Horne Mine

Explor. Mining Geol., Vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 91111, 2000 2001 Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum.
. All rights reserved. Printed in Canada. 0964-1823/00 $17.00 + .00
The Horne Mine: Geology, History, Inuence on Genetic Models, and a Comparison to the Kidd Creek Mine
HAROLD L. GIBSON
Mineral Exploration Research Centre, Department of Earth Sciences, Laurentian University Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, P3E 2C6
DAVID J. KERR
Department of Geological Sciences and Geological Engineering, Queens University Kingston, Ontario, Canada, K7L 3N6
SERGIO CATTALANI
INCO Technical Services Limited Copper Cliff, Ontario, Canada, P0M 1N0
Received June 1, 1999; accepted January 10, 2001.
Abstract The Horne mine was truly a world class Cu and Au deposit. Between 1927 and 1989, it produced some 260 t of Au and 1.13 Mt of Cu from 53.7 Mt of ore that averaged 2.22% Cu, 6.1 g/t Au and 13 g/t Ag. The total value of Au and Cu production from the Horne deposit at metal prices of US$300/oz Au and US$1.00/lb Cu is an outstanding US$5.2 billion. The Horne mine was also a company builder. After optioning the property from Ed Horne (Tremoy Syndicate) in 1922, the Thomson-Chadbourne Syndicate discovered the deposit in 1923 and quickly grew to become Noranda, one of the worlds premier mining companies. This discovery fuelled exploration and, along with subsequent discoveries in the Val dOr-Cadillac camps, led to the economic development of northwestern Quebec. The Horne deposit inuenced and continues to inuence genetic models for volcanogenic massive sulde (VMS) deposits. Early observations at Horne contributed to an epigenetic replacement theory for VMS deposits. The most recent genetic model for the Horne, invoking sub-seaoor sulde replacement of silicied and sericitized volcaniclastic host rocks within a graben, has subsequently been proposed for another giant VMS deposit, the Kidd Creek mine. The Horne and Kidd Creek deposits show many similarities, such as localization within synvolcanic grabens, long-lived hydrothermal activity uninterrupted by volcanism, sub-seaoor replacement suldes, stacked sulde lenses, zone rening, silicied footwall rocks characterized by high positive 18O values, and association with FIII rhyolites. Notable differences between the two deposits include the lack of andesitic, basaltic or komatiitic ows at Horne, different inferred water depths, high Au content at Horne versus negligible Au, but sub-economic to economic concentrations of Sn, In and Cd at Kidd Creek. 2001 Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum. All rights reserved.
Part 1 The Horne Deposit

Introduction
The world-class Horne volcanogenic massive sulde (VMS) deposit, located within the Archean Noranda Volcanic Complex (NVC), produced some 260 t of Au and 1.13 Mt of Cu from 53.7 Mt of ore that graded 2.22% Cu, 6.1 g/t Au and 13 g/t Ag (Table 1). Between 1927 and 1989, the Horne mine produced more Au and Cu than any other Archean deposit in Quebec. The total value of the Horne mine production at todays metal prices is a staggering US$5.2 billion. The first part of this paper is a summary of the exploration, discovery and production history of the
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Horne mine and its impact on mineral exploration, the Canadian mining industry and the economic development of northern Canada. This summary is followed by a description of the geology, alteration, and mineralization at the Horne and how observations at the Horne have influenced current genetic models for VMS deposits. In Part 2, the Kidd Creek deposit is briefly described and compared to the Horne deposit. Genetic processes and physical characteristics common to both deposits and their implication for exploration are then discussed in Part 3. This paper is dedicated to the late W.L. Bankie Bancroft, former chief geologist at the Horne (Fig. 1). Bankies knowledge of the Horne mine, his detailed notes, records, and samples, as well as his infectious enthusiasm for its geology has benefited all researchers.
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Explor. Mining Geol., Vol. 9, No. 2, 2000
Fig. 1. Bankie Bancroft (far left) and other members of the Horne mine exploration and production staff, notably Peter Price and Gord Suffel. Photo circa the 1940s (from B. Bancrofts notebooks).
Fig. 2. Photograph of Ed Horne (from B. Bancrofts notebooks).
Exploration History
Without doubt, the discovery of the Horne mine can be attributed to the dogged determination and abilities of one man Edmond Horne (Fig. 2). The discovery of the Horne is best chronicled in the book entitled Noranda by Roberts (1956) and is only briey summarized herein as well as in Table 2. It is important to remember that prospecting in northern Quebec during these early years was incredibly difcult with no existing access except canoe routes, and in most respects, was more challenging and costly than exploration in the remote areas of today. Edmond Horne was an experienced prospector. Born in Nova Scotia in 1869, he prospected and worked in gold
Table 1. Horne mine production summary Horne mine production, 19271976 Remnor production, 19851989 Estimated total gold production Estimated resource remaining 8 942 470 oz Au >17 330 000 oz Ag 1 133 830 t Cu 102 170 oz Au 9 044 640 oz Au 2 900 000 t containing 425 000 oz Au and 13 000 t Cu
Table 2. Horne mine exploration history Discovery is the result of prospecting by Edmund Horne during four prospecting seasons (1911, 1914, 1917, 1920). 1920 1920 1921 1922 1922 1922 1923 1923 1925 Tremoy Lake Prospecting Syndicate established. Horne and Miller staked 70 acres; rst claim staked in 1920 contained about 95% of all exploitable ore. Sampling nally yielded signicant gold values. Additional 160 acres staked. 400 additional acres staked. Discovered A orebody at surface (0.5 opt Au over 2 ft). Thompson-Chadbourne Syndicate acquired the Horne claims. Establishment of the Northern Canada Mines Limited (i.e., Noranda) with J.Y. Murdoch as rst president. Noranda optioned Horne claims. Second drill hole (October) was discovery hole; 131 ft averaging 0.29 opt Au, 0.94 opt Ag, 5.61% Cu. Production decision based on reserves of 611 500 tons grading 0.27 opt Au and 5.66% Cu.
mines there, as well as in Colorado, British Columbia, Labrador, and the Cobalt, Kirkland Lake and Porcupine mining camps of Ontario. Horne rst turned his eyes upon northwest Quebec in 1911. From Kirkland Lake, Horne made three arduous trips to Lake Osisko (known today as Lac Tremoy) in Quebec via the Ottawa and Kinojevis rivers in 1911, 1914, and 1917. During these early visits, Horne prospected the area around Lake Osisko, noting mineralized rhyolite outcrops. However, his samples did not yield signicant Au values. Undaunted by the low assay results, and with faith in the favorable geology surrounding Lake Osisko, Horne managed to raise $225 from 10 individuals and the Tremoy Lake Prospecting Syndicate was formed. With this grubstake, Horne ventured again to Lake Osisko and staked 70 acres, not realizing at that time that his rst claim would ultimately contain about 95% of all the ore exploited from the Horne mine. The 1921 eld season proved to be a turning point. Surface sampling near what later became the No. 2 and No. 1 shaft zones yielded Au values of 5.1 to 8.6 g/t and 25.7 to 54.9 g/t, respectively (gold, at this time, was worth $20.67 an ounce). These encouraging values led to the staking of an additional 160 acres and, as Hornes exploits were beginning to attract attention, the Tremoy Lake Prospecting Syndicate staked an additional 400 acres in 1922. During the 1922 eld season, prospecting resulted in the discovery of mineralization, which returned values of 17.1 g/t Au over 0.61 m. This discovery later became known as the A orebody. Many companies and individuals were closely monitoring Hornes exploration results in far gone Quebec; however, it was the Thomson-Chadbourne Syndicate that would successfully acquire the Tremoy Lake Prospecting Syndicates claims in August of 1922. The Thomson-Chadbourne Syndicate had been formed in 1921 by two American mining engineers, S.C. Thomson and H.W. Chadbourne, to explore in northern Ontario, particularly in the Kirkland
The Horne Mine: Geology, History, Inuence on Genetic Models H.L. GIBSON ET AL. Table 3. Horne mine production history 1923 1925 1926 1927 Discovery. Sinking of the No. 1 and No. 2 shafts began. Sinking of the No. 3 Shaft began; smelter planned. Production started 752 oz Au, 250 tons Cu in 1927. Cu smelter treated 9743 tons with a value of $14,103. Reserves 1 087 200 t grading 9.02 g/t Au, 6.73% Cu. Noranda came into production. 1976 Production ceased nal production estimated at 53 706 990 t grading 6.1 g/t Au, 13 g/t Ag, 2.2% Cu. 198689 Remnor production phase mined 604 000 t grading 5.8 g/t Au. Resource remaining 2 900 000 t grading 5.0 g/t Au, 0.45% Cu. No. 5 Zone >150 Mt of massive to semi-massive sulde grading 0.14% Cu, 0.3 g/t Au, 0.7% Zn.
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Lake area. After difcult negotiations with the thirteen individual partners of the Tremoy Lake Prospecting Syndicate, a deal was struck whereby the Thomson-Chadbourne Syndicate optioned a 90% interest in the Lake Osisko property for $320,000. The deal required $5000 payable at the beginning of January 1923, followed by $5000 every six months until January 15, 1928, with $265,000 payable on the nal option date. The remaining 10% interest eventually took the form of shares in Noranda, the Canadian operating company incorporated in December of 1922 to nance the ThomsonChadbourne Syndicates exploration and development of the Lake Osisko property. The syndicates lawyer, J.Y. Murdoch, became Norandas rst president, a position that he held until 1956. The Thomson-Chadbourne Syndicate acquired new ground known as the Powell and Chadbourne claims in the summer and fall of 1922. Rumours of Au-bearing quartz veins on the Powell claims led to a staking rush in the summer of 1923, with some 86 000 acres already staked by
March of that year. In 1923, Noranda initially focussed on the Powell and then the Chadbourne claims because they were considered more prospective than the Horne claims and were 100% held by Noranda. While the rst shaft in northwestern Quebec was being sunk on the Chadbourne claims, a single drill rig was moved from the Powell claims to the Horne claims to test known surface showings on a property that was costing the syndicate substantial option payments. In late August of 1923, the second drill hole (collared in massive sulde) intersected 40 m averaging 9.94 g/t Au, 32.2 g/t Ag and 5.61% Cu. This was the Horne mine discovery hole. The sulde lens intersected would eventually be known as the D orebody. Not only had gold been discovered but, to everyones surprise, copper as well. Thus was borne Noranda, one of Canadas premier integrated mining companies.
Production History
Following the 1923 discovery, the Horne property was aggressively explored (Table 3). By the end of 1924, a total of 554 000 t of proven and indicated ore grading 9.25 g/t Au and 5.66% Cu had been delineated (Roberts, 1956). Based on these reserves, a positive development decision was made, and the sinking of the No. 1 and No. 2 shafts was initiated in 1925, followed by the sinking of the No. 3 shaft in 1926. Plans for a smelter were drawn up. Construction of a smelter was an economic gamble, given the relatively limited ore reserves at this stage; however, it paid off handsomely in the years to come when the Horne deposit proved to be much larger than initially projected. Commercial production at the Horne mine started in late 1927 less than
Fig. 3a. Annual Horne mine gold production. Diamonds represent produced ounces of gold (taken from annual reports of Noranda Inc.), whereas, squares represent contained ounces of gold (calculated from the average grade of the tonnes mined). Gold produced from the Horne mine is reported separately in annual reports only up to 1968; thereafter, the total annual gold production has been estimated from the average grade of total Horne mine tonnes treated by the Horne metallurgical complex. The isolated square in 1989 represents the total gold derived from the Remnor production phase.
Fig. 3b. Annual Horne mine copper production. Diamonds represent produced tonnes of copper (taken from annual reports of Noranda Inc.), whereas, squares represent contained tonnes of copper (calculated from the average grade of the tonnes mined). Copper produced from the Horne mine is reported separately in annual reports only up to 1968; thereafter, the total annual copper production has been estimated from the average grade of total Horne mine tonnes treated by the Horne metallurgical complex.
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Fig. 5. Noranda Volcanic Complex showing the location of VMS deposits, Mine Sequence and Horne stratigraphy, the subvolcanic Flavrian-Powell plutons and major structural elements including the Horne Creek Fault (after Kerr and Gibson, 1993; Richard, 1998).
Fig. 4. Exploration and discovery history of NW Quebec (after Lulin, 1990).
four and a half years after the discovery drill hole and in that rst year, the mine yielded 752 oz of Au and 227 t of Cu. The smelter came on stream in December 1927 and processed 9743 t of ore by the year-end. With the Horne mine in production, Noranda had its rst cash ow and reserves stood at 1 087 200 t grading 9.02 g/t Au and 6.73% Cu (Roberts, 1956). Mine workings would eventually extend to a depth of 2440 m (8000 ft), although nearly all the production came from the Upper H and Lower H orebodies in the upper 950 m of the mine. The Horne mine remained in continuous production until 1976, although there were sharp reductions in production due to a labor shortage following World War II and a strike in 1953. Figures 3a and 3b illustrate the Horne mines annual production of Au and Cu. The discrepancy between total ounces or tonnes produced (diamonds, from smelter production records) and contained ounces or tonnes (squares, based on the average grade of the tonnes mined each year) is a result of inaccurate grade estimation, unforeseen mining dilution and, of course, metallurgical recovery. The largest difference between actual production and contained metal occurred over the period from 1930 to 1940. Au and Cu production from 1927 to 1944 (18 years) almost equaled the production of the subsequent 32 years (1945 to 1976), partly because of increased mining depths. Bearing in mind that the total metal production for the
period 1969 to 1976 is calculated, not measured, the Horne mine yielded a total production of 1 133 830 t of Cu, >17 330 000 oz of Ag and an outstanding 8 942 470 oz of Au from 53 706 990 t of ore until mine closure in 1976. The Ag production gure is a minimum since production records only cover the period from 1927 to 1959. A later phase of production (the Remnor project of 1986-89) exploited gold-only, ux ore from the upper levels of the Horne mine. The Remnor project added an additional 102 170 oz of Au (calculated ounces) production from 604 000 t of ore. Remnor increased the total Au production from the Horne mine to 9 044 640 oz.
Economic and Social Signicance

