelet, planning for sustainability was a proactive response to community growth
(Hanna, 2005). Ucluelet’s local planner brought in external sources to help avoid
any bias within the community and to assist in community decision making.
Encouraging and allowing community participation in the form of public meetings,
workshops, and events enabled a collective agreement on their community theme
of sustainability and contributed to their official community plan (OCP) (Hanna,
2005). Simple application of external economic or social stimuli usually fails to build
the internal relationships necessary for prolonged community sustainability
(Markey, 2005). It is important that the community plans for self-reliance; reliance
on internal resources, instead of external or non-renewable ones (Hanna, 2005). It is
also suggested that in time a local community planner position be created within
the community’s municipal government, in this way institutionalizing a continual,
on-going planning process (Hanna, 2005; Markey, 2005).
W. 2004; Wiber, M, Charles, A., Kearney, J., & Berkes, F., 2009). Advocacy planning is
geared towards helping the disadvantaged of a community, while collaborative
planning is geared towards compromise and cooperation between various
stakeholders (Peterman, 2004). Most modern community planning positions the
planner as a facilitator (instead of an expert), and places great value on
participation, consultation, and empowerment – community planning without
community input is a moot effort (Peterman, 2004).
Community-based tourism
Despite some negative connotations coupled with the concept of tourism, the
industry does hold promise for many BC towns facing social, economic, and
environmental reinvention in the present day. In some instances tourism fits almost
naturally with rural small towns. Corbett (2005) illustrates this as he recalls how
former fishing families, who possess boats, boat handling skills, and an innate
knowledge of the waterways, have made the natural transition to the whale
watching industry – a tourist magnet along Canada’s Atlantic coast. For the
Northwest Territories the fragile landscape, unique social structures, and the
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METHOD
DATA ANALYSIS
Tofino and Ucluelet are located on either side (north and south respectively)
of the Pacific Rim National Park on the west coast of Vancouver Island, in Canada.
The two towns are about 40km apart and both have populations of fewer than 1,700
full-time residents. These towns were severely isolated until the last few decades,
and they still remain relatively hard to access. Tofino and Ucluelet were founded on
timber harvesting and commercial fishing – industries that were once lucrative, but
had became drastically less so by the mid 1980’s. The decline of timber supplies
and salmon stocks, Aboriginal land claims, Provincial and Federal politics (such as
softwood timber exports, and US-Canadian salmon policy disputes) are just some of
the many complex issues that led to the end of Tofino and Ucluelet’s primary
industries. Tofino and Ucluelet share a similar location, they share a similar
population base, and they once shared the same primary industries. However, as
the two towns faced impending industry closures an important distinction
developed. Tofino became the “place of choice,” where nature lovers and
environmental activists flocked to – and Ucluelet remained where the loggers and
long-time residents lived. At times the relationship between these two different
groups, the newly-arrived environmentally-minded and the long-time loggers grew
contentious. Despite a developing chasm between the two communities, both towns
recognized the importance of community planning, and both towns implemented
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innovative planning processes (Hanna, 2005). Tofino and Ucluelet both planned to
capitalize on the phenomenal Pacific Rim National Park as a means of attracting
tourist dollars. The community planning processes employed by Tofino and Ucluelet
exemplify the principles of collaborative, consensus-based, participatory community
planning as outlined in the academic literature (Berkes, Charles, Kearney, & Wiber,
2008; Binns & Etienne, 2002; Draper, 2000; Hall & Richards, 2000; Hamley, 1991).
By 1998 Ucluelet had drafted an Official Community Plan (OCP) and in 2001
Tofino followed suit. Each town’s OCP took roughly one year to draft and was
compiled by the local municipal government with extensive public input. The OCPs
took into account land use planning, services, and infrastructure development
(Hanna, 2005). The OCPs of each town were characterized by the fact that Tofino
had become an eco-tourism destination, while Ucluelet had simply remained home
to longtime, “blue-collar” residents. Tofino’s OCP was designed to answer to an
exponential increase in tourists. As one resident stated, the planning process in
Tofino was like “still building the boat while you’re sailing out of the harbor” (Hanna,
2005, p. 32). Ucluelet, on the other hand, had very little tourism and its OCP was
designed to foster tourist growth. Tofino’s plan was reactive – Ucluete’s plan was
proactive (Hanna, 2005). Despite the differences in Tofino and Ucluelet’s plans their
planning processes were similar and successful.