The production and reserve statistics in Tables 1 and 3 indicate that the Horne mine was an incredibly rich and protable deposit. The mine was clearly a companymaker and provided Noranda with the capital, technical experience, and condence required for its continued success and growth into one the worlds premier integrated mining companies. Also, it had a tremendous impact on exploration in northwestern Quebec, and led directly to subsequent discoveries of gold and base metal deposits in the region, including Waite-Amulet (1925), Quemont (1944), Millenbach (1966) and Ansil (1980) (Fig. 4; Chartrand and Cattalani, 1990). Norandas success at Horne provided the economic impetus and infrastructure (railways, roads, labor, etc.) which fuelled the development and settlement of northwestern Quebec.
The Horne Mine: Geology, History, Inuence on Genetic Models H.L. GIBSON ET AL.
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Fig. 6. Diagrammatic, reconstructed, north-south cross-section through the Noranda Cauldron and location of VMS deposits (section AA of Figure 5; Gibson and Watkinson, 1990).
Regional Geology
Volcanic rocks of the Noranda area comprise the youngest central volcanic complex within the Archean Blake River Group of the Abitibi Subprovince. The 7 km to 9 km thick Noranda Volcanic Complex (NVC) is interpreted to be a large shield volcano, approximately 35 km in diameter, that consists of rhyolitic, andesitic, and basaltic ows and minor pyroclastic rocks (de Rosen-Spence, 1976; Dimroth et al., 1982). The NVC is subdivided into ve conformable cycles (cycles I through V) that young to the east, with each cycle consisting of an andesitic/basaltic lower unit and a bimodal, andesitic/basaltic and rhyolitic upper unit (Fig. 5). The Mine Sequence (or Cycle III) hosts 17 massive sulde deposits and is interpreted to have erupted during a period of cauldron subsidence (Gibson and Watkinson, 1990). The Horne deposit is located adjacent to, but south of, the inferred south margin of the subsidence structure (the Noranda Cauldron) and is separated from the Mine Sequence by the Horne Creek Fault (Fig. 5). Portions of the Flavrian and Powell plutons that core the NVC are interpreted to be the intrusive equivalent of the magma chamber that fed this volcanic edice (Goldie, 1979; Paradis et al., 1988). U-Pb zircon dating by Mortensen (1987) has established a preliminary age of 2698.7 Ma (minimum) for Cycle II rhyolite, 2697.9 Ma +1.3/ 0.7 Ma for Cycle V rhyolite and an age of 2701.5 Ma 1 Ma for the trondjhemitic phase of the composite Flavrian Pluton. These ages suggest that the entire NVC may have formed in as little as 3.5 Ma (Mortenson, 1987). However, a preliminary discordant U-Pb zircon age of 2679 by Richard (1998) indicates that the late trondhjemite phase, which constitutes up to one-third of the Flavrian Pluton, may be 20 Ma younger than the Mine Sequence and, therefore, postdates VMS mineralization.
Recent geochronological research suggests the late trondjhemitic phase may be older than 2679 Ma (A. Galley, pers. comm.). The lack of published geochronological data for the volcanic stratigraphy that hosts the Horne deposit has hampered correlation of the Horne Mine Sequence with the Mine Sequence or, indeed, with any other cycle north of the Horne Creek Fault (Kerr and Wasteneys, in progress).
The Noranda Cauldron

The Noranda Cauldron is a 15 km by 20 km area of synvolcanic subsidence with structural margins dened by the Hunter Creek and Horne Creek faults to the north and south, respectively, and by the west margin of the Flavrian Pluton and the Dalambert Shear/Dufault Pluton to the west and east, respectively (Figs. 5 and 6; Lichtblau and Dimroth, 1980; Dimroth et al., 1982; Gibson and Watkinson, 1990). Cauldron subsidence was passive, piece-meal and is interpreted to have occurred in response to the emplacement and partial evacuation of an underlying magma chamber, now represented by comagmatic phases of the Flavrian and Powell plutons, which occupy the center of the subsidence structure. The Mine Sequence erupted from vents within, and was largely conned to, the cauldron. Measured fault offsets and stratigraphic reconstruction suggest trap door-like subsidence, with a minimum of 0.5 km and 1.2 km of down drop along faults at its north and south margins, respectively (Fig. 6; Gibson and Watkinson, 1990). Subsidence, primarily along the south margin of the cauldron (Horne Creek Fault), continued during Cycle IV volcanism, and the small Delbridge and Deldona massive sulde deposits formed within the nested Delbridge Cauldron along the southern margin of the Noranda Cauldron (Gibson, 1990). The amount of sub-
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Fig. 7. Geological plan of the Horne mine on the 200 ft level, showing Upper H massive sulde (UH) and G orebody. Mine coordinates in feet (after Kerr and Gibson, 1993).
sidence during Cycle IV volcanism, mainly along the Horne Creek fault, was probably on the order of 1 km to 2 km (Gibson, 1990).
Geology of the Horne Mine