Ucluelet exemplified the recommendations for active, local participation, and for
organic, flexible policy that are made repeatedly in academic text (Agyman &
Evans, 2003; Berkes, et al., 2008; Fowler & Etchegary 2008; Hanna, 2005;
Peterman, 2005).
attaining economic viability, and the local values of economic, social, and
environmental sustainability (Hanna, 2005). The successful facilitation practiced in
Tofino to smooth over the resident’s rifts and differences exemplifies the principles
of open consultation and collaborative, participatory community planning. The
drafting of an OCP that reflect Ucluelet’s vision, goals, and values exemplifies the
principles of community focused, community originated planning. The concept of
capitalizing on tourism as a means of re-developing, or re-creating a formerly
resource-dependent community will be further examined in the following section.
Community-based tourism
Along the east coast of central Vancouver Island, lays a small, former mill-town,
called Chemainus. In the 1980’s the one mill in Chemainus shut down, leaving the
town with no industry. Chemainus did not employ a planning process quite as
elaborate, or collaborative as did Tofino and Ucluelet (Hamma, 2005), but in the
face of total economic collapse Chemainus did work to reinvent itself as a tourist
destination. There was some disagreement in the community about trying to attract
tourists – some residents, “did not want to have anything to do with tourism,” while
others were absolutely committed to it (Meisler, 1994, p.3). As stated, the planning
process in Chemainus was not as collaborative, consultative, and participatory as it
could have been, and in the end tourism was rather heavy-handedly decided on as
the course of action (Meisler, 1994). Despite some holes in Chemainus’s planning
process, the kind of tourism that was decided on was very community centered.
European settlers of the area, and to the ocean and marine life of Chemainus
(Meisler, 1994).
At the end of a long dirt road, quietly tucked away on the southwest coast of
Vancouver Island, you will find the small town of Bamfield. Bamfield is surrounded
by old growth forests, and neighbours some of the Island’s most beautiful beaches.
Approximately 500 people call Bamfield home, one third of this population are from
the Huu-ay-aht First Nations Community. This tiny town, once the prosperous hub of
the Westcoast Fisheries, has been forced to reinvent itself in order to sustain itself
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during the past three decades. Its motivation for change came in 1997 when the BC
Ministry for Children and Family Development labeled their 80 students between
kindergarten and grade 12, at high risk for poor health, education, and economic
outcomes (Makhoul, 2004). The announcement of this assessment made the
community realize that the future of Bamfield was destined for tough times, and
that changes must be made soon, otherwise the town would continue in the same
regrettable direction.
The same year, in 1997, the Ministry of Children and Family Development
granted Bamfield $75,000 for improvement to their local educational system. To
allocate this money members of the community, both Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal,
got together and created the Bamfield Community School Association (BCSA). The
BCSA hired Linda Myres as the Bamfield Community School Coordinator. Myres’
theory that “traditional curricula tend to institutionalize learners, making it difficult
to see any connection between life and the world” was a perfect starting point for
Bamfield (Makhoul, 2004, p.2). Recognizing the need to make learning more
relevant for Bamfield residents, Myres decided to incorporate local history, and
knowledge into the educational system. Community members recognized the need
to educate their residents, whether it was in the arts, sciences, or environment –
education was at the root of their solution. The BCSA saw the opportunity and
resources that Bamfield could offer in the way of education in these areas and over
the next decade created: the Bamfield Marine Sciences Centre, the Rigid Hull
Inflatable Officers Training courses (Coast Guard courses), the Coldwater Pinto
Abalone research centre, the Bamfield Huu-ay-aht Community Forest, and the
Bamfield Community School. (Makhoul, 2004).
focused programs developed in Bamfield, the Coast Guard courses, the Marine
Science Centre, and the Abalone project, were designed for longevity.