The Horne mine lies within the Horne Block, an eastwest-trending wedge of dominantly rhyolitic volcanic rocks that is bound to the north and south by major sub-vertical faults (the Horne Creek and Andesite faults). These faults dene the southern margin of the Noranda Cauldron (Figs. 5 and 7). The north-facing volcanic stratigraphy within the Horne Block is sub-vertical and strikes eastsoutheasterly. Attempts to stratigraphically or geochronologically correlate the Horne rhyolites with volcanic units outside the Horne Block have been largely unsuccessful. Although massive to semi-massive suldes extend from surface to a depth of >2650 m, nearly all production came from the Upper H and Lower H orebodies (Fig. 8) located within the upper 950 m of the workings. These two orebodies have limited strike lengths (max. 600 m) and a sub-vertical plunge, and thus fall entirely within Ed Hornes original claim. The Horne volcanic sequence is approximately 900 m thick and consists of rhyolitic lobe-hyaloclastite lava ows, related autoclastic breccias, volcaniclastic rocks including primary pyroclastic and syn-eruptive redeposited, monolithic to heterolithic volcanic tuffs and lapilli tuffs (largely mass ow and debris ow deposits), and minor dacitic lava ows and cryptodomes. Kerr and Gibson (1993) informally divided the Horne sequence into three formations (Figs. 9
Fig. 8. Vertical, north-south cross-section through the Horne mine and Upper H (UH) and Lower H (LH) massive sulde lenses. See Figure 7 for legend and location of section (after Kerr and Gibson, 1993).
and 10) with stratabound, massive to disseminated Cu-AuAg (-Zn) sulde mineralization known to occur at six stratigraphic levels. The large Upper H and Lower H bodies occur near the top of the middle formation. Much of the stringer/disseminated sulde mineralization at the Horne
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Fig. 9. Simplied and idealized stratigraphic sections through the Horne and Kidd Creek deposits.
mine is contained within a broad, discordant alteration pipe, which extends at least 450 m stratigraphically below the Upper H body. The small, sub-economic G Zone massive sulde lens occurs atop a series of rhyolite ows in the uppermost formation of the Horne volcanic pile. Most of the Remnor production came from a sericite-dominated alteration pipe below the G Zone. The Upper H and Lower H orebodies are composed of pyrite and pyrrhotite, with lesser amounts of chalcopyrite, magnetite and, locally, sphalerite, plus trace amounts of native gold (electrum) and Au-Ag telluride minerals (Price, 1933). The two sulde bodies are bowl-shaped in mine plan but elongate in the vertical dimension (Fig. 8). Their elongation is attributable to a graben-like, paleo-geographic (synvolcanic) depositional setting rather than to post-mineral tectonic stretching. The Lower and Upper H orebodies are stratabound, but non-stratiform, deposits that are co-eval and co-stratigraphic but formed in two separate hydrothermal vent sites on the seaoor. Upper H extended from surface to a mine depth of 395 m, whereas, the Lower H extended from mine depths of 365 m to 945 m. Together, the H orebodies yielded over 90% of the Horne mine production. Today, both orebodies are essentially mined out. A third, sub-economic, massive to semi-massive sulde body the No. 5 Zone stratigraphically overlies the Lower H orebody and extends to a mine depth of at least 2650 m (Fig. 11). The tabular and stratiform No. 5 Zone contains in excess of 150 Mt; how-
ever, it is chiey composed of pyrite (with quartz and sericite) and averages only 0.7% Zn, 0.3 g/t Au and 0.14% Cu. A limited tonnage of gold ore was developed in two, higher-grade shoots oriented parallel to the long (down-dip) dimension of the No. 5 Zone (Fig. 11). Post-mineral deformation brought about a geometrical complexity that hampered proper reconstruction of the Horne stratigraphy for many years. Faulting, particularly a northeasterly-trending set of curviplanar splays off the Andesite Fault, sliced the Upper H massive sulde lens into small bodies that were each assigned a different alphanumeric name by mine geologists. Furthermore, four suites of intrusive rocks are known to crosscut the sulde mineralization. The oldest intrusions are small-volume, porphyritic cryptodomes of intermediate composition that breached the western side of the Upper H orebody and caused signicant remobilization of suldes on a local scale. Next to intrude was an extensive swarm of dioritic (metadiabase) dikes and sills. These mac dikes are particularly prevalent on the upper mine levels, and early researchers considered them to have had great genetic signicance with respect to formation of the sulde ores. Narrow, post-metamorphic, quartz syenite dikes of Late Archean age and two wide diabase dikes of Proterozoic age constitute the last two intrusive phases to cut the Horne orebodies. Some of the most visibly spectacular concentrations of gold and telluride minerals at the Horne occurred with quartz veins associated with quartz syenite dikes. These auriferous quartz veins (now inter-
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Fig. 10. Volcanostratigraphic reconstruction of the Horne mine sequence, based on the geology of the 975 ft level (after Kerr and Gibson, 1993).
preted as a local remobilization phenomenon), together with the location of the Horne mine between second-order splays off the Cadillac-Larder Lake Break (the Horne Creek and Andesite Faults), helped foster a popular belief in the 1980s that Au at the Horne deposit was introduced by a post-volcanic, epigenetic overprint event. However, the syngenetic Au model is now generally accepted (Kerr and Mason, 1990; MacLean and Hoy, 1991; Barrett et al., 1991; Cattalani et al., 1993).
Hydrothermal Alteration
The felsic stratigraphy hosting the Horne deposit is dominated by low-potassium rhyolite (<0.5 wt% K20) that belongs to an Fe-rich fractionation series and exhibits incompatibility of the high-eld strength elements (Zr, Y, Nb, Ta, Th, U, and REE; MacLean and Hoy, 1991; Cattalani et al., 1993). In contrast to the Central Mine Sequence volcanic rocks, which host the majority of massive sulde deposits in the Noranda camp, volcanic rocks at Horne are distinctly tholeiitic in character, with only a few samples being transitional toward the calc-alkaline series (MacLean
and Hoy, 1991). Horne rhyolites have characteristically low Zr/Y ratios (2.9 to 5.8), at REE patterns (Lan/Ybn = 1.4 to 2.8) and moderately negative Eu anomalies (Cattalani et al., 1993; Kerr and Gibson, 1993) and, as such, generally correspond to the FIIIa tholeiitic group of Lesher et al. (1986) (Fig. 12). Hydrothermal alteration associated with the Horne VMS deposit is widespread and pervasive, affecting almost all volcanic rocks within the fault-bounded Horne Block. MacLean and Hoy (1991) estimated that a volume of at least 5 km3 of rock was altered. The dominant alteration minerals are quartz, sericite, and chlorite, with less common albite, epidote, calcite, pyrite and leucoxene. There are two styles of VMS-related hydrothermal alteration: (1) pervasive, semiconformable quartz-sericite alteration, which accounts for more than 90% of the total volume of altered rocks; and (2) localized, discordant chloritization, which primarily affects the immediate footwall rocks to the Upper and Lower H massive sulde bodies. Anastomosing networks of Cu-Au-bearing Fe-chlorite-sulde veinlets are superimposed on earlier quartz-sericite alteration deeper in the footwall sequence. Secondary quartz occurs mainly as veinlets, amygdulellings, primary void space lling, as a matrix replacement
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in rhyolite breccia, and as a cherty component of tuffaceous units. Sericite is most abundant in the matrix of rhyolite tuff
and breccia, and typically replaces plagioclase phenocrysts and other grains. An early formed chlorite phase is also common in altered rhyolites in the quartz-sericite zone where it is replaced by sericite in highly altered rocks. The Fe/(Fe+Mg) ratios of this chlorite resemble those in the bulk rock (0.5) suggesting minimal addition or removal of Fe or Mg during its formation (MacLean and Hoy, 1991). Epidote, pyrite and leucoxene are minor components of altered plagioclase alteration and also occur as open-space lling minerals. Calcite occurs primarily as veinlets, with or without quartz, and as disseminations within the breccia matrix and tuff. Disseminated calcite is interpreted to be a product of an early, synvolcanic alteration. Mass change calculations (MacLean and Hoy, 1991; Barrett et al., 1991; Cattalani et al., 1993) indicate that the quartz-sericite zone is enriched in Si, K, Rb, and Ba and depleted in Na, Ca, and Sr (Fig. 13). Calculated changes in Mg and Fe are commonly small. The extent of secondary sericite formation is limited by the amount of available Al in the precursor rock (MacLean and Kranidiotis, 1987) and, therefore, is controlled by the replacement of plagioclase; K is supplied by the altering uid (MacLean and Hoy, 1991). Calcite occurs along the periphery of the sericite alteration
Fig. 11. Longitudinal, vertical cross-section through the Upper and Lower H orebodies and the No. 5 Zone. View looking north. Isopach maps of Upper and Lower H are presented on the right (after Kerr and Mason, 1990).
Fig. 12. Chondrite-normalized spider diagram depicting the FIIIa and FIIIb afnity of the Horne and Kidd Creek footwall rhyolites, respectively. The Horne and Kidd Creek rhyolite data each represent an average of six least-altered samples (after Kerr and Gibson, 1993; Prior et al., 1999). Gd values for the Horne samples were calculated by linear interpretation between Sm and Tb. Normalization values after Nakamura (1974).
Fig. 13. Calculated mass gains for (a) SiO2 and K2O, and (b) Ba and K (after Barrett et al., 1991).
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Fig. 14. Plot of measured 18O values against (a) calculated 18O, and (b) normative quartz (after MacLean and Hoy, 1991).
zones and complements the signicant Ca and Sr depletion, which characterizes more proximal alteration assemblages. At Horne, the vast amounts of Si and K added to the overall rock mass (at the expense of Ca and Na) dwarfs the enrichment in the ore suite (Cu, Au, Zn, Fe and S; Fig. 13). Even the amount of Ba added to the system was greater than the amount of Cu. Ba occurs as a trace constituent in secondary sericite rather than in barite (MacLean and Hoy, 1991; Fig. 13). The Horne footwall alteration (sericitization and silicication) is characterized by large additions of Si and K and consequent mass gain, along with high positive 18O values. On the other hand, the smaller intracauldron VMS deposits are characterized by chloritic alteration accompanied by signicant mass loss and low 18O values (Gibson and Kerr, 1993). These intracauldron deposits typically boast a sericitized envelope around a prominent, chloritized core where hydrothermal temperatures are inferred to have been higher (Knuckey et al., 1982); at Horne, the corresponding chlorite cores are more restricted in size and ver-
tical extent but the enveloping sericite zone is broader. Thus, it is essentially the proportion of alteration sericite to chlorite that differs between the lava-hosted intracauldron VMS deposits and the Horne deposits that are hosted in coarse volcaniclastic rocks. The higher proportion of sericite alteration to chlorite alteration is interpreted to reect a pronounced increase in the degree of dilution and cooling of upwelling hydrothermal uids by down-drawn seawater in the volcaniclastic-dominated sub-seaoor environment at Horne (Gibson and Kerr, 1993; Gibson et al., 1999). The large Kidd Creek VMS deposit at Timmins, Ontario, is also characterized by an extensive zone of footwall and hangingwall sericitization and silicication and by localized zones of discordant footwall chlorite alteration (Campbell et al., 1984; Huston et al., 1995). Intense chloritization associated with chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, magnetite, and locally Au is limited to relatively small volumes of rhyolite in the immediate stratigraphic footwall to, and along the western and eastern contacts of, the H orebodies. The chlorite zone is characterized by quartz-chlorite-leucoxene or chlorite-leucoxene quartz, with sericite and epidote present locally. Evidence of replacement of sericite by chlorite and depletion of quartz is common. The chlorite in these zones is distinctly more Ferich (Fe/Fe+Mg = 0.65 to 0.85) than chlorite of rocks in the quartz-sericite zone (MacLean and Hoy, 1991; Barrett et al., 1991; Cattalani et al., 1993). Chlorite geothermometry using the calibrations of Cathelineau and Nieva (1985) and Kranidiotis and MacLean (1987) has yielded calculated temperatures of 250C to 310C in the chlorite zone and 230C to 275C in the quartz-sericite zone. Rocks from the chlorite zone have lost mass or volume mainly due to silica removal. Chloritized zones also show signicant depletions in Si, Na, Ca, K, and related trace elements such as Ba, Rb, and Sr, whereas, they have been enriched in Fe and, to a lesser extent, Mg (MacLean and Hoy, 1991; Cattalani et al., 1993). Although traditionally considered to be highly immobile during water-rock interaction, REE mobility in intensely hydrothermally altered volcanic rocks hosting VMS deposits was demonstrated by Campbell et al. (1984), MacLean (1988), and Barrett et al. (1991). At Horne, the LREEs exhibit the largest degree of mobility, whereas, the HREE are less so. REE losses are greatest in the chlorite zone and REE gains are greatest in the silica-sericite zone. Data from Kidd Creek (Campbell et al., 1984) and a study of the Phelps Dodge VMS deposits (MacLean, 1988) indicate that REE are typically leached from high-temperature, Fe-chlorite alteration zones and re-precipitated in peripheral, lower-temperature, silica-sericite zones.
Isotopic Studies
Sulfur isotopic results from samples collected at Horne are similar to those obtained from most other studies of Precambrian massive suldes, with reported 34S compositions
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of ore sulde minerals in the range of magmatic sulfur values (0 to 2 per mil; Hoy, 1988; MacLean and Hoy, 1991; Cattalani et al., 1993). Temperature estimates are inconsistent, therefore mineral deposition is inferred to have occurred under disequilibrium conditions from uids that were isotopically homogeneous with respect to sulfur (MacLean and Hoy, 1991). Carbon isotopic data from calcites (13C = -4.5 to -2.0 per mil) suggest uid isotopic compositions of 13C = -11.5 per mil, assuming T = 300C50C and neutral to acidic uids (MacLean and Hoy, 1991). These isotopic characteristics are compatible with seawater compositions. Bulk rock 18O values range from 3.9 to 11.6 per mil, with a majority of samples between 7 and 11 per mil (Fig. 14; MacLean and Hoy, 1991). Quartz-sericite-altered rhyolite ranges in 18O values from 6.6 to 11.6 per mil, whereas, chloritized rhyolite exhibits 18O values that range from 3.9 to 4.4 per mil (MacLean and Hoy, 1991). Whole rock 18O changes generally reect equilibrium isotope fractionation in the order 18Ochlorite<18Osericite<18Oquartz. Quartz separates from veins and altered wall rocks yielded 18O values from 10.2 to 12.1 per mil (three samples; MacLean and Hoy, 1991). Two chlorite separates from ore and footwall rocks yielded 18O values of 2.3 and 2.4 per mil; calcite separates from the quartz-sericite zone yielded 18O values of 8.1 and 9.5 per mil (two samples); and two magnetite separates from massive magnetite zones in the H orebodies yielded 18O values of 0.1 and 1.3 per mil (MacLean and Hoy, 1991). Estimated uid oxygen isotopic compositions obtained from all mineral separates (assuming mineral formation temperatures of 250C to 350C) range from 18O values of 1.0 to 6.0 per mil. However, calculations indicate that all isotopic compositions of mineral separates (excluding magnetite) could be explained by formation from uids with 18O = 3 to 4 per mil under variable temperature conditions (MacLean and Hoy, 1991). Thus, variation in the isotopic composition of the uid need not be the primary cause for the range in measured 18O values of mineral separates (Hoy, 1988). Calculations based on the application of the open-system water-rock interaction systematics of Criss and Taylor (1986) to the Horne data indicate that alteration at the Horne mine occurred under water-dominated conditions (water-rock mass ratio >2; Cattalani et al., 1993). Under these conditions, the isotopic composition of the altered rock is principally controlled by the isotopic composition of the uid (assuming equilibrium mineral-uid fractionation). Hypothetically, water-dominated alteration at T = 300C by uids of 18O = 3 to 4 per mil would produce isotopic compositions of quartz (18O = 10.4 to 11.4 per mil), sericite (18O = 6.6 to 7.6 per mil) and chlorite (18O = 2.5 to 3.5 per mil) which are consistent with bulk rock and mineral separates from the silica-sericite and chlorite zones at Horne. The hydrothermal uids, at least for the quartz and sericite alteration, are inferred to have been down-drawn seawater mixed with ascending, isotopically modied seawater that evolved through water-rock interac-
tion within a larger sub-seaoor hydrothermal system. Another possible explanation for the anomalously high,
18O values of silicied and sericitized rhyolites at Horne
relates to their strong pervasive silicication. As shown by MacLean and Hoy (1991), alteration mineralogy directly affects bulk-rock oxygen isotopic composition (Figs. 13 and 14; MacLean and Hoy, 1991). For example, high positive 18O values are expected in silicied zones, whereas, significantly lower 18O values are expected in chloritized zones. The higher-than-expected 18O values that characterize sericite-quartz-altered volcanic rocks at Horne are interpreted to result primarily from an early, widespread, lowtemperature silicication of the host rhyolites. The excellent correlation between bulk rock 18O values and wt% SiO2 (which is directly related to silica addition or leaching) reported by Barrett and MacLean (1991) support this interpretation. An alternative model would require the presence of an 18O-enriched uid. This was rst suggested by Beaty and Taylor (1988) to explain the high overall 18O values at Kidd Creek.
Evolution of Genetic Models

The Horne mine was discovered more than 40 years before the advent of a modern understanding of the syngenetic nature of VMS deposits. Early workers, such as Price (1933) and Suffel (1935), noted a spatial association of massive sulde ore with faults and shear zones and, particularly near surface, an elongation of the orebodies parallel to these northeasterly and northwesterly structures. These geologists also correctly recognized the replacement textures within the sulde ores, most importantly, the replacement of pyritesphalerite by chalcopyrite-pyrrhotite-magnetite, a process that they interpreted to be the result of rising uid temperatures. This sulde paragenetic sequence, down-played in the 1970s during the syngenetic conversion, was rediscovered by Eldridge et al. (1983) in their study of the Kuroko VMS deposits of Japan, and by numerous researchers studying black smoker sulde deposits on the modern seaoor (see references in Lydon, 1984, 1988). Study of modern seaoor sulde deposits has constrained the timing, chemical and mechanical aspects of the progressive sulde replacement (now referred to as zone rening) and the paragenetic sequence rst recognized by early researchers at Horne and elsewhere is now recognized as typical of almost all VMS deposits, regardless of geologic age. Gold mineralization was once thought to represent the youngest paragenetic stage at Horne. Early genetic models of the 1920s and 1930s invoked fault-controlled, epigenetic hydrothermal replacement of favorable host rocks (i.e., rhyolites). Mac volcanic rocks were considered less chemically susceptible to replacement, and mac dikes were interpreted to have acted as physical barriers to hydrothermal uids and were, therefore, important ore controls. This epi-
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Fig. 15. Reconstructed plan view and cross-section of the Horne paleo-graben (after Kerr and Mason, 1990).
genetic theory strongly inuenced worldwide VMS genetic modelling for the next four decades. During this time, scientic debate at the Horne mine centered around the age of the sulde mineralization with respect to the Proterozoic diabase dikes, which were generally sulde-free but which rarely hosted high-grade chalcopyrite veins perpendicular to their contacts. Price (1933) and Suffel (1935) interpreted the ores to be post-diabase, whereas, Peale (1930) considered the ores to be pre-diabase. Cooke et al. (1931) and Price (1948) proposed that the ores were penecontemporaneous with diabase intrusion. By 1948, three years after the nearby Quemont deposit was discovered, most of the production from the Horne was coming from the Lower H orebody. Price (1948) reafrmed the prevailing theory that the sulde-gold ores were epigenetic and controlled by an upward-branching network of NW (concordant) and NE-trending faults. Petrographic observations still suggested that the gold mineralization was paragenetically later than the base metal sulde mineralization. Price (1948) also cited the angular discordance of the contacts of the Upper H and Lower H orebodies as additional evidence in favor of an epigenetic replacement model for the deposit. Our understanding of the formation of VMS deposits was radically changed in the mid- to late-1960s. At the Horne and similar deposits in the Abitibi, researchers such as Roscoe (1965) and Gilmour (1965) proposed that massive sulde bodies were actually fumarolic deposits, which formed at the same time as their host rocks. This volcanogenic theory was universally accepted only after years of debate within the scientific community. At Horne, Mookherjee and Suffel (1968) and Darling and Suffel (1969) clearly established that the massive sulde mineralization of the Upper H and Lower H bodies not only pre-dated the Proterozoic diabase dikes but also the dikes of metadiabase (late volcanic diorite). Sinclair (1970, 1971) and Fisher (1970) documented the synvolcanic nature of the No. 5 Zone.
Very little ore deposit research was undertaken at the Horne during the 1970s and 1980s when the volcanogenic model was being consolidated and rened by an extraordinary explosion of eld-based studies at massive sulde deposits around the world. Because of this research vacuum, geologists attempting to explain the high gold grade of the Horne orebodies relied upon historical observations and interpretations, which had an epigenetic bias. This led to a two-pronged genetic model wherein gold mineralization was epigenetic, and overprinted pre-existing syngenetic massive suldes. The Horne and two other gold-rich massive sulde deposits (Quemont, Delbridge) occur along the Horne Creek Fault at the southern margin of the Noranda Cauldron, i.e., closer to the Kirkland Lake-Cadillac Break, a signicant structure that localized lode Au deposits from Kirkland Lake to Val DOr. Perhaps more than any other factors, this spatial coincidence of the Horne deposit with the Horne Creek Fault, a structure that controlled the formation of the nearby Donalda Au deposit (Riverin et al., 1990), together with the presence of late syenite intrusions at Horne, contributed to the popularity of the epigenetic overprint model. The epigenetic model was disputed in the early 1990s by Kerr and Mason (1990), Barrett et al. (1991), Cattalani et al. (1993) and Kerr and Gibson (1993) who presented a variety of eld and petrographic evidence that indicated a synvolcanic origin for both the gold and copper mineralization at Horne. Ongoing geochronologic studies also support this syngenetic model.
The Current Horne Deposit Model