The programs created by the BCSA both encouraged and enabled locals to learn
about their community and its resources. The Bamfield Marine Sciences Centre, and
the Coldwater Pinto Abalone projects educate residents, young and old, on the
ecosystems that surround their tiny town. The Rigid Hull Inflatable Officers Training
courses teach rescue tactics to people from across Canada and the United States
(Makhoul, 2004). And their Huu-ay-aht Community Forest teaches people how to
harvest mushrooms, salal, and medicinal products, and finds new ways in using
forest materials for artistic creations. By establishing these projects Bamfield has
created future possibilities for academic research and provided incentives for
younger generations to reside in their community (Makhoul, 2004). Not only has
Bamfield concentrated on educating its own members, but they have also started to
educate outsiders; from the Abalone project came Coast Watch, another project that
informs visitors to the area on the regulations of Abalone harvesting, and that any
illegal actions must be reported to the RCMP (Makhoul, 2004).
With help from the OLT, Bamfield plans to expand internet access to the whole
community; they also hope to use video conferencing as a tool to broaden their
health care services. Internet access would offer support and bring more
information to many of the town’s social services such as recreation programs,
women’s services, adult and family education, health education, the community
newspaper, television and radio stations (Makhoul, 2004). The internet allows
people in isolated areas, such as Bamfield, to feel connected to the rest of the
world; it provides updates on innovations and issues, generates ideas for small
communities, and can help in aiding successful educational programs. The ability to
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reflect upon the things that residents were lacking and how educational innovation
could address these deficiencies is another way Bamfield exemplifies the
suggestions made in the academic literature (Fitzgerald, 2005).
In 1997 Bamfield residents realized that their future was not looking bright; they
also realized the potential of using innovative education as a means of reinventing
their community. By using educational programs to re-establish resources in a way
that locals would find interesting, learning has become relevant to all residents.
Bamfield stands as a solid role-model for other coastal communities facing similar
barriers, and fortunately for them “there appears to be no limit to the ideas
Bamfield residents can generate” (Makhoul, 2004, p.8).
RECOMMENDATIONS
Bamfield
• Bamfield used its school as a centre for community wide learning in order for
the entire community to have access to the internet, to the library, and to
online courses seven days a week (Makhoul, 2004).
• Lillooet’s proposal recognized that their community would not respond well to
large projects, so it focused on encouraging small initiatives instead
(Makhoul, 2004).
• The primary mandate of Lillooet Learns was to support and encourage adult
learners in continuing their education through the University College of the
Caribou distance courses via satellite campuses and online courses (Makhoul,
2004).
Upper Skeena
• Through the research project the Upper Skeena learned how to build
relationships and network with important partners in the educational, private,
and public sectors in BC, how to use technology to their advantage, and how
to design their own curriculum (Docherty & Donaldson, 2004).
• Other projects that emerged from the research are the Learning Shop (an
informal education centre), educational programs that offer support to those
struggling with literacy, and mentorship programs for people entering the
work force (Docherty & Donaldson, 2004).
• The Upper Skeena kept a close eye on their youth and held discussions on
how to help youth reconnect with their family and their community (Docherty
& Donaldson, 2004).
CONCLUSIONS
hard work. Community reinvention is time consuming and demands constant and
cooperative effort. However, the alternative to reinvention is the dismal demise of
the community.
REFERENCES
Berkes, F., Charles, A., Kearney, J., & Wiber, M. (2008) Enhancing community
empowerment through participatory fisheries research. Marine
Policy, 33(1), 172-179
Fowler, K. & Etchegary, H. (2008) Economic crisis and social capital: the story
of two rural fishing communities. Journal of Occupational and
Organizational Psychology. 81, 319-341
Holter, I., & Schwartz-Barcott, D. (2008). Action research: What is it? How as
it been used and how can it be used in nursing? Journal of Advanced
Nursing. 18(2) 298-304.
Meisler, S.(1994). Take a look at a town that wouldn’t lie down and die. Smithsonian
25 (2) 1-8.