The Upper H and the Lower H orebodies and the No. 5 Zone are interpreted to have formed in a paleo-graben on the margin of a submarine rhyolitic edice dominated by lava ows and related volcaniclastic deposits (Fig. 15; Kerr and Mason, 1990; Barrett et al., 1991; Cattalani et al., 1993;
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Fig. 16. Cu, Au and sulde mineral zoning within the Lower H orebody. po = pyrrhotite, py = pyrite and cp = chalcopyrite (after Kerr and Mason, 1990).
Kerr and Gibson, 1993). Unlike most intracauldron VMS deposits that are interpreted to have formed by exhalation and precipitation of suldes at and near the seaoor, the Horne deposit is interpreted to have formed primarily beneath the seaoor by replacement of permeable rhyolitic fragmental rocks that in-lled the paleo-graben (Kerr and Mason, 1990; Gibson and Kerr, 1990; Kerr and Gibson, 1993). This interpretation explains the angular discordance of the western, southern and eastern contacts of the Upper H and Lower H bodies which Price noted in 1948, and is consistent with (a) eld evidence of wholesale replacement of rhyolitic units, (b) sulde and silicate mineral textures and paragenesis (c) hydrothermal uid parameters outlined by MacLean and Hoy (1991), and (d) inferred physiochemical conditions of mineralization. The initial hydrothermal discharge was unfocused and occurred along much of the >2.5 km length of the paleograben. Venting occurred at numerous sites rooted within the permeable breccias that oored the subsidence structure, but was particularly focused where graben-axial faults intersected transverse faults. Ascending hydrothermal uids (evolved seawater) underwent sub-surface cooling due to mixing with down-drawn seawater. This resulted in the formation of a pervasive sericite-quartz-(Mg-chlorite) alteration assemblage in which the K, Si, and Mg were derived primarily from seawater (MacLean and Hoy, 1991). High,
positive 18O values, which are unusual for VMS deposits and were rst recognized by Beaty and Taylor (1988) at Kidd Creek, are interpreted to be a product of an initial, widespread, low-temperature silicication of the footwall rocks. Chlorite geothermometry suggests that the early sericite-quartz-(Mg-chlorite) alteration (and silicication) occurred at temperatures of 230C to 275C (MacLean and Hoy, 1991; Cattalani et al., 1993). This early sericite-quartz (Mg-chlorite) alteration was accompanied by the replacement and cementation of the rhyolitic volcaniclastic breccias by pyritemarcasite-sphalerite. Precipitation of most of the sulde in the sub-seaoor environment was an efcient metal containment mechanism that contributed signicantly to the ultimate large size of the Horne deposit. The apparent longevity of the Horne hydrothermal system is also cited as a factor that favored the formation of a large sulde mass. Sustained, lower-temperature uid ow led to widespread alteration of the rhyolite breccias and sub-surface precipitation of pyrite, quartz, sericite and Mg-chlorite within breccia pore spaces. This encouraged a progressive self-sealing of the footwall rocks within the paleo-graben. Self-sealing of the seaoor vent eld inhibited the cooling and dilution of discharging hydrothermal uid by entrained seawater. This resulted in more focused upow and allowed the sub-seaoor, ore-depositional environment to achieve and sustain higher uid temperatures (250C to 310C). Discordant zones of Fe-chlorite alteration and Cu-Au mineralization which cross-cut early sericite-quartz-(Mg-chlorite) alteration represent this later, higher-temperature stage (Kerr and Mason, 1990; MacLean and Hoy, 1991; Barrett et al., 1991). These same uids were responsible for the replacement of lower temperature Fe and Zn suldes by Auand Cu-bearing assemblages dominated by pyrrhotite, pyrite, chalcopyrite and magnetite (Barrett et al., 1991; Kerr and Gibson, 1993). This progressive zone renement is most obviously reected in the lower (footwall) parts of the Upper and Lower H deposits (Cattalani et al., 1993), although the two orebodies have actually each undergone extensive zone rening (Fig. 16). Nearly all early sulde assemblages in the Upper and Lower H Au-Cu deposits have been recrystallized and undergone partial to complete replacement by later, higher-temperature sulde assemblages (Kerr and Mason, 1990). In contrast, the large, stratiform (clastic) No. 5 Zone can be thought of as a pyritedominated, unrened, low-grade Zn-Au deposit. Faults and shear zones, which early workers believed to be key ore controls, are now interpreted as post-sulde mineralization structures that were preferentially developed in the most strongly altered and mineralized (i.e., least competent) host rocks. The apparent post-sulde timing of the gold mineralization, which may be observed at a microscopic scale but which lacks denition at the stope scale, is readily explained by the local, tectonic remobilization of gold from the sulde bodies in conjunction with shearing and emplacement of later intrusions. Tourigny et al. (1993) and Larocque et al. (1993) documented similar small-scale, tectonic remo-
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Fig. 17. Geologic plan of the Kidd Creek Deposit (2800 Level; after Prior et al., 1999).
bilization of gold at the deformed Bousquet 2 and Mobrun VMS deposits. The nal factor that likely contributed to the large size of the Horne deposit is its location along a major synvolcanic fault (the Horne Creek Fault) that denes the southern structural boundary of the Noranda Cauldron (Figs. 5 and 6). This fault provided the long-lived, structurally controlled permeability required for sustained hydrothermal discharge in the mine area and the formation of this giant deposit. The Horne deposit also beneted from its location outside of the cauldron where hydrothermal discharge was not interrupted or suffocated by repeated, voluminous volcanic eruptions of the sort that buried hydrothermal vents and plagued development of the contemporaneous intracauldron deposits. Thus, the extraordinary size of the Horne deposit reflects its location in an area of high heat flow and welldeveloped cross-stratal permeability that favored sustained and long-lived discharge (Gibson and Kerr, 1993). The permeable nature of the footwall volcaniclastic succession enhanced development of a large VMS deposit by subseafloor sulfide precipitation and replacement and the location of the Horne deposit within a paleo-graben likely contributed to its preservation (Fig. 15). Syndepositional subsidence can be an important factor in both the formation and the preservation of giant VMS deposits.
Part 2 Comparison of the Horne Deposit with the Kidd Creek Deposit
Introduction
It is appropriate to compare the giant Horne and Kidd Creek deposits since they represent the sort of VMS exploration targets that are highly sought by the mining industry worldwide. Combined past production and reserves at Kidd Creek stand at 150 Mt grading 2.4% Cu, 6.5% Zn, 0.23% Pb and 90 g/t Ag. Although the Horne and Kidd Creek deposits occur in different geologic settings, they share some common characteristics that suggest that similar geological processes and depositional conditions may have contributed to their formation. A comparison of these two famous deposits may, therefore, provide information on how, why and where giant VMS deposits form. Despite its larger size, one might argue that the industry impact of the Kidd Creek deposit was less pronounced than that of the Horne as its wealth did not accrue to a single company and, consequently, Kidd Creek was not a company builder like the Horne. The discovery of the Kidd Creek deposit did little to open up northeastern Ontario as it was discovered nearby an established gold mining camp. Nevertheless, the economic and social impact of the Kidd Creek mine on northern Ontario and, indeed, on Canada has been impressive. Furthermore, Kidd Creeks current contri-
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bution to the integrated economy of the Timmins area is now much more signicant than that of the regions gold mines.
Geologic Setting and General Structure

The Kidd Creek deposit occurs within the Archean (2714 Ma) Kidd-Munro assemblage, a broadly east-west striking, steeply dipping package of intercalated ultramac, mac, and felsic metavolcanic rocks and intrusions within the western Abitibi Subprovince (Jackson and Fyon, 1991). At the mine itself, the overturned strata strike north-south, face west and dip steeply (70 to 80) to the east (Walker et al., 1975). The mine stratigraphy occurs within an asymmetric, S-shaped, F1 fold that plunges steeply to the north (Fig. 17; Bleeker, 1999).
Volcanic Stratigraphy
The simplied stratigraphic column in Figure 9 provides an overview of the Kidd Creek stratigraphy and shows the location of massive sulde deposits. Ultramac (komatiitic) lava ows constitute the base of the known stratigraphic sequence and formed a broad, low-relief lava plain upon which the Kidd Creek rhyolitic center was constructed. Lenses of intercalated rhyolite within the komatiitic ows suggest cyclical komatiitic and rhyolitic volcanism. The minimum thickness of the ultramac unit is 500 m. The Footwall Rhyolite comprises a tholeiitic, high-silica rhyolite dome, cryptodome and breccia complex. These FIIIb rhyolites (Lesher et al., 1986; Fig. 12) issued from two ssures to form elongate ridges, 300 m to 350 m high, which extend for the length of the known orebody (~2.5 km; Prior, 1996). The breccia facies are mainly transported autoclastic and dome-collapse breccia. A coarse, block-rich, rhyolite breccia at the base of the dome-cryptodome complex contains sericitized blocks, indicating that construction of earlier domes was also accompanied by hydrothermal alteration. The orebodies occur within the Mixed Fragmental unit, a volcaniclastic sequence sandwiched between the domecryptodome complex and an overlying quartz and feldspar porphyritic rhyolite ow-dome known as the QP Rhyolite. The Mixed Fragmental unit contains blocks and lapilli of sericitized, silicied and mineralized rhyolite and minor andesitic lapilli in a ne-grained matrix of the same. Depositional units range from 0.2 m to 10 m in thickness and are massive to normally graded and typically framework-supported. The volcaniclastic units that are closely associated with the massive sulde lenses (typically in their hangingwall) contain blocks and lapilli-sized fragments of massive pyrite and massive sphalerite (Brisbin et al., 1990). Petrographic and chemical analysis of the rhyolite fragments from the Mixed Fragmental unit indicates they are identical to the underlying dome-cryptodome complex from which they were derived (Prior et al., 1999). Although they have
been referred to as epiclastic deposits by Barrie et al. (1999), they are not products of mechanical or chemical weathering and are best referred to as volcaniclastic rocks because they represent primary, syn-eruptive, locally-transported deposits derived from autobrecciation and collapse of underlying lava domes and pre-existing massive sulde deposits. Foreign or accidental fragments and thin (<0.2 m) discontinuous wacke beds constitute <1% of the unit. The Kidd Creek deposit consists of three, stratigraphically stacked, elongate, massive sulde lenses (the lowermost North orebody, Central orebody, and the uppermost South orebody) that plunge to the NW, parallel to, and along the length of, the underlying rhyolite ridge (Fig. 17). A graphitic argillite unit overlies the North and Central orebodies and attains a thickness of up to 20 m. The 120 m thick QP Rhyolite conformably overlies the Mixed Fragmental unit (Fig. 9). The contact between the two rhyolitic units is marked by a plane-bedded tuff containing intercalated chert beds or by a gabbro sill. Like the underlying Footwall Rhyolite dome-cryptodome complexes, the QP Rhyolite also consists of two ssure-fed rhyolite ridges that extend the length of the massive sulde deposit. Massive, ow-banded and autobrecciated rhyolite comprises distinct lava domes along the ridge and these domes are separated by areas of locally transported rhyolite breccia. A succession of tholeiitic basaltic and andesitic ows conformably overlies the QP Rhyolite; the gabbro sills that have dilated the rhyolite stratigraphy in the mine area are considered to be the hypabyssal intrusive equivalent of these overlying basaltic ows (Barrie et al., 1999). Wackes of the Hoyle assemblage lie to the south of the volcanic succession, in fault or unconformable contact with the mine stratigraphy. Zircon U-Pb dating has yielded ages of 2717.0+2.6/ -2.5 Ma, 2716.1 Ma 0.6 Ma and 2716.0 Ma 0.5 Ma for the Footwall Rhyolite, and 2711.5 Ma 1.2 Ma for the QP Rhyolite (Barrie and Davis, 1990; Bleeker and Parrish, 1996; Barrie et al., 1999). Bleeker et al. (1999) report a more precise age of 2717.7 Ma 1.1 Ma for the onset of episodic Kidd Creek felsic volcanism. This yields a minimum/maximum period of 6.2 Ma 2.3 Ma for accumulation of the rhyolite stratigraphy and formation of the massive sulde deposits at Kidd Creek.
Massive Sulde Deposits

The North, Central, and South orebodies are distinct, physically separate sulde deposits, each characterized by pyritic tops and lateral fringes, Zn-rich interiors (sphaleritepyrite), massive to semi-massive, Cu-rich bottoms (chalcopyrite-pyrrhotite-pyrite-sphalerite), and rich, underlying chalcopyrite-pyrrhotite stringer mineralization (Barrie et al., 1999). The South orebody also featured a bornite zone within the Cu-rich massive and stringer ore. Although the sulfide mineralogy and paragenetic sequence at Kidd Creek is complicated in detail, it is con-
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sistent with the VMS-norm wherein an early formed pyrite-sphalerite assemblage is replaced by chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite. The results of zone rening are particularly pronounced at Kidd Creek, where chalcopyrite-rich ore has been replaced locally by bornite mineralization (Hannington et al., 1999). Signicant proportions of the North, Central, and South orebodies developed within the Mixed Fragmental unit by sub-seaoor replacement of the volcaniclastic breccias and by subsequent zone-rening (Barrie et al., 1999; Hannington et al., 1999). Evidence of sub-seaoor replacement includes: (a) the post-depositional replacement of rhyolitic fragments and matrix by pyrite and sphalerite, (b) the preservation of vestiges of massive pyrite and sphalerite within the chalcopyrite-pyrrhotite ore, and (c) discordant contacts between massive suldes and bedding. The existence of massive pyrite and sphalerite clasts within the Mixed Fragmental unit indicates that brecciation and transport of pre-existing sulde deposits occurred prior to the main, sub-seaoor sulde deposition event(s).
Hydrothermal Alteration and Isotopic Studies

Koopman et al. (1999) recognized four types of alteration at Kidd Creek, namely, (1) silicication (+SiO2), (2) sericitization (+K2O, SiO2, MgO, -Na2O, -CaO), (3) chloritization (+FeO), and (4) talc-carbonate alteration. Silicication was early and is the most widespread and dominant alteration type. Koopman et al. (1999) describe four textural varieties of silicication that are semiconformable with respect to both the footwall and hangingwall rhyolites yet show a spatial association with the footwall chalcopyrite stringer mineralization. Sericitization forms a broad, semiconformable alteration zone that is preferentially developed within the footwall of the massive sulde deposits but which also extends into the overlying QP Rhyolite. Fe-chloritization occurs along the margins of footwall chalcopyrite stringer zones, which likely represent the main fossil conduits for ascending hydrothermal uids. Oxygen isotope data of Beaty and Taylor (1988) and Huston et al. (1995) show that the altered Footwall Rhyolite has distinctively high 18O values that range from +10 to +16 per mil, consistent with the pervasive but variably intense silicication of this unit. Huston et al. (1995) also traced this high 18O zone along strike and into the hangingwall QP Rhyolite and also recognized a sub-zone of comparatively low 18O (+10 to +13 per mil) in the immediate footwall to the deposits, which could be attributed to isotopic exchange during late-stage, high-temperature alteration.
depression that initially developed in a at-lying komatiitic lava plain (Gibson and Kerr, 1993; Bleeker, 1999). Barrie (1999) interpreted the komatiites as channelized ows contained within a graben that remained tectonically active during subsequent felsic volcanism. The Footwall Rhyolite is a product of voluminous eruptions that issued primarily from two graben-parallel ssures (Prior, 1996). The resulting rhyolite lava dome/cryptodome complex was some 2.5 km long, 300 m high, and 600 m wide. Breccias that ank, overlie and occur within the lava dome complex were derived through autobrecciation and mass wasting of the domes. The Mixed Fragmental volcaniclastic unit represents the transported equivalent of autoclastic breccias and early sulde deposits (Prior, 1996). The remarkable absence of ultramac clasts within the volcaniclastic unit suggests that the graben walls had minimal topographic relief during initial erosion and re-sedimentation of the volcanic and sulde debris. Thus, the rate of volcanic construction of the rhyolitic edice largely kept pace with the rate of subsidence. Massive sulde deposits of the North, Central, and South orebodies formed partly at the seaoor and partly in the underlying volcaniclastic breccia. The QP Rhyolite was erupted along the length of the graben above the orebodies (Prior et al., 1999). Later, voluminous outpourings of basalt buried the rhyolitic edice, lled the graben and spread out over the komatiitic lava plain and anking rhyolite deposits. Thick gabbro sills that were emplaced into the rhyolitebasalt sequence represented subvolcanic feeders to these basalt ows (Barrie et al., 1999). The concentration of mac sills in the immediate mine environs implies that the Kidd Creek rhyolitic center was also a center for subsequent basaltic eruptions. Lastly, the presence of sericitized and/or silicied rhyolite clasts in the lowermost breccia unit of the Footwall Rhyolite implies the existence of an early hydrothermal event that preceded formation of the Kidd Creek VMS deposit. Thus, the massive sulde orebodies represent the culminating products of a long-lived, episodic hydrothermal system (conservatively 5.5 Ma 3.8 Ma according to Bleeker et al., 1999).
Part 3 Summary of the Horne-Kidd Creek Comparison

Similarities
1. The formation of the Horne and Kidd Creek VMS deposits reect a strong element of geomorphic and synvolcanic structural control. Both deposits are interpreted to have formed within an extensional environment characterized by the development of elongate, synvolcanic grabens. Wyman et al. (1999) further infer a proto-arc geodynamic setting for Kidd Creek. The massive sulde orebodies are hosted by locally transported rhyolite autoclastic breccia and mass ow deposits occurring along the carapace and anks of underlying rhyolite ridges. The distribution of the
Volcanic Setting
The Kidd Creek mine sequence is interpreted to have formed within a linear, fault-controlled paleo-topographic
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massive sulde mineralization mimics the eruptive ssures that fed the rhyolite ridges and provided cross-stratal permeability for ascending hydrothermal uids. After the formation of the main VMS deposits, these axial structures controlled the localization of Au-enriched zones in the overlying No. 5 Zone at Horne and controlled subsequent QP Rhyolite and basaltic volcanism at Kidd Creek. The relatively small surface footprint of each deposit is a coincidental consequence of the present-day sub-vertical disposition of the long axes of the grabens in which the two deposits occur. 2. Hydrothermal activity was long-lived. At both deposits, hydrothermal activity was not interrupted or terminated by voluminous volcanic eruptions. 3. Subaqueous mass ow deposits, specically lithic rhyolite breccias containing transported sulde fragments, are common to both the units hosting the H orebodies and the No. 5 Zone at Horne and to the Mixed Fragmental unit at Kidd Creek. In both cases, these sulde-bearing breccias were locally replaced by suldes in the sub-seaoor environment. Sulde fragments were presumably derived from earlier-formed, massive sulde deposits that were subsequently brecciated and re-deposited, implying a long-lived or recurrent hydrothermal system and local seismogenic instability. 4. VMS-style mineralization at both deposits is stacked through the volcanic stratigraphy. At Horne, mineralization extends from the base of the section (the Coreshack and West zones) to the top (the G Zone), a stratigraphic interval of some 900 m. At Kidd Creek, the South orebody lies above the North orebody, but the stratigraphic separation may be less than 100 m. 5. Sub-seaoor replacement appears to have been a dominant process in the formation of each deposit. The H orebodies the No. 5 Zone at Horne, and the North, South and Central orebodies at Kidd Creek are largely a product of sub-seaoor sulde precipitation, replacement, and zone rening. The No. 5 Zone at Horne was not substantially zone-rened and, consequently, has a lower (uneconomic) gold and base metal content. 6. Crudely, the sulde paragenetic sequence of the principal sulde minerals is essentially the same, with early pyrite and sphalerite replaced by later pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite. This paragenetic sequence is common to most VMS deposits. 7. Alteration at both the Horne and Kidd Creek deposits is characterized by widespread silicification, somewhat more localized sericitization, and localized Fechloritization. This alteration zonation is consistent with a hydrodynamic model wherein high primary permeability was diminished by early precipitation of silica. The resulting decrease in water-rock ratio allowed the temperature beneath hydrothermal discharge sites to increase as the ascending hydrothermal uids became more focussed and interacted with cool, down-drawn seawater to progressively lesser degrees.
8. High 18O values characterize silicification at both the Horne (+6 to +11.6 per mil) and Kidd Creek (+9 to +15 per mil) deposits. Huston et al. (1995) interpreted 18O enrichment (>13 per mil) in the hangingwall rhyolite at Kidd Creek to be the result of low temperature silicification (<250C). On the other hand, footwall silicification in close proximity to stringer sulfide mineralization is characterized by lower 18O values (<13 per mil) and is interpreted to reflect higher temperature alteration (>300C). The fairly high 18O values in sericitized and silicified footwall rhyolite at Horne are attributed to low temperature (<250C) alteration at high water-rock ratios (MacLean and Hoy, 1991). 9. Rhyolites associated with both the Horne and Kidd Creek deposits are tholeiitic FIII rhyolites according to the classication scheme of Lesher et al. (1986). In both cases, the rhyolites are interpreted to be the end-member products of partial melting of hydrated mac volcanic rocks, a scenario similar to that which characterizes the East Rift of Iceland (Glinas et al., 1984; Barrie et al., 1993; Sigmarrson et al., 1991; Prior et al., 1999). Partial melting is postulated to have been triggered by the underplating of a primarily metabasaltic lower crust by Mg-tholeiitic magma at Noranda and by komatiitic magma at Kidd Creek. These high-temperature mac/ultramac magmas are interpreted to be partial melt products related to mantle plumes. The high F content (up to 1500 ppm) of the Kidd Creek rhyolites may be a primary characteristic or an artifact of hydrothermal alteration (Koopman et al., 1999).
Differences
1. The Horne deposit occurs within a 900 m thick rhyolitic package of lava flows, proximal volcaniclastic deposits and submarine pyroclastic rocks. Mac and ultramac volcanic rocks are essentially absent from the mine sequence. The Kidd Creek deposit occurs within a 350 m thick package of rhyolitic domes/cryptodomes and volcaniclastic rocks, however these felsic volcanic rocks are part of a bimodal rhyolite-basalt/komatiite succession. 2. The Kidd Creek deposit may have formed in a deeper submarine setting, as suggested by the low degree of vesicularity of rhyolitic and basaltic lavas, and by the lack of any pyroclastic deposits or sedimentary structures that might be indicative of shallow-water reworking. The abundance of volcaniclastic rocks and the presence of pyroclastic rocks and minor phreatic breccias at the top of the Horne volcanic sequence are consistent with shallower water depths, perhaps 500 m to 1000 m (Lichtblau and Dimroth, 1980). 3. Although both deposits could be classied as Cu-Zn VMS deposits, the base metal grades are dramatically higher at Kidd Creek. Although there are vestiges of sphalerite-rich ore at the western fringe of the Upper H lens at Horne, most of this early formed assemblage has been replaced by Fe and Cu suldes (synvolcanic zone-rening).
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4. The Horne deposit is typied by high gold grades and produced more than 9 million ounces of gold, whereas, the Kidd Creek ores, with an anomalously low gold content, are enriched in Sn, Sb, As, Ag (lower temperature Zn-Pb ore) and Bi, Se and In (higher temperature Cu-rich ore; Hannington et al., 1999). Horne would have been economic strictly as a gold mine, whereas, gold is not even recovered at Kidd Creek. Gold enrichment cannot be simply related to a higher degree of zone rening since Kidd Creek, which boasts higher base metal grades and a bornite zone, is more rened than the Horne. More likely, the higher gold content of the Horne ores reect deposition from hydrothermal uids that were inherently gold-rich, possibly due to involvement of magmatic hydrothermal uids and/or deposition under shallower water conditions. In shallow water VMS systems, boiling of hydrothermal uids and consequent phase separation can be an effective mechanism for concentrating gold; unequivocal evidence of boiling or a shallow water environment has not yet been documented at Horne.
Conclusions
The Horne deposit by any criterion including size, grade, or economic and social signicance is a world class ore deposit. Firstly, the Horne deposit gave birth to Noranda Mines Ltd., which subsequently grew into Canadas largest diversied resource company. Secondly, the Horne mine and smelter opened up northwestern Quebec for both settlement and exploration in the early part of the 20th century and contributed, in a broader sense, to the economic growth of Quebec and Canada. Thirdly, the Horne deposit, throughout its history, has given rise to new ideas regarding the genesis of ancient VMS deposits and has thus profoundly affected mineral exploration strategies. Research conducted in the Noranda region as a whole and at the Horne mine has been fundamental to our understanding of concepts, such as: (a) the importance of synvolcanic structures in controlling the formation and preservation of VMS deposits; (b) the nature of sub-seaoor sulde replacement processes and development of the zone-rening model; (c) the interplay of volcanism, sedimentation, and hydrothermal activity in space and time and the economic importance of long-lived hydrothermal systems; (d) the identication of volcanic settings and rhyolite petrochemical compositions that are favorable for VMS deposits; and (e) the exploration signicance of extensive footwall silicication and high 18O values. The following list of empirical and genetic exploration criteria is derived from characteristics and processes common to both the Horne and Kidd Creek deposits. 1. Spilitized, bimodal, tholeiitic (komatiitic) volcanic successions containing proximal rhyolitic volcaniclastic and pyroclastic rocks. Key indicators of proximity include dome-cryptodome volcaniclastic complexes, large volumes of monolithological breccias, abundant dikes and sills and abrupt lateral facies changes.
2. Proximity to long-lived synvolcanic structures. Evidence of such structures includes: a) a high density of subvolcanic dikes and sills; b) major structural dislocations marked by unit truncations; c) abrupt lateral facies changes, and/or changes in strike/dip of primary layering; and d) post-mineral structures that could nevertheless represent reactivated synvolcanic faults. Synvolcanic structures commonly bound and control the location of subvolcanic intrusions and multiple dome-cryptodome complexes. Long-lived structures are necessary for the sustained hydrothermal uid discharge that is key to the formation of giant VMS deposits. 3. An elongate, tectonically active, paleotopographic depression (e.g., graben) which can both focus hydrothermal activity and enhance the preservation potential of the resulting sulde bodies. 4. Sulde accumulation primarily by sub-seaoor cementation and replacement rather than exhalation. 5. Evidence of a long-lived hydrothermal system, including the stratigraphic stacking of VMS-style mineralization characterized by high base metal content. 6. Widespread silicication and/or quartz-sericite alteration characterized by high 18O values, especially in combination with Zn enrichment. Early silicication can create a thermal and hydrologic cap rock that favors both thermal maturation and containment/focusing of ascending hydrothermal uids. 7. Evidence of high heat ow, including the presence of a subvolcanic intrusion, FIII rhyolites, ultramac ows and highly evolved and diverse mac volcanic rocks. 8. Intercalated wackes, argillites, and/or carbonaceous argillites that overlie fragmental volcanic successions. Firstly, clastic or chemoclastic sedimentation is evidence of a hiatus in volcanic activity, and, secondly, an impermeable veneer of sediments can act as a thermal and hydrologic insulator, i.e., a cap rock, which can help to physically contain sulde precipitation and to promote sub-seaoor replacement of footwall rocks and pre-existing suldes. These sediments (particularly graphitic argillites) can be enriched in base and precious metals (especially Ag) in the vicinity of a VMS deposit.
Acknowledgments
Much of our knowledge of the Horne deposit is a result of earlier work by Peter Price, Gordon Suffel and, in particular, W.L. Bankie Bancroft to whom this paper is dedicated. Special thanks are also extended to the mine geology staff of the late 1980s, including Paul Cregheur, Guy Laperle, Chris Kloeren, and Gaetan Lavalliere. Discussions with our research colleagues at the Horne and Kidd Creek mines, most notably Tim Barrett, Wally MacLean, Larry Hoy, Bob Mason, Dave Watkinson, Glen Prior, Dave Richardson, Ron Cook, Mark Hannington, Wouter Bleeker, Tucker Barrie and Jim Franklin, are greatly appreciated. Reviews by Catharine Farrow and Noelle Shriver and by Mining and Exploration Geology reviewers Frank Chartrand, Alan Galley and Cecilia Jenkins improved the manuscript.
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Explor. Mining Geol., Vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 91111, 2000 2001 Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum.

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Part 1 The Horne Deposit

Explor. Mining Geol., Vol. 9, No. 2, 2000

Fig. 2. Photograph of Ed Horne (from B. Bancrofts notebooks).

Explor. Mining Geol., Vol. 9, No. 2, 2000

Fig. 4. Exploration and discovery history of NW Quebec (after Lulin, 1990).

Economic and Social Signicance

The Noranda Cauldron

Explor. Mining Geol., Vol. 9, No. 2, 2000

Geology of the Horne Mine

Explor. Mining Geol., Vol. 9, No. 2, 2000

Explor. Mining Geol., Vol. 9, No. 2, 2000

Evolution of Genetic Models

Explor. Mining Geol., Vol. 9, No. 2, 2000

The Current Horne Deposit Model

Explor. Mining Geol., Vol. 9, No. 2, 2000

Geologic Setting and General Structure

Massive Sulde Deposits

Explor. Mining Geol., Vol. 9, No. 2, 2000

Hydrothermal Alteration and Isotopic Studies

Part 3 Summary of the Horne-Kidd Creek Comparison

Explor. Mining Geol., Vol. 9, No. 2, 2000

Explor. Mining Geol., Vol. 9, No. 2, 2000

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